Topic 3: Émile Durkheim
3.1 Social Facts and the Sociological Method
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) is recognized as a foundational figure in modern
sociology, whose ideas have significantly shaped the field. Central to his work is the
concept of social facts, which are defined as social practices, norms, rules, or
institutions that exist independently of individual will.
● A social fact is a social practice, rule, duty, or sanction that exists outside of the
individual.
● Social facts form the foundation of social order and enable sociologists to
understand how society functions.
● Social facts are the invisible forces that influence how people behave in society.
● Social facts allow people to conform. It shapes people to follow rules and
regulations.
● Durkheim believed the study of social facts could uncover universal social laws.
These laws could then be used to judge a society’s well-being (Morrison, 2006).
● Durkheim (1982) defined social facts as “ways of acting, thinking and feeling,
external to the individual, and endowed with a power of coercion, by reason of
which they control him”. They are not only prior to individuals, but individuals are
born into them and enact them (McCormack, 1996).
● Durkheim emphasized that social facts must be treated as “things,” meaning they
are real, observable, and external to individuals, despite originating through
human activity (Durkheim, 1982). His efforts to define social facts as “things”
served to give sociology a legitimate object of study and distinguish it from
philosophy or psychology (Pels, 2000).
● George Ritzer (2011) highlights that Durkheim's concept of social facts was
instrumental in legitimizing sociology as a scientific discipline. Ritzer emphasizes
that Durkheim viewed social facts as both external and coercive, shaping
individuals not through overt force but through internalized norms and
expectations that guide everyday behavior.
● Some sociologists feel that Durkheim took an “extremist” position (Karady,
1983:79–80) in limiting sociology to the study of social facts.
Material and Nonmaterial Social facts
Material social facts refers to tangible, structural aspects of society that exert influence
over individuals. These are often directly observable and institutionalized.
Examples of material social facts include:
1. Legal codes: Laws that govern behavior, such as traffic regulations or criminal
statutes, exist independently of the individual and are enforced through legal
institutions.
2. Education systems: Schools, grading systems, structure learning and social
development, regardless of individual students’ beliefs or preferences.
Nonmaterial social facts on the other hand, are intangible norms, values, beliefs, and
morals that still exert social control and are shared across groups.
Types of nonmaterial social facts include:
1. Moral obligations - Social expectations to behave honestly or respectfully, even
when not legally enforced, shape behavior.
2. Collective Conscience - Refers to the general structure of shared
understandings, norms, and beliefs.
3. Collective Representations - Durkheim used the term to refer to both
a collective concept and a social “force.” Examples of collective representations
are religious symbols, myths, and popular legends. All of these are ways in which
society reflects on itself (Durkheim, 1895/1982:40). They represent collective
beliefs, norms, and values, and they motivate us to conform to these collective
claims.
4. Social Currents - Viewed as sets of meanings that are shared by the members
of a collectivity. Examples of social currents are religion, industrialisation, division
of labour, and individualism.
As a society becomes more advanced, it relies more heavily on established institutions
(social facts handed down) than on newly acquired knowledge (Emirbayer, 1996).
Social facts are general; they are shared by many and reflect the collective conscience
rather than individual preferences.
Examples of general social facts:
1. Marriage customs: Cultural rules about who can marry and what ceremonies
must occur are shaped by collective norms.
2. Workplace etiquette: Expectations like showing up on time or wearing
professional attire are widely shared and socially enforced.
Durkheim insisted that the “pre-social” individual, imagined in early liberal philosophy,
does not exist in modern society (Thompson, 2002). Individuals are born into a web of
social facts—language, law, morality, economy—that shape their thoughts and
behaviors before they are even aware of them.
Examples of institutional social facts:
1. Language: A child learns their society’s language, which defines what can be
said or even thought, long before they understand grammar.
2. National identity: Concepts like patriotism or national holidays become part of
an individual's social experience and are reinforced through symbols, rituals, and
education.
3. Value of Money: You were born into a world where money has value—you didn’t
decide that.
3.2 Division of Labor in Society
In The Division of Labor in Society, Durkheim (1964) sought to move social
theory away from the deterministic evolutionary frameworks of Comte, Spencer, and
even Marx. Rather than focusing purely on class struggle or historical stages, he
analyzed how modern industrial capitalism changed the nature of solidarity in society.
● The Division of Labor in Society is when people are assigned to various
specialized tasks, and they no longer share common experiences.
● Having different functions in society pulls people together by forcing them to be
dependent on each other.
● Division of Labour ensures the solidarity of a society.
● Durkheim believed that if society was regulated properly, the division of labour
could be morally integrating and socially stabilizing.
● Ritzer (2011) highlights how Durkheim used the concept to understand not just
how societies function, but how they maintain moral order and prevent social
disintegration in times of rapid change.
Three analytical dimensions:
1. Functional Analysis- This involves understanding the function of the division of
labour—how it contributes to the cohesion and maintenance of society.
Examples:
● Modern hospitals: Surgeons, nurses, anesthesiologists, and administrative staff
each have specialized roles that depend on one another to function as a whole.
● Educational systems: Teachers, counselors, principals, and administrative staff
each have clearly defined responsibilities. This differentiation increases efficiency
while promoting institutional stability.
2. Causal Analysis- Durkheim linked the rise of the division of labor to increases in
population size and social density, which create competition and force people to
specialize to survive.
