Functionalism

Introduction
● Evolved with the beginning of Sociology.
● Society works as a system of interconnected parts.
● Each part exists to perform certain functional prerequisites for society.

Key Thinkers
1. Auguste Comte
○ First true Positivist.
○ Believed in scientific study at the heart of Sociology.
2. Emile Durkheim
○ First true functionalist.
○ Concerned with how society remains integrated.
3. Herbert Spencer
○ Contributed to the foundational ideas of functionalism.

Basic Premise
● Society behaves like an organism.
● Each part of society is studied based on its function for the whole.
● Main question: How does society remain integrated?

Positivism vs. Functionalism

● Positivism
○ Strand of Sociology emphasizing scientific study.
○ Aims to make Sociology scientific.
○ Tends to make predictions similar to natural sciences.
● Functionalism
○ Subset of Positivism (though not exactly).
○ Focuses on the function of each part of society.
● Both Durkheim and Marx are classified under Positivism as they offered predictive
theories.

Functionalist Approach
● Observes that societal behavior is structured.
● Relationships in society are organized by fixed rules.
● Social relationships are patterned and recurrent.
● Guided by generalized values in society.
● Value consensus provides for integration in society.

Applications of Functionalist Perspective

1. Bronislaw Malinowski
○ Studied religion using a functionalist perspective.
2. George Peter Murdock
○ Evaluated the universality of family.
 3. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore
○ Studied stratification in society.
4. Herbert J. Gans
○ Analyzed functions of poverty.
5. Robert K. Merton
○ Used functionalism to study deviance.

Evolution of Functionalism
1. Initial Popularity
○ Dominant during the early years of Sociology.
2. Rise of Structural Functionalism (1940s and 50s)
○ A variant of functionalism.
○ Led by Parsons and Merton.
3. Decline after the 1950s
○ Popularity waned during the upheavals of 1960s and 70s.
Conflict perspective and other perspectives emerged as alternatives.

Criticism of Functionalism
1. Conservatism
○ Only looks at beneficial aspects of social relations.
○ Accused of being conservative and status quoist.
2. Teleological Explanations
○ Confuse cause with effect in a circular manner.
○ Example: Davis and Moore's theory of stratification.
3. Value Bias
○ Critics like Alvin Gouldner pointed out functionalists' failure to discern whose
values are being represented.
4. Ecological Fallacies
○ Inferences about individuals based on aggregate data.
○ Example: Aggregate GDP growth data might not reflect individual well-being.
5. Ignoring Individual Impact
○ Focus on the larger functional role of institutions while neglecting their impact on
individuals.
6. Narrow Approach
○ Ignore counter-factual scenarios.
 Functionalism of Emile Durkheim
Introduction
1. Pioneer of the discipline of Sociology.
2. Founder scholar of functionalist tradition in Sociology, alongside Spencer and Comte.

Distinctive Contributions
1. Before Durkheim, scholars like Comte laid the foundation of Sociology.
2. Durkheim provided distinctive sociological explanations in functional analysis.
3. Liberated the discipline from theological and philosophical methods and terminology.
4. Took a macro view of society.
5. Believed individuals are subordinate to and governed by society.
6. Quote: "Society has a reality of its own over and above the individuals who comprise it".

Reasons for being called the 'Father of Sociology'

1. Defined the subject matter of Sociology.
2. Aimed to develop a true science of society.
3. Defined the study of social facts and suggested scientific methods for its study.
4. Gave distinctively sociological explanations in his causal-functional theories.
a. Examples: Theory of suicide and theory of religion.
5. Developed methods specific to Sociology.
a. For his theory of suicide, he used methods of multivariate analysis.
6. Established the first department of Sociology in Europe.
7. Became the first professor of Sociology.

Methodology
1. Consistent methodology across all his works.
2. Begins with a clear definition of the phenomenon.
3. Refutes existing explanations.
4. Provides a distinctively sociological explanation for the social phenomenon.

Further Discussion
1. Durkheim's approach to the discipline will be explored through various concepts and
ideas.
2. These concepts and ideas will be discussed in upcoming sub-sections.

