NERVOUS SYSTEM

By,
Dr. Swarup P. Kulkarni,
Ph.D. (Regi. Scho.), M.D. (Ayu.)
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

 Nervous system is a system of the body that in

vertebrates includes the brain, spinal cord, nerves. Sense
organs receive interprets and responds to stimuli from
inside and outside the body.
 Nervous system is the system of the human body which
deals with the study of brain, spinal cord with their
associated structures, cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
 Nervous system is the bodily system in vertebrates is
made up of brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglion and parts
of the receptor organs which receives, interprets the
stimuli and transmits impulses to the effector organs.
 Nervous system is the most complex system of the body.
INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION

 Human nervous system deals with memory, judgement

and intelligence. It is the chief controlling, communicating
and coordinating system of the body. It deals with
voluntary and in voluntary bodily activities. Nervous
system is composed of mainly two parts as sensory and
motor part. The sensory part collects the information
from the surrounding and helps in acquiring the
knowledge and experience. The motor part is meant for
giving responses to any kind of stimuli. The nervous
system sends signals around the body.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The nervous system is made up of,
 NERVE CELLS OR NEURONS –
 Neuron is made up of a cell body which forms grey
matter and the nuclei in the central nervous system and
ganglia in the peripheral nervous system. It also consists
of numerous, short and richly branched processes called
as Dendrites. Also, single elongated process called as
Axon. Each neuron is responsible for sensitivity and
conductivity. The impulses flow in them with briskness.
The neurons are connected to each other by their
processes forms a chain for impulses. This site of contact
between the nerve cells is called as synapse.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Types of Neurons –
 According to number of processes,
 Multipolar neurons –
 All motor neurons are multipolar neurons.
 Bipolar neurons –
 It is related to first neuron of the retina, olfactory mucosa and ganglia of the
auditory cranial nerve.
 Pseudounipolar neurons –
 These neurons are initially unipolar but become bipolar functionally. They are
present in dorsal nerve root ganglia and sensory ganglia of the cranial nerves.
 Unipolar neurons –
 These are more common in lower vertebrates. In the humans, it is found in the
mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve.
 According to length of axon, neurons have 2 types as,
 Golgi type I with long axon.
 Golgi type II with short axon.
STRUCTURE OF NEURON
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 NEUROGLIAL CELLS –
 Neuroglial cells are as,
 Astrocytes-
 They are concern with the nutrition of the nervous tissue.
 Oligidendrocytes –
 These are counterparts of Schwann cells. Oligidendrocytes mylinates the tracts.
 Microglia –
 These are macrophages of the central nervous system.
 Ependymal cells –
 These are columnar cells present in the cavities of the central nervous system. They
help in the formation of cerebrospinal fluid.
 Proliferation of the glial cells is called as gliosis. Generally brain tumours arise from
the Neuroglial cells and the immature nerve cells.
 REFLEX ARC –
 It is the functional part of the nervous system. Reflex arc is formed by,
 Receptor – Skin, Sensory neuron, Motor neuron and the Effector – Muscle / Target
part.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 IMPORTANCE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM –
 The nervous system plays a vital role in nearly every aspect of
human health and well being. It guides daily activities such as waking
up, automatic activities such as breathing and also complex
processes such as thinking, reading, memory, feeling emotions etc.
The nervous system controls brain growth and development. The
nervous system helps all the parts of the body to communicate with
each other. The nervous system uses both electrical and chemical
means to send and receive messages. It is an elaborate
communication system that has more than 100 billion nerve cells in
the brain alone. The responses given by the nervous system involve
electrochemical messages relayed to and from the brain and spinal
cord. It also maintains the balance of the body. It is a complex
system which consists of smaller subsystems each of which have
specific structures and specific functions. The nervous system
coordinates the body’s response to changes in its internal and
external conditions or environment.
DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Nervous system –
 Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system.
 Central Nervous System –
 Brain and Spinal cord
 Brain –
 Fore brain – Cerebrum (Rt. And lt. cerebral
hemispheres) and Diencephalon (Thalamus,
Metathalamus, Epithalamus, Subthalamus and
Hypothalamus)
 Mid brain – Crus cerebri, Substantia nigra, Tectum and
Tegmentum
 Hind brain – Pons, Medulla oblongata and Cerebellum
DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Peripheral nervous System –
 Cerebrospinal system –
 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
 Autonomic nervous system –
 Sympathetic nervous system
 Parasympathetic nervous system
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN -

 Definition-
 It is one of the systems of communicating cavities in the
brain that are continuous with the central canal of the
spinal cord.
Name of Ventricle Number Location
Lateral Ventricle 2 In each cerebral
hemisphere
Third Ventricle 1 Diencephalon
Fourth Ventricle 1 Hind brain
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 Cerebral Aqueduct = Aqueduct of Selvious = In Midbrain
 It connects 3rd ventricle to 4th ventricle.
 The synonyms of different parts of the brain are as
follows,
 Fore brain - Prosencephalon
 Cerebrum – Telencephalon
 Diencephalon – Thalamencephalon
 Mid brain – Mesencephalon
 Hind brain – Rhombencephalon
 Pons and Cerebellum – Metencephalon
 Medulla oblongata – Mylencephalon
Nervous System Division
MENINGES
 The Meninges are the coverings or membranes that envelop the
brain and spinal cord. These Meninges are divided into 2 types as
Cerebral Meninges which covers the brain and the Spinal
Meninges which surrounds the spinal cord.
 CEREBRAL MENINGES –
 Cerebral Meninges surrounds the different parts of the brain.
Cerebral Meninges are three as,
 Cerebral Duramater –
 It is also called as patchymenix. The word Dura means hard or
tough. It is the outermost, thickest covering of the brain. There are
two layers of cerebral duramater as outer endosteal layer which
forms an internal endoosteum of the skull bones. It also provides
sheaths for cranial nerves. Inner meningeal layer which surrounds
the brain. This meningeal layer is continuous with spinal duramater.
These two layers are fused to each other almost at all places except
where the cranial venous sinuses are enclosed between them.
MENINGES
 The meningeal layer is folded on itself so that it forms four sub
layers or folds as,
 Falx cerebri –
 It is large sickle shaped fold of meningeal layer of cerebral
duramater between the two cerebral hemispheres.
 Tentorium cerebelli –
 This is the tent shaped fold of meningeal layer of cerebral duramater
which seperates cerebellum from the occipital lobes of the
cerebrum.
 Falx cerebelli –
 It is small sickle shaped fold of meningeal layer of cerebral
duramater which seperates two cerebellar hemispheres.