Examples:
● Urban job markets: In densely populated cities, individuals are more likely to
pursue specialized careers (e.g., cybersecurity analyst, orthopedic surgeon) than
in rural communities.
● Industrial economies: The growth of capitalist production systems demands
highly specific skills, which leads to occupational specialization and stratification.
3. Ideal Types (Normal vs. Abnormal Forms): Durkheim categorized the division of
labour as either normal, when it promotes solidarity, or abnormal, when it results in
dysfunction, such as anomie or forced specialization.
Examples:
● Normal form: A tech company where software engineers, designers, and
marketers all work interdependently and are equally valued, promoting cohesion.
● Abnormal form: Where laborers are exploited, alienated from their work, and cut
off from any moral or ethical connection to the larger organization, leading to
detachment.
Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity
Durkheim argued that changes in the division of labor transformed how social
solidarity is formed. He distinguished the society into two: mechanical and organic
solidarity, as forms of unity.
Mechanical solidarity- Found in traditional societies where people share similar work,
religion, and values.
Example:
● A farming village where everyone grows similar crops.
● A rural society where people have the same beliefs and practices.
● Indigenous tribes where traditions are strictly followed.
● When a thief was punished by having their hands cut off for breaking the rules.
Organic solidarity- Found in complex societies where roles are highly specialized, and
people rely on each other to meet different needs.
Example:
● A modern city where people depend on each other but have different jobs to
function or survive.
● A big city where people have different roles (doctors, engineers, teachers, etc.)
● Filipinos follow different religions but live together peacefully.
Durkheim believed that if society was regulated properly, the division of labor could be
morally integrating and socially stabilizing. However, when left unchecked, it could
generate inequality, confusion, and social decay.
3.3 Collective Conscience
Collective conscience is a shared set of beliefs, values, norms, and moral attitudes
common to members of a society. It is the social glue that binds individuals together and
creates social solidarity (Durkheim, 1893).
● The collective conscience is a nonmaterial social phenomenon that exists outside
of people and exerts coercion over them. It can only be "realized" through
individual consciousness.
● The collective conscience of a given society exists as an external force
throughout the entire societal system, regardless of race, class, geographic
location, economic standing, and so on, but it is only manifested in the
individual's awareness.
●
Four Dimensions of Collective Conscience:
1. Volume- the number of people enveloped by the collective conscience.
Example: A small, traditional village where nearly everyone shares the same
religion, language, and customs.
2. Intensity- how deeply the individuals feel about it.
Example: Devout members of a religious group who live strictly according to its
teachings, even when no one is watching.
3. Rigidity- The degree to which deviation from the collective conscience is
tolerated.
Example: In traditional communities, people who go against moral norms (e.g.,
divorce or refusing religious duties) are often ostracized or punished.
4. Content- The specific beliefs, values, and norms emphasized in a society.
Example:
● In liberal democracies, content may focus on individual rights and
freedom, while in conservative cultures, it may center on tradition and
social duty.
● In tribal societies, a totem—such as an animal or plant—can symbolize
the clan’s identity and shared moral values. Rituals involving the totem
reinforce the collective conscience by uniting members through sacred
symbols.
3.4 Suicide and Anomie
Suicide
Durkheim’s Suicide (1897) is one of the earliest examples of sociological research using
empirical data to study social causes of individual behavior. Durkheim argued that
suicide, although appearing to be a personal act, is actually influenced by levels of
social integration and regulation.
Four types of suicide:
1. Egoistic Suicide- Results from low social integration. Individuals feel detached from
society, leading to feelings of meaninglessness. This type is more prevalent among
unmarried individuals and those without strong social ties.
Example: An elderly person living alone, with minimal interaction or support from family
or community, may experience isolation and depression.
2. Altruistic Suicide- Occurs when individuals are excessively integrated into society,
leading them to sacrifice their lives for the group's benefit.
Example: A soldier who dies willingly in war for their country, or a religious martyr who
commits suicide believing it serves a sacred purpose.
3. Anomic Suicide- Arises from low social regulation, often during times of social or
economic upheaval. Individuals experience normlessness, leading to confusion and
despair.
Example: Someone who loses their job and wealth during an economic crash may feel
the rules of society no longer provide guidance or meaning.
4. Fatalistic Suicide- Stems from excessive regulation, where individuals' futures are
oppressively constrained.
Example: A prisoner serving a life sentence, with no hope of change or escape, may
feel completely trapped and hopeless.
Anomie
Anomie is a condition in society where norms are confused, unclear, or simply absent,
often occurring during times of rapid social or economic change. This lack of regulation
leads individuals to feel disconnected, purposeless, or unsure about their role in society
(Durkheim, 1897).
● Anomie is especially common in modern societies undergoing transitions—such
as industrialization, urbanization, or economic crises—where the collective
conscience weakens, and people lose moral direction. In these moments,
individuals experience a breakdown in the moral compass that usually guides
their desires, leading to frustration, despair, and even suicide.
● Durkheim believed that maintaining a balance of social integration and regulation
is crucial for both individual well-being and the health of society.
● Individuals experience a breakdown in the moral compass that usually guides
their desires, leading to frustration, despair, and even suicide.
Examples:
● A very ambitious person who has just graduated suddenly feels lost and
uncertain about their future.
● A young person suddenly becoming famous on social media feels overwhelmed
and unsure how to behave in a world with no clear rules.
● A rural teenager moving to a city for college struggles to adjust to the fast-paced
lifestyle and weak community ties.