Social Facts: Durkheim's Perspective

Influence and Inspiration
1. Influenced by the approach of natural scientists.
2. Aimed to understand society in terms of universal laws.
3. Viewed discovery of universal social laws as a solution to societal problems.
Concept of 'Social Facts'
● Durkheim introduced the concept to provide a scientific foundation for Sociology.
● Envisioned social facts as akin to natural facts.
● Susan Jones (1996) in "What Does Durkheim Mean by 'Thing'?" stated:
 ○ Durkheim's theory was crucial in distinguishing Sociology from philosophical
discourse.
Comparison with Natural Facts
● Durkheim believed that just as matter reacts to natural stimuli, human behavior is a
response to external constraints of social facts.
Montesquieu and Rousseau (1892)
● Durkheim's first major work.
● Outlined conditions for establishing a science of society:
○ Social science should deal with specific subject matter.
○ Should aim at identifying 'general types' over individual types.
○ Must have a definite, observable field.
○ Should study objective reality.
○ Should yield general principles or laws using methods akin to natural science.
The Rules of Sociological Method (1895)
● Clarified the scope and methodology of Sociology.
● Sociologists should study social facts as "things" similar to how natural things are
studied.
● Defined social facts as:
a. "Ways of acting, thinking, and feeling, which are external to the individual and are
endowed with the power of coercion by reason of which they control him."
● Social facts exist outside the individual and coerce them to think, act, and feel in specific
ways.
● The primary task of Sociology is to identify and study such social phenomena or social
facts.
Characteristics of Social Facts
1. Externality
a. Exist outside the individual.
b. Sui-generis: Come into existence autonomously as part of society's development.
2. Constraining
a. Exercise a constraining influence over individual action.
b. The constraint is coercive in nature.
c. The reality of social facts is evident in the visible consequences of this constraint.
3. Generality
a. General in nature, not to be confused with individual interpretations or facts.
b. Represent generalized perceptions understood uniformly by all individuals.
c. Durkheim focused on identifying general types, e.g., studying religion as a
general type rather than specific religions.
4. Independence
a. Independent of individual will.
b. Individuals cannot change social facts; rather, social facts influence individuals.
Durkheim's Perspective
● Social facts are above individuals.
● Quote: "Social facts are not abstract phenomena and they can be visualized as objective
reality."
 ● Social facts, though seeming intangible, are difficult to study as they cannot be observed
directly.
Types of Social Facts (The Rules of Sociological Method, 1895)
1. Material Social Facts
a. Tangible aspects of society.
2. Non-material Social Facts
a. Intangible aspects like culture, social institutions, morality, collective conscience,
and socio-currents.
b. Durkheim's primary focus was on non-material social facts.
c. He believed earlier societies were bound by non-material social facts, particularly
a strong collective conscience.
Continuum of Materiality
● Durkheim viewed social facts along a continuum based on their materiality.
● Sociologists often start by studying material social facts (empirically accessible) to
understand the more abstract non-material social facts. The latter can only be studied
indirectly using material social facts as a reference.
Study of Effects or Consequences
● Social facts should be studied based on their effects or consequences in society.
● A scientific approach is essential.
● Researchers should remain objective, free from bias or ideology.
Ways to Explain Social Facts
1. Determining the Cause
○ The cause of a social fact lies in another social fact.
○ Example: The cause of suicide isn't an individual's will but is influenced by other
social facts like population, integration, and social order.
2. Determining Functions
○ Social facts perform certain functional prerequisites for society.
○ The primary function is the maintenance of social order.
○ Durkheim believed that the collective conscience maintains social order. It
constrains individuals and influences their actions.
Collective Conscience
● Represents the shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes of a society.
● Has a constraining effect on individuals.
● Society's influence is evident in individual activities.

Durkheim's Rules for Studying Social Facts (The Rules of Sociological Method, 1895)
1. Rules of Observation
a. Social facts should be studied as 'things'.
b. Observing them as things allows for viewing them as definite reality rather than
abstract phenomena.
c. Social facts have representations, termed by Durkheim as "collective
representations".
■ These are symbols denoting different types of social facts.
2. Rules of Classification
 a. Every social fact is part of a broader classification.
b. Types of social facts:
■ Structural or Morphological Facts: Give a society its appearance.
■ Institutional Social Facts: Institutionalized and accepted by people.
Examples include religion, division of labor, and rate of suicide.
■ Non-Institutional Social Facts: Not yet accepted by people but can
exert constraints. Examples include mob behavior and crowd behavior.
Also termed as "socio-currents".
3. Rules of Distinction
a. Distinguish between 'normal state' and 'pathological state' of social facts.
b. Social facts are generally in a normal state, fulfilling functions for society.
c. They can become dysfunctional in their pathological state.
■ Example: A certain rate of crime is normal, but beyond a threshold, it
becomes pathological and dysfunctional for society.
4. Rules of Explanation
a. Objectivity: Researchers should maintain complete objectivity, setting aside
personal biases.
b. Methodology:
■ Use methods from natural sciences to study social facts.
■ Durkheim demonstrated methods like concomitant variations, indirect
experimentation, and statistical techniques.
■ His theory of suicide exemplifies the use of quantitative methods
in Sociology.
■ Indirect experimentation was used in his theory of religion.
c. General Theories: Explanations should yield general theories.
■ Durkheim proposed the formulation of causal-functional theory.
■ Emphasized separating cause and function to avoid illegitimate
teleologies.