 Diaphragma sellae –
 This is small circular fold of meningeal layer of cerebral duramater
forming the roof of the hypophysial fossa.
MENINGES
 Blood supply –
 Cerebral duramater is supplied by middle meningeal,
anterior and posterior ehmoidal and ophthalmic arteries.
It is also supplied by meningeal branches of vertebral,
occipital and ascending pharyngeal arteries.
 Nerve supply –
 Ophthalmic division of trigeminal nerve, anterior
ehmoidal nerve, maxillary nerve etc.
VENOUS SINUSES OF CEREBRAL
DURAMATER
 These are venous sinuses or spaces in which their walls
are made up of cerebral duramater. They have inner lining
of endothelium. There are no muscles and valves in their
walls. Venous sinuses receive the blood from the brain,
Meninges and the skull bones. Cerebrospinal fluid is also
poured into some of the venous sinuses. Cranial or dural
venous sinuses communicate with the veins outside the
skull through emissary veins. This helps to keep the
pressure of blood in the sinuses constant. These are 23
venous sinuses out of which 8 sinuses are paired and 7
are unpaired.
VENOUS SINUSES OF CEREBRAL
DURAMATER
Paired venous sinuses are,
 Cavernous sinus
 Superior petrosal sinus
 Inferior petrosal sinus
 Transverse sinus
 Sigmoid sinus
 Sphenoparietal sinus
 Petrosquamous sinus
 Middle meningeal sinus / veins
VENOUS SINUSES OF CEREBRAL
DURAMATER
Unpaired cranial venous sinuses are as,
 Superior sagital sinus
 Inferior sagital sinus
 Straight sinus
 Occipital sinus
 Anterior intercavernous sinus
 Posterior intercavernous sinus
 Basilar plexus of veins
MENINGES
 Cerebral Arachnoid mater -
 This is the middle layer of cerebral Meninges. The cerebral
arachnoidmater is the thin, transparent membrane that loosely
surrounds the brain without dipping into its sulci. It covers all
the irregularities of the brain with the exception of the stem
of the lateral sulcus. It is seperates from the cerebral
duramater by the cerebral subdural space and from the
cerebral piamater by the cerebral subarachnoid space which
contains the cerebrospinal fluid. It also gives sheaths for cranial
nerves as their exit from the skull matters.
 This layer gives small finger like projections called as arachnoid
villi which projects into the cranial or dural venous sinuses.
They absorb the CSF and as the age advances, these villi
enlarge in size called as arachnoid granulations. These
arachnoid granulations produce depressions in skull bones.
MENINGES
 Cerebral Piamater –
 It is the innermost layer of cerebral Meninges. The cerebral
piamater is a thin vascular membrane which closely invests the brain,
dipping into its sulci and other irregularities of its surface. It also
provides sheaths for cranial nerves and perivascular sheaths for the
small vessels entering and leaving the brain. The cerebral piamater is
also composed of 2 layers as,
 Epipia containing large vessels and Piaglia or Pia intima which is
adherent to the nervous tissue. Cerebral arachnoidmater and
cerebral piamater are togetherally also called as leptomeninges.
 CEREBRAL EIPDURAL AND SUBDURAL SPACE –
 The cerebral epidural or extradural space is a potential space
between the inner aspect of skull bones and the endosteal layer of
cerebral duramater. The cerebral subdural space is also potential
space between cerebral duramater and cerebral arachnoid mater.
These become actual spaces in certain pathological conditions.
MENINGES
 CEREBRAL SUBARACHNOID SPACE –
 This is the space between the cerebral arachnoid mater
and cerebral piamater. This space surrounds the brain and
spinal cord and ends below at the lower border of the 2nd
sacral vertebra. It contains the CSF, great vessels of the
brain and cranial nerves pass through this space.
 The cerebral subarachnoid space communicates with the
ventricular system of the brain at foramen of Magendie
and two lateral foramen of Luschka located in the roof
part of the 4th ventricle. CSF passes through these
foramina from the 4th ventricle to the subarachnoid
space.
Cerebral Meninges
Cerebral Meninges
SPINAL MENINGES
 SPINAL MENINGES –
 Spinal Meninges covers the spinal cord. These are three in
number as,
 Spinal duramater –
 Spinal duramater is thick, tough and hard fibrous membrane
which is loosely surrounds the spinal cord. It is continuous
with the meningeal layer of the cerebral duramater. It extends
from the foramen magnum to the lower border of the 2nd
sacral vertebra. It gives tubular prolongations to the dorsal and
ventral nerve roots and to the spinal nerves.
 Spinal arachnoidmater –
 Spinal arachnoidmater is thin, delicate and transparent
membrane which loosely invests the entire central nervous
system. It also extends up to the lower border of 2nd sacral
vertebra.
SPINAL MENINGES
 Spinal piamater –
 Spinal piamater is thick, firm and less vascular than the cerebral
piamater. It also consist of Epipia containing large vessels and
Piaglia or Pia intima which is adherent to the nervous tissue.
Spinal piamater closely invests the spinal cord and continue
below as the filum terminale. Spinal piamater gives three
attachments as, posteriorly, the spinal piamater is adherent to
the posterior median septum of the spinal cord. Anteriorly it
gives a median longitudinal glistening band like structure called
as linea splendens. On each side between dorsal and ventral
nerve roots, the spinal piamater forms narrow vertical bridge
like structure called as ligamentum denticulatum having tooth
like 21 processes commencing from foramen magnum to 12th
thoracic or 1st spinal nerves. These processes suspend the
spinal cord in the middle of the spinal subarachnoid space.
SPINAL MENINGES
 The filum terminale is a delicate, thread like structure about 20 cm
long. It extends from the conus medullaris to the 1st piece of coccyx.
Filum terminale is subdivided into filum terminale internum which
lies within the dural sheath (20cm) and filum terminale externum
(5cm) which lies outside the dural sheath.
 SPINAL EPIDURAL SPACE –
 This space is present in between the spinal duramater and the
periosteum and ligaments related to the vertebral canal. It contains
loose areolar tissue, semi liquid fat, spinal arteries and the internal
vertebral venous plexus. Venous blood from the spinal cord drains
into this space.
 SPINAL SUBDURAL SPACE –
 Spinal subdural space is capillary space between the spinal
duramater and spinal arachnoidmater which contains thin serous
fluid. This space helps in easy movement of spinal duramater over
spinal arachnoidmater.