Critiques of Durkheim's Conceptualization of Social Facts

1. Heidleman's Critique
○ Durkheim was more focused on constructing society than on describing a
methodology for it.
○ His emphasis on universalistic and general theories lacked practical significance
due to their all-encompassing nature.
2. Merton's Critique
○ Middle range theories are more appropriate tools for studying society, rather than
Durkheim's broad, universal theories.
3. Stephen Lukes' Critique (Power: A Radical View, 1974)
○ Durkheim overly emphasized empiricism and moralism.
○ Neglected emotions and individual subjectivity in his approach.
4. Peter Berger's Critique
○ Accused Durkheim of neglecting individual human behavior in his pursuit of
objectivity.
 5. Limitations of Objectivity
○ True objectivity is challenging, if not impossible, in social observation.
○ Durkheim couldn't explain why the same social facts influence different
individuals differently.
6. Weber's Critique
○ Social facts don't exist as tangible entities waiting to be discovered.
○ They exist within individuals, and their influence is a result of the individual's
interpretation of the social fact.

Division of Labor: Durkheim's Perspective

1. Historical Context
○ Written against the backdrop of upheaval in French society post the French
Revolution.
○ Durkheim's primary concern: Maintenance of solidarity and social order.
2. Central Question
○ In a modern society characterized by differentiation, heterogeneity, and
complexity, what holds society together?
3. Division of Labor in Society (1893)
○ Part of Durkheim's doctoral thesis.
○ Tiryakian's View: Regarded as the first classic of Sociology.
○ Context: Widespread feeling of moral crisis in France.
○ Durkheim's aim: Restore social order and address the moral crisis.
4. Comparison with Other Thinkers
○ Marx: Pessimistic about the division of labor.
○ Durkheim: Cautiously optimistic.
○ Comte: Believed high division of labor caused disorder in French society.
Durkheim disagreed.
○ Earlier Economists & Philosophers (Hedonists & Utilitarianists): Durkheim argued
against their view that division of labor is based on individual interest, pleasure,
or utility.
5. Shift in Morality
○ Durkheim believed that morality in society hadn't decreased but had transitioned
to a new form of morality.
6. Definition & Nature of Division of Labor
○ Definition: Splitting of activities into smaller processes, undertaken by different
individuals or groups. It implies specialization within specific activities or
occupations.
○ Occupational Differentiation: Symbolic of division of labor.
○ Durkheim's View:
■ Division of labor is a social phenomenon.
■ Rejected classical and neo-classical economic explanations.
■ Earlier explanations linked it to increased productivity and profit.
■ Argued that division of labor is present in all life spheres, not just
economic activities. For instance, domestic division of labor.
 7. Division of Labor as a Social Fact
○ Division of labor is a product of autonomous societal development and is sui-
generis.
○ Durkheim developed causal-functional explanations to establish it as a social
fact.
8. Evolutionary Perspective
○ In primitive societies, division of labor was minimal, while it's extensive in modern
societies.
○ Primitive societies were controlled by societal norms and values, or the collective
conscience.
○ In modern societies, the influence of norms and values has diminished, leading
to a weaker collective conscience.
9. Primitive Society: Mechanical Solidarity
○ Segmentary in nature with independent segments.
○ Life was simple, and individuals performed similar activities.
○ Strong collective conscience.
○ Durkheim termed this state as "Mechanical Solidarity" – solidarity due to likeness
or sameness.
○ Highly religious, limited social interactions, and people lived closely.
○ Laws were repressive, demanding conformity to social norms with minimal
deviation.
○ Low population (low material density) and limited interaction between population
segments (low moral density).
10. Transition to Organic Solidarity
○ Durkheim identified "dynamic density" as the cause of this transition.
■ Dynamic Density: Combination of population number (material density)
and the amount of interaction among them (moral density).
○ Over time, population growth led to increased material density.
○ This growth resulted in increased interactions, or higher moral density.
○ High interaction levels allowed people from different segments to access
activities in other segments, leading to competition.
○ The fittest individuals thrived in existing occupations, while others created new
occupations and specializations.
○ This differentiation resolved problems associated with dynamic density, initiating
a continuous process of division of labor and the emergence of a society based
on "Organic Solidarity".