SPINAL MENINGES
 SPINAL SUBARACHNOID SPACE –
 Spinal subarachnoid space is wide space in between spinal
arachnoid mater and spinal piamater filled with
cerebrospinal fluid. It surrounds the brain and spinal cord
like water cushion. It is wider than cerebral subarachnoid
space. It is widest at the lower border of the spinal cord
where it encloses the cauda equina. Lumbar puncture is
generally done in the lower part of this space between
3td and 4th lumbar vertebra.
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Inflammation of the leptomeninges is called as meningitis
associated with fever, headache, rigid neck etc.
SPINAL MENINGES
SPINAL MENINGES
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
 The cerebrospinal fluid or CSF is modified tissue fluid. It replaces
lymph in the central nervous system. CSF is present in the ventricles
of the brain and in the cerebral and spinal sub arachnoid spaces of
brain and spinal cord.
 Formation –
 The bulk of CSF is formed by the choroid plexus of the lateral
ventricles and small amount of CSF is formed by the choroid
plexuses of 3rd and 4th ventricles. The choroid plexus is formed by
the Ependymal cells, tuft or group of capillaries and the specialised
cells called as tela chordia. CSF is also formed by the capillaries on
the surface of the brain and spinal cord.
 Quantity -
 Total quantity of CSF is about 150 ml.
 CSF is formed at the rate about 200 ml per hour or 5000 ml per
day.
 The normal CSF pressure is 60 to 100 mm of CSF or of Water.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
 Circulation –
 CSF passes from each lateral ventricle to the 3rd ventricle
through interventricular foramen or foramen of Monro. From
the 3rd ventricle, it passes into 4th ventricle through cerebral
aqueduct or Aqueduct of Selvious. From the 4th ventricle, bulk
CSF passes into subarachnoid space through median aperture
called as foramen of Magendie and 2 lateral apertures called as
foramen of Luschka. Remaining amount of CSF passes into the
central canal of the spinal cord.
 Absorption –
 CSF is absorbed mainly through the arachnoid villi and
arachnoid granulations and finally drained into cranial or dural
venous sinuses. It is also absorbed partly by perineural
lymphatics around the 1st, 2nd and8th cranial nerves. CSF is also
absorbed by veins related to spinal nerves.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
 Functions -
 CSF is nutritive, protective and serves as pathway for metabolites
from the central nervous system.
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Lumbar puncture is the widely used procedure to obtain the CSF.
 CSF is also obtained by ventricular puncture.
 Biochemical analysis of CSF is of diagnostic value in various diseases.
 Obstruction to CSF in the ventricles of the brain leads to
Hydrocephalus in children and raised intracranial pressure in
adults.
 Obstruction to CSF in vertebral canal produces Froin’s syndrome or
loculation syndrome which is characterised by yellowish
discolouration of CSF below the level of obstruction.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
FORE BRAIN
 Fore brain is the largest part of the brain. It consists of
two parts as the cerebrum and diencephalon.
 CEREBRUM –
 Introduction -
 Cerebrum is the largest part of the brain which is made
up of right and left cerebral hemispheres. These 2
cerebral hemispheres are incompletely separated from
each other by the median longitudinal fissure. The 2
cerebral hemispheres are connected to each other by the
corpus callosum. Each of the cerebral hemisphere
contains a cavity called as the lateral ventricle.
External features of Cerebrum
External features of Cerebrum
External features of Cerebrum
External features of Cerebrum
 External Features -
 Each cerebral hemisphere has the external features as,
 Poles –
 It is having 3 poles as,
 Frontal pole – Located at the anterior end
 Occipital pole – Present at the posterior end
 Temporal pole – Situated at the anterior end of temporal lobe.
 Lobes –
 4 lobes are present in the cerebral hemisphere as,
 Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Temporal lobe and Occipital lobe.
External features of Cerebrum
 Surfaces –
 Superolateral surface - It is convex in shape and related
to vault of the cranium.
 Medial surface – This is flat and vertical in shape. Medial
surface of both the cerebral hemispheres are separated
from each other by falx cerebri and the longitudinal
fissure.
 Inferior surface – It is irregular in shape. It has 2 parts as,
anterior part called as orbital surface and posterior part
which is called as tentorial surface. These 2 surfaces are
separated from each other by lateral sulcus.
External features of Cerebrum
 Borders –
 Superomedial border –It seperates superolateral surface
from the medial surface.
 Inferolateral border – This border separates superolateral
surface from the inferior surface. The front or anterior
part of this border is also called as supercilliary border.
Preoccipital notch is the depression which is located 5 cm
from the occipital pole on this border.
 Medial orbital border – It seperates medial surface from
the orbital surface.
 Medial occipital border – This border seperates medial
surface from the tentorial surface.
SOME IMPORTANT GYRI AND SULCI OF
CEREBRUM
 Superolateral surface -
 Frontal lobe –
 Precentral, superior and inferior frontal sulci and gyri as
Precentral, superior, middle and inferior frontal.
 Parietal lobe –
 Postcentral and intraparietal sulci and Postcentral, superior
parietal lobule and inferior parietal lobule gyri.
 Temporal lobe –
 Superior temporal and inferior temporal sulci and superior,
middle and inferior temporal gyri.
 Occipital lobe – Transverse and lateral occipital, lunate,
superior and inferior polar sulci and superior and inferior
occipital gyri.
SOME IMPORTANT GYRI AND SULCI OF
CEREBRUM
 Medial surface – Cingulate, Callosal, Calcarine,
subparietal sulci and cingulated, cuneus, precuneus, medial
frontal gyri.
 Inferior surface – This surface is having olfactory,
collateral, Rhinal, Occipitotemporal sulci and Anterior,
Posterior, Medial and Lateral orbital, Lingual, Uncus,
Parahippocampal, medial and lateral occipitotemporal
gyri.
Gyri and Sulci of Cerebrum
Gyri and Sulci of Cerebrum
MAIN FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF
CEREBRAL CORTEX
MAIN FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF
CEREBRAL CORTEX
 Motor area –
 It is located in the Precentral gyrus on the superolateral
surface of cerebral hemisphere.
 Premotor area –
 It lies just anterior to the motor area.
 Broca area of speech –
 Located in the inferior frontal gyrus.
 Sensory area –
 Situated in the Postcentral gyrus.
 Visual area –
 Located in the occipital lobe.
 Acoustic / Hearing area –
 Lies in the temporal lobe.
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM

 Cerebrum consists of cerebral cortex and medulla. It also

contains the grey matter and the white matter. Grey matter is
in the form of nucleus and the white matter is in the form of
fibres.