Durkheim on the Functions of Division of Labor

1. Overview
○ Durkheim viewed the division of labor as functional for society.
○ It provides greater efficiency, leading to increased resources, making competition
more peaceful.
○ Modern societies are characterized by weak collective conscience and a high
value on individuality.
 ○ Such societies are based on "organic solidarity" – solidarity arising from
differences and interdependence.
2. Functions of Division of Labor
○ Integration of Society
■ Division of labor creates organic solidarity.
■ Despite differences, people coexist due to functional interdependence.
■ In modern societies, individuals might feel independent consciously, but
subconsciously, they rely on many others.
○ Individual Autonomy
■ Modern society revolves around mass production.
■ Diversified needs lead to further specialization.
■ Individuals gain more freedom and have a broader range of options,
promoting innovation.
■ Division of labor provides individuals with autonomy.
3. Interplay of Autonomy and Dependency
○ As individuals become more autonomous, they also become more dependent on
society.
○ Division of labor meets the dual needs of individual autonomy and societal
integration.
4. Abnormal Forms of Division of Labor
○ Like other social facts, the division of labor can also have abnormal or
pathological forms.
○ Studying these abnormal states is crucial for understanding the normal state.

According to Durkheim, there are primarily three abnormal forms or division or labor -

1. Anomic Division of Labor

a. Definition of Anomie
i. Anomie refers to a state of normlessness.
ii. In such a state, people don't adhere to the norms associated with their
activities in specific situations.
b. Causes of Anomic Division of Labor
i. Rapid and unchecked division of labor.
ii. Swift expansion of industrial activities.
iii. Weak social controls during phases of social upheaval.
iv. Such conditions lead to unhealthy competition and dysfunctionality.
v. Typically arises during transitional phases, e.g., the shift from mechanical
to organic solidarity.
vi. Durkheim's observation: "The scale is upset, but a new scale cannot be
immediately improvised."
vii. When the economic pace outstrips moral regulation, it results in an
anomic pathological state of division of labor.
c. Effects of Anomie
 i. Customary limits on desires and expectations are disrupted during rapid
societal changes.
ii. Desires can only be satisfied when they are limited.
iii. In industrial societies, desires become unlimited, and the traditional
ceiling disintegrates, leading to anomie.
iv. A new moral consensus is needed to define what individuals can
reasonably expect from life.
v. The specialized division of labor promotes self-interest and individualism,
posing a threat to societal unity.
vi. Symptoms include high rates of suicide, marital breakups, and industrial
conflicts.
d. Solutions to Anomie
i. While Marx proposed a radical solution to the problem of alienation,
Durkheim believed the solution could be found within the existing societal
framework.
ii. Replace self-interest with a code of ethics that encompasses societal
needs.
iii. Occupational associations can act as agents of moral regulation.
iv. Durkheim saw in professional associations the features that were missing
in routine business and commerce.
2. Inadequate Organization or Poorly Coordinated Division of Labor
a. Definition: A situation where work is not organized or coordinated properly.
b. Consequences:
i. Creates imbalances and conflicts.
ii. Workers often engage in meaningless tasks.
iii. Lack of unity in action.
iv. Breakdown of solidarity, leading to disorder.
3. Forced Division of Labor
a. Definition: Division of labor where individuals are assigned tasks not suited to
their talents or will.
b. Causes:
i. Structural conditions where task distribution doesn't align with talent
distribution.
c. Characteristics:
i. Based on inequality of opportunity.
d. Consequences:
i. Fails to produce long-lasting solidarity.
ii. Individuals become frustrated and unhappy.
iii. Results in tensions, rivalries, and antagonism.

Durkheim on Abnormal Division of Labor and Solutions

1. Context
○ Abnormal division of labor explains the chaos in Europe despite division of
labor's potential to bring societal integrity.
2. Solution to Abnormal Division of Labor
○ Division of labor must remain in a normal state.
○ Mechanisms should be in place to address its abnormal forms.
○ Durkheim's conception of a socialist state:
■ Division of labor will be maintained in a normal state by numerous
occupational associations.
■ Each association will implement an ethical code specific to its occupation,
ensuring proper work organization.
○ Unlike Marx's radical solution involving a change in the mode of production,
Durkheim believed solutions could be found within the existing societal
framework.
○ The dominating self-interest in business and commerce should be replaced by an
ethical code that prioritizes societal needs.
3. Criticism of Durkheim's Division of Labor Theory
○ Criticized for being top-down, prioritizing society's will over individual interests.
○ Underplays the role of individual choice in selecting occupations.
○ Neglects significant economic factors, especially in the context of globalization.
○ Neoliberals argue that economics, rather than societal integrative needs, plays a
larger role in determining division of labor patterns.

Durkheim on Suicide
1. Introduction
○ Durkheim's work on suicide was a pioneering effort to establish empiricism in
Sociology.
○ Aimed to study a personal phenomenon (suicide) from a sociological perspective.
○ Demonstrated the use of scientific methodology in Sociology.
○ His study is considered a foundational point for research methodology in
Sociology due to its reliance on observable and measurable data.
2. Definition of Suicide
○ "Suicide is any case of death, caused by directly or indirectly, positive or negative
action of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result."
○ Positive Actions: Direct actions taken by an individual to end one's life (e.g.,
consuming poison).
○ Negative Actions: Inactions leading to death (e.g., starvation, staying inside a
burning house).
○ Indirect Causes: Situations where there's no direct intention to die but there's an
awareness of potential death (e.g., soldiers in war, firefighters in emergencies).
3. Research Methodology
○ Durkheim used police records from various European regions across different
time periods.
○ He was not interested in individual cases but in explaining differences in suicide
rates among different groups.
4. Key Findings
 ○ Established that suicide is a social phenomenon, not just an individual or
psychological one.
○ Reviewed existing literature on suicide.
○ Rejected explanations linking suicide solely to factors like stress and modernity.

To establish suicide as a social fact, Durkheim gave the 3 following arguments in his
support -
1. He proved that suicide cannot be explained through psychological, geographical,
climatic, hereditary factors, etc. and hence, rejected existing explanations. He used data
to show that there was no positive correlation between the rate of suicide and different
non-social factors like temperature, insanity, race and alcoholism etc.
2. He explained sociological causes of suicide by correlating suicide rates with various
social factors.
3. He proved with the help of statistical data that certain rate of suicide is normal in society.

1. Data analysis:
○ Disproved factors like race, heredity, and climate as credible explanations.
○ Examples:
■ Temperature: No differential rate of suicide between warmer and colder
countries.
■ Mental illness: No consistent relation between suicide rates and illness
incidences across different countries over time.
2. Durkheim's Exploration of Social Causes
○ Method: Used statistical techniques to find relationships between suicide rate
and social variables.
○ Social Variables Considered
■ Marital status
■ Locality:
● Rural vs. Urban
● Developed vs. Under-developed
■ Religious orientation:
● Protestant vs. Catholic
● Jews vs. Christians
■ Sex:
● Male vs. Female
○ Approach: Undertook multivariate analysis to establish relationships between
suicide rates and these social factors.
3. Research Findings
○ Gender and Suicide
■ Males have greater suicidal tendencies than females.
○ Marital Status and Suicide
■ Bachelors have a higher rate of suicide.
■ Marriage acts as a protective factor against suicide by integrating
individuals into stable social relations.
 ○ Development Status of Countries and Suicide
■ Underdeveloped countries have a lower rate of suicide compared to
developed countries.
○ Religion and Suicide
■ Protestants have higher suicide rates than Catholics.
■ Reasoning: Protestantism offers more freedom in interpretation and
inquiry, leading to lesser integration into the Church compared to
Catholics.
○ Comparative Analysis
■ Groups with higher suicide rates: Men, Christians, Unmarried.
■ Groups with lower suicide rates: Women, Jews, Married.
4. Durkheim's Explanations
○ Integration and Suicide
■ Those with higher tendencies of committing suicide are less integrated
into society.
■ Lack of integration is a significant factor in the causation of suicide.
○ Suicide as a Social Phenomenon
■ Durkheim's conclusion: Suicide is primarily a social phenomenon.
■ While individuals might have psychological predispositions, it's the impact
of suicidogenic impulses (society-driven impulses) that lead to actual
suicide.