 GREY MATTER –
 BASAL NUCLEI –
 These are intracerebral and subcortical masses of grey matter.
There are 4 basal nuclei as,
 Corpus Striatum –
 It contains the caudate nucleus and lentiform nucleus.
 Caudate Nucleus –
 This is ‘C’ shaped or comma shaped nucleus which is
surrounded b u lateral ventricle. It encloses thalamus and
internal capsule in the concavity of ‘C’.
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM

 The nucleus has,

 Head – Head forms the floor of the anterior horn of the
lateral ventricle and the medial wall of the anterior limb
of the internal capsule.
 Body – Body forms the floor of the central part of the
lateral ventricle.
 Tail – Tail forms the roof of the inferior horn of the lateral
ventricle and ends by joining the amygdeloid body at the
temporal lobe.
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM

 Lentiform Nucleus –
 It is large, biconvex and lens shaped nucleus forms the lateral
boundary of internal capsule. It has 3 surfaces,
 Lateral surface – It is convex, relates with external capsule and
claustrum.
 Medial surface – It is convex related to internal capsule,
caudate nucleus and the thalamus.
 Inferior surface – It relates with Sublentiform part of internal
capsule.
 Lentiform nucleus is divided into 2 parts by thin lamina of
white matter. The smaller and medial part is called as globus
pallidus made up of motor cells. It is also called as pale body.
The larger and lateral part is called as putamen which
contains small cells.
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM
 Amygdeloid body –
 It is a nuclear mass located in the temporal lobe. It is
continuous with the tail of caudate nucleus. It is a part of the
limbic system.
 Claustrum -
 It is saucer shaped nucleus located between the putamen and
insula.
 Functions of corpus striatum –
 It regulates the muscle tone and helps in smoothening
voluntary movements of the body.
 It also controls the extrapyramidal activities of the body.
 It regulates the automatic associated movements of the body
like swinging of the hands during walking.
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Any lesions of the corpus striatum lead to,
 Hypertonicity or lead pipe type rigidity of the muscles.
 Loss of associated automatic movements and facial
expressions.
 Bradykinesia or Akinesia.
Basal Nuclei of Cerebrum
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM
 WHITE MATTER –
 White matter of the cerebrum consists of mylinated fibres
which connects the cerebral cortex to the various parts of the
central nervous system. There are 3 types of fibres as,
 Association fibres –
 These are also called as arcuate fibres. These fibres connect
the different areas of the cerebral cortex of the same
hemisphere. These fibres are having 2 types as, short
association fibres which connects adjacent gyri to one another
and long association fibres connects more widely separated
gyri to each other. E.g. Uncinate fasciculus, Cingulum, superior
and inferior longitudinal fasciculus.
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM
 Projection fibres –
 These fibres connect the cerebral cortex different parts
of the central nervous system. E.g. corticospinal and
corticopontine tracts.
 Commissural fibres –
 Commissural fibres connect the same cortical areas of
different cerebral hemispheres. These are 6 in number as,
corpus callosum which connects the two cerebral
hemispheres. Anterior commissure, posterior
commissure, habenular commissure, fornix and
hypothalamic commissure.
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM
INTERNAL FEATURES OF CEREBRUM
 Corpus Callosum –
 The corpus callosum is the largest commissural fibre. It connects the two
cerebral hemispheres. It is 10cm in length.
 Parts –
 Genu – It is the anterior end. It lies 4cm behind the frontal pole of the
cerebrum.
 Rostrum – It is directed downwards and backwards from the genu.
 Trunk – It is also called as body placed between genu and the splenium.
 Splenium – It is the posterior end of the corpus callosum. This is the
thickest part of the corpus callosum.
 Fibres of corpus callosum –
 Forceps minor, forceps major and tapetum are the fibres of corpus
callosum.
 Function -
 It helps in coordinating the activities between the two cerebral
hemispheres.
Corpus Callosum
Internal Capsule
 It is large band of fibres located in the inferomedial part of each cerebral
hemisphere. It is ‘V’ shaped in horizontal section. Its concavity is occupied
by lentiform nucleus. Internal capsule contains the fibres going to and
coming from the cerebral cortex. It acts as narrow gate where the fibres
are densely crowded. It has following parts,
 Anterior limb – Lies between head of the caudate nucleus and the
lentiform nucleus.
 Posterior limb – It lies between the thalamus and the lentiform nucleus.
 Genu – It is the bend between anterior and posterior limbs.
 Retrolentiform part – This is placed behind the lentiform nucleus.
 Sublentiform part – It is located below the lentiform nucleus.
 Internal capsule is supplied by central branches of middle cerebral, anterior
cerebral, posterior communicating and anterior choroidal arteries.
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Its lesions lead to hemiplegia of the body.
Internal Capsule
Parts of Internal Capsule
DIENCEPHALON
 The diencephalon is the middle structure which is majorly
surrounded by the cerebrum. It has a cavity called as third
ventricle. The hypothalamic sulcus divides each half of the
diencephalon into dorsal and ventral parts. Dorsal part of
the diencephalon contains thalamus, metathalamus and
Epithalamus. Ventral part comprises of hypothalamus and
Subthalamus.
Outline of Diencephalon
DIENCEPHALON
 THALAMUS –
 It is the large mass of grey matter. Thalamus is located in the
lateral wall of 3rd ventricle and in the floor of the central part
of the lateral ventricle. It has following parts as,
 Anterior end - It is narrow having the anterior nucleus. It
forms the posterior boundary of interventricular foramen.
 Posterior end – It is expanded and called as pulvinar.
 Superior surface – It is divided into lateral ventricular part
which forms the floor of the central part of the lateral
ventricle and medial extraventricular part which is covered by
tela chordia.
DIENCEPHALON
 Inferior surface – This surface rests on Subthalamus and hypothalamus.
 Medial surface – The medial surface of the 2 thalami are interconnected by
the interthalamic adhesion.
 Lateral surface – It forms the medial boundary of the posterior limb of the
internal capsule.
 White matter of Thalamus –
 Thalamus has external and internal medullary lamina.
 Grey matter of Thalamus -
 Thalamus has nucleus as anterior, medial and interlaminar nuclei.
 Functions of Thalamus –
 Thalamus is considered as great integrating centre where information from
all the sources and then it is distributed towards the cerebral cortex. It also
receives the pain sensations.
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Impairment of all types of sensibilities.
 Thalamic syndrome leads to hemiplegia, disturbed sensations etc.
Parts of Diencephalon
Parts of Diencephalon
Diencephalon
 METATHALAMUS –
 The metathalamus consist of medial and lateral geniculate
bodies which are situated on either side of the midbrain below
the thalamus.