On the basis of his analysis, he identified two types of bonds that integrate individuals with
society.
A. Forces of Integration
Durkheim identified two types of bonds that integrate individuals with society.
The varying degrees of these forces are associated with two distinct types of suicide.
Types of Suicides Based on Integration
1. Altruistic Suicide
a. Definition: Results from over-integration of an individual with society.
b. Characteristics:
i. Typical of traditional societies.
ii. High degree of mechanical solidarity.
c. Examples:
i. Sati in India: Widows self-immolating on their husband's funeral pyre.
ii. Soldiers dying in wars.
iii. Japanese kamikaze pilots during World War II.
iv. Terrorist attack of 9/11: Deliberate crashing of airplanes into the Twin
Trade Towers in New York in 2001.
2. Egoistic Suicide
a. Definition: Results from low integration of individuals with society.
b. Characteristics:
i. Weak social bonds.
ii. Individuals feel alienated.
 iii. Individuals don't feel a part of society, and vice versa.
c. Examples:
i. Suicides resulting from personal failure.
ii. Suicides resulting from overwhelming success.
iii. Suicides resulting from depression.
Observations:
1. Societies with strong binding values have fewer incidences of egoistic suicides.
2. Protestant Christians have higher rates of egoistic suicides than Catholics due to the
greater individual freedom in Protestantism.
3. Low rates of egoistic suicides during wartime indicate greater societal integration during
external threats.
4. Durkheim's perspective:
a. Egoistic suicide stems from incurable weariness and deep depression.
b. Altruistic suicide springs from hope and belief in a better life beyond the current
one.

B. Forces of Regulation
Definition: Control exerted by society over individuals.
Two types of suicides can result from regulation: due to over-regulation and under-regulation.
Types of Suicides Based on Regulation
1. Anomic Suicide
a. Definition: Occurs when social regulation disappears, leading individuals to not
adhere to societal norms and values.
b. Characteristics:
i. Anomie: Result of sudden changes causing desperation or dejection.
ii. Loss of social regulation over individuals.
iii. Occurs in situations of economic boom or bust.
iv. Individual desires become limitless or confused.
c. Examples:
i. Periods of disruption cause feelings of rootlessness and normlessness,
leading to increased rates of anomic suicide.
d. Subtypes:
i. Acute Anomic: Sporadic decrease in the ability of traditional institutions to
regulate and fulfill social needs.
ii. Chronic Anomic: Abolition of social regulation without replacing them with
new ones.
iii. Acute Domestic and Chronic Domestic.
e. Challenges:
i. Merton's Argument: Anomic conditions aren't just due to external events.
They occur when there's a mismatch between societal goals and
available means to achieve those goals.
2. Fatalistic Suicide
a. Definition: Results from excessive societal control over an individual.
b. Characteristics:
 i. Oppression leads to feelings of suffocation and powerlessness.
c. Durkheim's Perspective:
i. "Persons with futures pitilessly blocked and passions violently choked by
oppressive discipline are more likely to commit such suicides."
d. Examples:
i. A slave committing suicide due to hopelessness from oppressive
regulation of his actions.
e. Observation: Such suicides are rare in modern societies.

Durkheim's Theory of Suicide

1. Integration and Regulation
a. Suicide can result from problems of either integration or regulation.
b. Suicidogenic forces: Varying states of integration and regulation in society.
c. Conceptualized as socio-currents in society.
d. Individuals under the influence of these currents have a tendency to commit
suicide.
2. Traditional Societies
a. Altruistic and fatalistic suicides were more prevalent.
b. Individuals were over-regulated and over-integrated.
3. Role of External and Psychological Factors
a. Primacy given to external factors.
b. Acknowledged a secondary role of psychological factors.
c. Main cause of suicide is social.
4. Consistency Across Societies
a. Suicide rates are fairly consistent, making it a social phenomenon.
b. Linked with the nature of a particular society.
c. A particular rate is seen as normal, highlighting problems of integration and
regulation.
d. Rates beyond a certain limit are considered pathological or abnormal.
5. Empirical Approach
a. Used data and statistical tools.
b. Aimed to demonstrate that his theory was empirical.