 Medial geniculate body –
 It is an oval shaped elevation located below the pulvinar of the
thalamus and lateral to the superior colliculus. The inferior
brachium connects it to the inferior colliculus. It gives the
acoustic radiations to the hearing or auditory area of the
cerebral cortex in the temporal lobe through Sublentiform
part of the internal capsule. It acts as last relay station on the
pathway of hearing impulses to the cerebral cortex.
Diencephalon
 Lateral geniculate body –
 It is small, oval shaped elevation located anterolateral to
the medial geniculate body below the thalamus. It is
connected to the superior colliculus by superior
brachium. It is overlapped by the medial part of the
temporal lobe. Structurally, lateral geniculate body is 6
layered as, layers 1, 4, 6 receive Contralateral optic fibres
and layers 2, 3, 5 receives ipsilateral optic fibres. It gives
optic radiations going to visual area of the cerebral
cortex through Retrolentiform part of internal capsule.
Lateral geniculate body functions as last relay station on
the visual pathway to the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
Diencephalon
 EPITHALAMUS –
 The Epithalamus is located in the caudal part of roof of the
diencephalon and it consist of,
 Habenular nucleus –
 It lies below the floor of the habenular trigone. It forms the part of
limbic system.
 Pineal body –
 It is small endocrine gland located between the two superior
colliculi. It is located below the splenium part of the corpus
callosum. The Pineal gland consists of a conical body about 8mm
long and a stalk which divides anteriorly into superior and inferior
lamina. The superior lamina contains habenular commissure and the
inferior lamina possesses the posterior commissure. Structurally, the
pineal gland has 2 types of cells as pinealocytes and Neuroglial cells.
It produces the hormone called as melatonin which causes skin
colour changes in many species.
Diencephalon
 HYPOTHALAMUS –
 The hypothalamus lies in the floor and lateral wall of the 3rd
ventricle. It is the head ganglion of autonomic nervous system as it
controls many visceral and metabolic activities of the body. It is
bounded anteriorly by the posterior perforated substance and on
each side by optic tract and crus cerebri as seen on the base of the
brain.
 Parts –
 Optic part – It contains supraoptic and paraventricular nucleus.
 Tuberal part – It has ventromedial, dorsomedial and Tuberal nucleus.
 Mamillary part – This part has posterior and lateral nucleus.
 The hypothalamus receives visceral sensations through spinal cord
and brainstem. It also has supraopticohypophysial, mamillothalamic
and mamillotegmental tracts as white matter.
Diencephalon
 Functions –
 Endocrine system control.
 Temperature regulation.
 Regulation of food and water intake.
 Sexual behaviour and reproduction.
 It maintains the biological clock of the body.
 It also controls the certain emotions such as fear, pleasure, reward
etc.
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Obesity
 Diabetes inspidus
 Sexual disturbances
 Hyperglycaemia and glycosurea
 Acute ulcerations in the upper part of the gastrointestinal tract.
Parts of Hypothalamus
Diencephalon
 SUBTHALAMUS –
 The Subthalamus lies between the midbrain and the thalamus, medial
to the internal capsule and globus pallidus.
 Grey matter – It has nucleus as, red and subthalamic nucleus and
zona incerta.
 White matter - This bears dorsal, ventral and dentothalamic tracts.
 Subthalamic nucleus is biconvex shaped in coronal section located
dorsolateral to the red nucleus and ventral to the zona incerta. It
integrates number of motor centres.
 Zona incerta is a thin lamina of grey matter situated between the
thalamus and the subthalamic nucleus.
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Lesions of the subthalamic nucleus results in hemiballismus
characterised by involuntary choreiform movements on the
opposite side of the body.
BRAINSTEM
 The brainstem consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons and
the mid brain. It connects the spinal cord to the cerebrum.
 MEDULLA OBLONGATA –
 It is the distal part of the brainstem which extends in between
the pons and the spinal cord. It is located in the anterior part
of the posterior cranial fossa. Medulla oblongata is nearly 3cm
in length and 2cm in width in its upper part.
 External Structure -
 Divisions – It is divided into lower closed part which is
continuous with the central canal and upper open part which
relates with 4th ventricle. The surface of the medulla is marked
by fissures or sulci. The medulla is divided into right and left
half by the anterior and posterior median fissures.
 Fissures or Sulci – These are as anteromedian and
posteromedian sulcus, anterolateral and posterolateral sulcus.
Brainstem Ventral Aspect
Brainstem Dorsal Aspect
Brainstem
 Pyramid – It is an oval elevation between anteromedian and
anterolateral sulcus. It is made up of corticospinal fibres. In the
lower part of the medulla, many fibres of the right and left pyramids
cross to each other in the midline and forms a structure called as
pyramidal decussation. Some fibres travel transversely across the
upper part of the pyramid called as anterior external arcuate fibres.
 Olive – It is an oval swelling between anterolateral and
posterolateral sulcus. This is ½ inch long produced by a large mass
of grey matter called as inferior olivary nucleus.
 Cranial nerve rootlets – Medulla shows cranial nerve rootlets for
glossopharyngeal, hypoglossal, vagus and accessory nerves.
 Fasciculus Gracilis and Fasciculus Cuneatus – Posterior part of the
medulla between posteromedian and posterolateral sulcus contains
the tracts enter from posterior funiculus of the spinal cord. These
fasciculi ends in rounded elevations as gracile tubercle (medially) and
cuneate tubercle (laterally). These tubercles are produced by the
grey matter as nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus.
Brainstem
 Tuberculum cinerium – Lateral to the fasciculus cuneatus,
there is longitudinal elevation called as tuberculum
cinerium. This produced by collection of grey matter
called spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve. It is covered by
nerve fibres from the spinal tract of trigeminal nerve.
Brainstem
 Internal Structure –
 Internal features of the medulla oblongata are studied at three
levels with the help of transverse sections.
 Transverse section of the medulla at the pyramidal
decussation –
 It shows the structures as,
 Central grey matter with the central canal
 Pyramid with pyramidal decussation
 Fasciculus gracilis and fasciculus cuneatus
 Spinal tract of trigeminal nerve
 Lateral corticospinal tract
 Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
 Nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus
T.S. of Medulla at Pyramidal Decussation
Brainstem
 Transverse section of the medulla at the sensory
decussation –
 It shows the structures as,
 Central grey matter
 Nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus.
 Pyramid
 Spinal tract of trigeminal nerve
 Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
 Medial lemniscus – Fibres arising from nucleus gracilis and
nucleus cuneatus are called as medial lemniscus.
 Reticular formation – This is the region lateral to medial
lemniscus which contains scattered neuron mixed with nerve
fibres.
Brainstem
 Sensory Decussation – Crossing over the fibres from
nucleus gracilis and nucleus cuneatus is called as sensory
decussation.
 Spinocerebellar and spinothalamic tracts.
 Hypoglossal nucleus
 Dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve
 Nucleus of tractus solitarius
 Striae medullaris
 Hypoglossal triangle
 Vagal triangle
T.S. of Medulla at Sensory Decussation
Brainstem
 Transverse section of the medulla at the Olive –
 It shows following structures,
 Pyramid
 Medial lemniscus
 Inferior olivary nucleus
 Reticular formation
 Spinal tract of trigeminal nerve
 Spinal nucleus of trigeminal nerve
 Inferior cerebellar peduncle
 Respiratory centre
 Cardiac centre for regulation of heart rate
 Vasomotor centre for regulation of blood pressure
T.S. of Medulla at Olive
Brainstem
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Injury to the vital centres as respiratory, cardiac and
vasomotor is fatal.
 Paralysis of respiratory and vasomotor centre.
 Bulbar paralysis of last 4 cranial nerves.
Brainstem
 PONS -
 The word pons means the bridge like structure. The pons is
the midline structure which connects the midbrain with the
medulla oblongata.
 External Structure –
 Surface – The pons has ventral or anterior surface which is
convex and transversely striated. In the median plane it shows
a vertical basilar sulcus which lodges the basilar artery.
Trigeminal, abducent, facial, and auditory cranial nerves are
attached to the ventral surface. The dorsal surface is also called
as posterior surface is hidden by the cerebellum and forms the
upper part of the floor of the 4th ventricle.
Brainstem
 Internal Structure –
 Transverse section of the Pons through the Upper and
Lower Part –
 It shows the following features,
 Pontine nucleus
 Corticospinal and corticopontine fibres
 Transverse fibres or Trapezoid body
 Superior and middle cerebellar peduncles
 Medial lemniscus
 Sensory nuclei of trigeminal nerve
 Salivatory and lacrimatory nuclei
 Vestibular and cochlear nuclei
Brainstem
 Abducent and facial nerve nucleus
 Inferior cerebellar peduncle
 Floor of the 4th ventricle
 Median eminance
 Facial colliculus
 Vestibular area
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Unilateral lesion in the lower part of the pons results in
paralysis of facial nerve on side of lesion and paralysis of the
limbs on the opposite side.
 It is also called as crossed hemiplegia or Millard Gubler
syndrome.
T.S. of Pons
Brainstem
 MIDBRAIN –
 The midbrain is also called as Mesencephalon. It connects
the forebrain with the hindbrain. Its cavity is called as the
cerebral aqueduct which connects the 3rd ventricle with
4th ventricle. The mid brain on either side relates with
Parahippocampal gyri and optic tract. Anteriorly it relates
with interpeduncular structures and posteriorly to pineal
body and the splenium part of the corpus callosum. The
rootlets of oculomotor and trochlear cranial nerves are
attached to the midbrain.
Brainstem
 Subdivisions of Midbrain –
 The tectum is the part posterior to the aqueduct which
is made up of superior and inferior colliculi. Each half of
the midbrain anterior to the cerebral aqueduct is called
as cerebral peduncle. Each cerebral peduncle is
subdivided into anteriorly the crus cerebri, posteriorly
the tegmentum and in the middle, the substantia nigra.
The medial and lateral geniculate bodies are located on
the posterolateral aspect of the midbrain
Brainstem
 Internal Structure –
 Transverse section of Midbrain at Inferior Colliculus –
 It shows following structures,
 Central grey matter
 Nucleus of trochlear nerve
 Mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal nerve
 Substantia nigra is a lamina of grey matter concerned with
muscle tone
 Corticospinal tract
 Medial lemniscus
 Reticular formation
 Tectospinal and rubrospinal tract
 Decussation of the superior cerebellar peduncles
Brainstem
 Transverse section of Midbrain at Superior
Colliculus –
 It shows the structures as,
 Central grey matter
 Cranial nerve nuclei of oculomotor and trigeminal nerves
 Pretectal nucleus
 Red nucleus is about 0.5cm in diameter
 Reticular formation
 Subthalamic nucleus
 Substantia nigra
T.S. of Midbrain
Midbrain
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Lesions of tegmentum shows, paralysis of extraocular
muscles with the involvement of oculomotor nerve
paralysis.
 Loss of sensation
 Loss or disturbed involuntary movements
 Injury to cerebral peduncles leads to oculomotor
paralysis of same side but hemiplegia of opposite side.
CEREBELLUM
 Introduction and Location –
 The cerebellum is small in size as compared to the
cerebrum. It is responsible for maintaining tone, posture,
equilibrium and voluntary movements of the body. It is
also called as little brain. The cerebellum is the largest
part of the hind brain located in the posterior cranial
fossa behind the pons and the medulla oblongata.
 Relations –
 Anteriorly cerebellum relates with 4th ventricle, pons and
medulla oblongata. Posteroinferiorly with occipital bone
and superiorly with tentorium cerebelli.
CEREBELLUM
 External features –
 Like the cerebrum, the cerebellum also consists of 2
cerebellar hemispheres which are connected to each
other by the middle structure called as vermis. Anterior
aspect of the cerebellum is having deep notch for pons
and medulla oblongata. Posterior aspect possesses
another deep notch for falx cerebelli.
Parts of Cerebellum
Parts of Cerebellum
Cerebellum
 Surfaces –
 Superior surface – It is convex and two hemispheres are
continuous with each other on this surface.
 Inferior surface – This surface shows a deep notch called as
vallecula which separates 2 cerebral hemispheres.
 Lobes –
 Anterior lobe – It lies on the anterior part of superior surface.
It is separated from the middle lobe by primary fissure.
 Middle lobe – It is also called as posterior lobe and largest of
three lobes. It is limited in between primary fissure and
posterolateral fissure.
 Floculonodular lobe – This is the smallest lobe of the
cerebrum lies on the posterior surface infront of the
posterolateral fissure.
Cerebellum
 Fissures –
 Horizontal fissure – It seperates superior surface from inferior
surface.
 Primary fissure – This is also called as fissure prima. It
separates anterior lobe from the middle lobe on the superior
surface of the cerebellum.
 Posterolateral fissure – It separates middle lobe from the
Floculonodular lobe on the inferior surface.