Criticisms of Durkheim's Theory

1. J M Atkinson (Discovering Suicide, 1978)
a. Questioned the quality of Durkheim's statistics.
b. Religious censure of suicide is higher among Catholics than Protestants, leading
to potential disguising of suicides.
c. Differences in suicide rates across countries might be due to varying methods of
investigation and reporting.
d. Durkheim's data, sourced from police stations, might have missed unreported
suicides.
e. Durkheim did not include attempted suicides.
2. David Freedman (The Ecological Fallacy, 2002)
 a. Accused Durkheim of committing the ecological fallacy.
b. Durkheim tried to generalize an apparent personal phenomenon based on group
data.

Durkheim's Theory of Religion and Society

Introduction
1. Durkheim's interest in religion stemmed from concerns about social order and
integration.
2. He viewed religion as a social fact, not a supernatural phenomenon.
Comparison with Other Theories
1. Durkheim's Approach:
a. Unlike his empirical approach in the theory of suicide, his theory of religion was
more academic.
2. Reactions to Existing Theories:
a. Durkheim's theory was partly a response to non-sociological explanations of
religion.
b. Tylor's Animistic Theory: Based on the supernatural.
c. Max Muller's Nature-Myth Theory: Focused on nature-myth.
Durkheim's Perspective on Religion
1. Main Work: "Elementary Forms of Religious Life" (1912).
2. Definition of Religion:
a. "A unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, that is to say -
things set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices, which unite them into a
single moral community, for all those who adhere to them".
3. Functionalist Approach:
a. His definition emphasizes the function of religion in uniting society.
b. Doesn't focus on faith, God, or the supernatural.
4. Components of Religion:
a. Beliefs: System of ideas explaining the sacred. Includes myths, spiritual ideas,
ethical codes, etc.
b. Practices: Rites or rituals dictating behavior towards the sacred.
i. Positive Rites: Bring individuals and the sacred closer (e.g., worship).
ii. Negative Rites: Maintain distance between individuals and the sacred,
and are harder to perform (e.g., fasting, sacrifice).
Foundation of Durkheim's Concept
1. Durkheim's view of religion is rooted in his systematic perspective of society.
Division of Society: Sacred and Profane
1. Sacred:
a. Things set apart and forbidden.
b. Connected to the supernatural or divine.
c. Relationship characterized by distance and reverence.
2. Profane:
a. Everything outside the realm of the sacred.
b. Encompasses day-to-day items and experiences.
 3. Distinction: Sacred and profane are mutually exclusive and represent two separate
worlds.
Causal Explanation of Religion
1. Method: Indirect experimentation.
2. Rationale:
a. Modern religion is intricate with many variations, making causal links challenging.
b. Simpler forms of religion still exist.
c. Identifying the cause of simpler religions can shed light on the causes of more
complex religions.
3. Case Study: Totemism
a. One of the simplest forms of religion where totems are revered.
b. Durkheim's Argument: A totem symbolizes the clan itself.
c. Evidence: Study of religious practices among the Arunta, Australian aboriginals.
4. Conclusion: If the cause of totemism (as seen in the worship of totems) is established,
it can be extrapolated as the cause of modern religion.

Durkheim's Indirect Study of Arunta Aboriginals and Concept of Totemism

1. Background: Arunta Aboriginals
○ Primitive men were nomadic, moving from place to place.
○ Occasional gatherings for specific purposes (e.g., clan festivals) led to unique
feelings among individuals.
2. Collective Effervescence
○ Definition: The heightened feeling of energy generated in collective gatherings.
○ Experience:
■ Individuals felt different and energized during gatherings.
■ This feeling dissipated once they separated.
■ The heightened energy was initially attributed to a supernatural force by
primitive logic.
○ Durkheim's Interpretation:
■ The real cause of this feeling was the gathering itself, a manifestation of
social forces.
■ This state of heightened energy was termed as exultation or collective
effervescence by Durkheim.
3. Transition from Profane to Sacred
○ The collective effervescence elevates individuals from everyday concerns to a
realm where they feel connected to higher forces.
○ These higher forces are perceived as divine or supernatural.
○ They are associated with specific totems around which the tribes had gathered.
4. Role of Totems
○ After gatherings disperse, individuals feel a sense of loneliness and longing.
○ To re-experience the collective effervescence, they create totems.
○ Assembling near these totems allows them to relive that heightened feeling.
○ Unable to explain this phenomenon, they attribute a sacred status to it using their
primitive logic.
 5. Durkheim's Conclusion
○ Clan members mistakenly attribute the energy they feel to the symbols of the
clan, i.e., the totems.
○ Totems are material representations of the non-material force underlying them.
○ This non-material force is the society itself.
○ The feeling deemed as sacred by primitive people is actually a manifestation of
society.