 Subdivisions of Cerebellum –
 Vermis shows the parts like lingual, central lobule, culmen,
declive, folium, tuber, pyramid, uvula and nodule.
 The cerebellar hemispheres have the subdivisions as ala,
quadrangular lobule, simple lobule, superior semilunar lobule,
inferior semilunar lobule, biventral lobule, tonsil and flocculus.
Subdivisions of Cerebellum
Morphological and Functional Divisions
of Cerebellum
 Archicerebellum – It is the oldest part of the cerebellum
which is made up of Floculonodular lobe and lingual. It
controls the bilateral movements of locomotion and
equilibrium maintenance.
 Paleocerebellum – It is formed by anterior lobe, pyramid
and uvula. It controls tone, posture and crude movements
of the extremities.
 Neocerebellum – This is the latest part of the cerebellum
to develop made up of middle lobe. It deals with
regulation of fine movements of the body.
Cerebellum
 Grey matter –
 It consists of the nucleus such as globose nucleus, nucleus fastigii,
emboliform nucleus and dentate nucleus.
 White matter –
 White matter consists of three types of peduncles as superior cerebellar
peduncle, middle cerebellar peduncle and inferior cerebellar peduncle.
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Cerebellar syndrome is characterised by,
 Muscular hypotonia
 Intention tremors
 Inability to perform regular alternative movements called as adidokinesia.
 Nystagmus
 Jerky speech
 Unsteady gait.
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 Definition-
 It is one of the systems of communicating cavities in the
brain that are continuous with the central canal of the
spinal cord. The ventricles of the brain circulate the
cerebrospinal fluid.

Name of Ventricle Number Location

Lateral Ventricle 2 In each Cerebral
hemisphere
Third Ventricle 1 Diencephalon
Fourth Ventricle 1 Hind brain
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 Cerebral Aqueduct = Aqueduct of Selvious = In Midbrain
 It connects 3rd ventricle to 4th ventricle.
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 LATERAL VENTRICLE –
 The lateral ventricles are two irregular cavities located one
each in the cerebral hemisphere. It communicates with 3rd
ventricle through an interventricular foramen. Bulk quantity of
CSF is formed in the lateral ventricles with the help of choroid
plexus.
 Parts –
 It has,
 Central part – It extends from the interventricular foramen or
foramen of Monroe in front to the splenium of the corpus
callosum behind. Its roof is formed by the under surface of the
corpus callosum. Its floor is formed by the body of the caudate
nucleus and lateral part of the superior surface of the
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 thalamus. The medial wall of the central part of the lateral ventricles
is formed by septum pellucidum and the body of the fornix.
 Choroid fissure – The line along which the choroid plexus enters
into the lateral ventricle is called as the choroid fissure. It is ‘C’
shaped.
 Horns – The lateral ventricles have 3 horns as,
 Anterior horn – It lies in front of the interventricular foramen and
extends into the frontal lobe. It is directed forwards, laterally and
downwards. Anterior horn is triangular on cross section.
 Posterior horn – Posterior horn lies behind the splenium of the
corpus callosum and extends into the occipital lobe. It may be
absent or variable in size. It is directed backwards and medially.
 Inferior horn – It is the largest horn of the lateral ventricle begins at
the junction of the central part with the posterior horn of the
lateral ventricle and extends into the temporal lobe.
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 THIRD VENTRICLE –
 Introduction –
 The third ventricle is the midline structure between the right
and left thalami. It is also communicating structure between
the lateral ventricles and the 4th ventricle. This cavity is lined by
ependymal cells.
 Communications –
 Anterosuperiorly – lateral ventricles through foramen
Monroe.
 Posteroinferiorly – 4th ventricle through cerebral aqueduct.
 Recesses – These are the extensions of the cavity as
suprapineal, pineal, infundibular and optic.
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 Boundaries –
 Anterior wall – Anterior commissure, anterior coloumn of the fornix.
 Posterior wall – Posterior commissure, pineal body, cerebral aqueduct.
 Lateral wall – Hypothalamus, hypothalamic sulcus, medial surface of the
thalamus.
 Roof – Ependymal cells of the tela chordia of the 3rd ventricle.
 Floor – Optic chiasma, tubercinerium, mamillary bodies, tegmentum of the
midbrain.
 Clinical Anatomy –
 Local brain tumours gets obstructed in the 3rd ventricle as it the narrow
space which leads to obstruction to the flow of CSF resulting in raised
intracranial pressure.
 Tumours in the lower part of 3rd ventricle results in obesity, diabetes
inspidus etc like hypothalamic symptoms.
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 FOURTH VENTRICLE -
 Introduction -
 It is the terminal and lowest ventricle of the brain. It is tent shaped
roof like structure having enough space for circulation of CSF. It is
located between the pons and the medulla anteriorly and the
cerebellum posteriorly. It is also called as the cavity of hindbrain. Its
roof shows 3 apertures to circulate the CSF into the cerebral
subarachnoid space for absorption into the superior sagital sinus.
 Communications –
 Superiorly – 3rd ventricle through cerebral aqueduct.
 Inferiorly – Central canal of the spinal cord.
 Dorsally – Cerebral subarachnoid space through foramen of
Magendie.
 On each side – Cerebral subarachnoid space through foramen of
Luschka.
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 Recesses -
 It has the recesses as median dorsal recess, 2 lateral
dorsal recesses and 2 lateral recesses.
 Lateral boundaries –
 The lateral boundaries are as,
 Inferolaterally bounded by gracile and cuneate tubercles
with inferior cerebellar peduncle.
 Superolaterally bounded by the superior cerebellar
peduncle.
Boundaries of 4th Ventricle
VENTRICULAR SYSTEM OF BRAIN
 Roof –
 Roof is tent shaped projects into the cerebellum. It is formed by superior cerebellar
peduncle, tela chordia of 4th ventricle, superior and inferior medullary vellum.
 The choroid plexus of 4th ventricle is ‘T’ shaped.
 Floor –
 Floor of the 4th ventricle is also called as rhomboid fossa as it is rhomboidal in
shape. It is formed by the posterior surface of the pons and the posterior surface of
the open part of the medulla oblongata.
 Floor shows following structures as,
 Median sulcus which divides the floor into right and left halves.
 Median eminance is an elevation.
 Facial colliculus – Elevation.
 Hypoglossal triangle – Contains hypoglossal nucleus.
 Vagal triangle – Relates with the dorsal nucleus of vagus nerve.
 Vestibular area – Related to auditory tubercle.