Durkheim's Perspective on Religion

1. Totems and Sacredness
○ Totems are not inherently sacred.
○ They must represent something.
○ Totems symbolize collectivity or society itself, representing the social forces felt
during gatherings.
2. Evolution of Religion
○ As society evolves, so does religion.
○ Durkheim's Statement: "If it is at once a symbol of God and society, is it not
because God and society are one and the same?"
○ In the form of religion, society worships itself.
○ Religion exemplifies society's self-creation and autonomous development.
○ Religious experiences are tangible experiences of the social forces that bind us.
3. Religious Representation of Social Obligations
○ Social obligations are portrayed in sacred terms, transforming into religious
duties.
○ Examples:
■ Marriage becomes a sacrament.
■ Work is seen as a way to please gods.
■ Dying in battle is viewed as a path to heaven.
4. Visualization of Society
○ Why worship totems or sacred things instead of society directly?
○ Durkheim's Answer: It's simpler for humans to direct feelings of reverence
towards tangible symbols like totems or idols than a complex entity like society.
○ This logic explains practices like idol worship in religions such as Hinduism.
5. Religion's Functional Role
○ Durkheim views religion in functional terms.
○ Religion is a social fact.
○ He rejects earlier philosophical and psychological explanations, asserting religion
is a product of society's self-creation and autonomous development.
○ People adhering to a religion follow specific beliefs and practices, which act as
moral codes.
○ This binds them into a single community, fostering integration and comfort.
○ Religion's Function in Modern Societies:
■ In highly individualized and differentiated societies, religion serves to unify
people.
 ■ Religion becomes the basis for similarity, fostering unity.
6. Significance of Durkheim's Theory
○ Demonstrates that any subject, including religion, can be approached
sociologically.
○ Demystified religion, promoting its empirical and rational study.
7. Criticisms of Durkheim's Theory
○ Arm-chair Theory:
■ Criticized by Malinowski.
■ Durkheim never visited the Arunta tribe, making the empirical base of his
theory narrow.
○ Dichotomy of Profane and Sacred:
■ William Edward Stanner argues that the division is not absolute and there
can be mundane things.
■ Durkheim didn't explain why a specific totem is chosen.
○ Multiple Totems:
■ Radcliffe Brown's study of New South Wales revealed that a tribe can
have multiple totems based on factors like individuals, gender, and clan.
○ Generalization Issue:
■ Extending the logic from primitive religion to modern sophisticated
religions might be an overreach.
○ Profanity and Sacred as Extremes:
■ Edmund Leach suggests that all social actions fall between these two
extremes.
○ Relevance in Modern Societies:
■ Some scholars believe secularism, not religion, binds modern
industrialized societies.
■ Durkheim's ideas might be more applicable to simpler societies.
■ His theory doesn't adequately explain solidarity in multicultural polytheistic
societies, like India.
○ Overlooking Conflict:
■ Durkheim is criticized for ignoring conflicts caused by religion, focusing
solely on its functional aspects.

Durkheim - An Evaluation
1. Contribution to Sociology
○ Played a pivotal role in establishing Sociology as a formal discipline.
○ Provided the discipline with a clear subject matter: the study of social facts.
○ His terminologies and theories are distinctively sociological and continue to be
influential.
2. Legacy and Relevance
○ Concepts like religion, suicide, and anomie are still referenced in interdisciplinary
studies.
○ One of the early founders of the structural functionalist perspective in Sociology.
3. Unique Approach
 ○ Focused on establishing social order in society.
○ His concept of the division of labor is applied to understand global labor
dynamics.
○ Offered a pragmatic perspective on crime and suicide:
■ Encouraged viewing them in a broader social context rather than solely
through the lens of individual behavior or psychological dispositions.
■ Highlighted the social dimensions of individual problems.
○ Through his ideas on the division of labor and anomie:
■ Gave insights into the paradox of individuals becoming freer yet more
dependent on society.
4. Criticisms
○ Over-emphasis on the functional character of social institutions and phenomena.
○ This focus attracted critiques and spurred the development of alternative
sociological perspectives.