 Striae medullaris – Transverse lines.
Roof of 4th Ventricle
Floor of 4th Ventricle
LIMBIC SYSTEM
 Limbic system is the associated system of the nervous system
which deals with two primitive needs of human beings. Food
and sex are primitive needs of human species as food is
necessary for survival of life and sex is vital for survival of the
human species. So the limbic system is adapted for food habits,
mating, aggression, emotions etc.
 Parts of limbic system –
 Anterior perforated substance
 Olfactory nerves, bulb, tract, trigone and stiae
 Uncus, Parahippocampal gyrus, cingulate gyri
 Hippocampal gyrus, dentate gyrus
 Amygdeloid body
 Fornix, anterior commissure
LIMBIC SYSTEM
CRANIAL NERVES
 There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. They supply the muscles
of eyeball, palate, pharynx, larynx, tongue and two muscles of
neck along with to special senses like vision, hearing, smell,
taste and touch. Cranial nerves are as follows,
 Olfactory – passes through cribriform plate of ethmoid bone
 Optic - passes through optic canal
 Oculomotor - passes through superior orbital fissure
 Trochlear - passes through superior orbital fissure
 Trigeminal – It has 3 branches as,
 Ophthalmic branch - passes through superior orbital fissure
 Maxillary branch – passes through foramen rotundum
 Mandibular branch – passes through foramen ovale
CRANIAL NERVES
 Abducent - passes through superior orbital fissure
 Facial - passes through internal acoustic meatus comes
out through stylomastoid foramen on the parotid gland
and divides into 5 branches as,
 Temporal, Zygomatic, Maxillary, Mandibular and
Cervical supplies to muscles of face.
 Vestibulocochlear or Auditory or Statoacoustic -
passes through internal acoustic meatus
 Glossopharyngeal - passes through jugular foramen
 Vagus - passes through jugular foramen
 Accessory - passes through jugular foramen
 Hypoglossal - passes through jugular foramen
CRANIAL NERVES
 Out of these 12 cranial nerves, I and II nerves are
attached to the forebrain, III and IV to the midbrain, V, VI,
VII and VIII to the Pons and the IX, X, XI and XII to the
medulla oblongata. Olfactory and optic nerves are
connected to the cerebrum.
 These nerves are distributed as sensory, motor and
mixed cranial nerves. Olfactory, Optic and
Vestibulocochlear nerves are purely sensory nerves.
Purely motor nerves are Oculomotor, Trochlear,
Abducent, Accessory and Hypoglossal nerves. The mixed
cranial nerves are Trigeminal, Facial, Glossopharyngeal and
Vagus nerves. Cranial nerves are having the respective
nucleus and the functional components.
CRANIAL NERVES
BLOOD SUPPLY OF BRAIN
BLOOD SUPPLY OF BRAIN
 Brain is mainly supplied by three arteries with their branches as,
 Internal carotid artery –
 Its branches are,
 Ophthalmic artery
 Anterior and Middle cerebral arteries – supplies to the cerebrum.
 Posterior communicating artery – supplies to internal capsule of the cerebrum.
 Anterior choroidal artery – supplies to choroid plexus and the internal capsule of
the cerebrum.
 Vertebral artery –
 It has following branches,
 Meningeal artery – supplies to the meninges.
 Anterior and Posterior Spinal arteries – supplies to the spinal cord.
 Posteroinferior cerebellar artery – supplies to the cerebellum and to the medulla
oblongata.
 Medullary artery – supplies to the medulla oblongata.
 The union of right left vertebral arteries takes place at the lower border of the
pons and it forms the basilar artery.
BLOOD SUPPLY OF BRAIN
 Basilar artery -
 It gives following branches,
 Basilar artery divides into right and left posterior cerebral
arteries which supplies to the cerebrum and to the midbrain.
 Pontine artery – supplies to the pons.
 Anteroinferior cerebellar artery – supplies to cerebellum.
 Superior cerebellar artery – supplies to the cerebellum.
 Posterior cerebellar artery – supplies to the cerebellum.
 Labyrinthine artery – supplies to the internal ear (labyrinths).
 Other than these branches, the central branches as
anterolateral, anteromedial, posterolateral and posteromedial
group also supply the internal capsule, basal nuclei and the
thalamus.
BLOOD SUPPLY OF BRAIN
 Anatomical peculiarities of Cerebral Arteries –
 These cerebral arteries form the free anastomosis at the
base of the brain called as the Circle of Willis or the
circulus arteriosus.
BLOOD SUPPLY OF BRAIN
 The other peculiarity is the existence of a blood brain
barrier (BBB) formed by the structures between the
blood and the nerve cells of the brain. This barrier is
made up of ,
 The vessel wall
 Arachnoid layer of perivascular sheath
 The perivascular space
 The pial layer of the perivascular space
 The neuroglia and the ground substance of the brain
 The central branches of the cerebral arteries are called as
the end arteries. Thrombosis to any of them may cause
the infraction.
Venous drainage of the brain
 These are three types vein drains the brain and finally drains into
the cranial venous sinus. These veins are as,
 External cerebral veins -
 These veins are superficial cerebral vein, superficial middle cerebral
vein, deep middle cerebral vein, inferior cerebral vein, anterior
cerebral vein and superior cerebral vein drains into their respective
cranial venous sinuses.
 Internal cerebral veins -
 There is one vein on each side formed by thalamostriate and
choroidal veins. These two right and left internal cerebral veins
forma the great cerebral vein.
 Terminal veins –
 Great cerebral vein and the basal vein drain into the various cranial
venous sinuses.
 Finally all these veins drain into the internal jugular vein.
SPINAL CORD
 Introduction –
 Spinal cord is the distal and extended part of the central
nervous system. It is also called as spinal medulla or medulla
spinalis. It is 45cm in length. It extends from the foramen
magnum or upper border of the atlas vertebra to the lower
border of the 1st lumbar vertebra. It is present in the upper
2/3rd part of the vertebral canal. The lower end of the spinal
cord is conical in shape called as conus medullaris. The tip or
apex of the conus medullaris is called as filum terminale. The
spinal cord has 2 enlargements as cervical and lumbar
enlargement which gives large nerves to the extremities. The
spinal cord gives off 31 pairs of spinal nerves. These spinal
nerves are distributed as
SPINAL CORD
 Cervical spinal nerves - 8
 Thoracic spinal nerves - 12
 Lumbar spinal nerves - 5
 Sacral spinal nerves - 5
 Coccygeal spinal nerve – 1
 Each spinal nerve is attached to the spinal cord by 2 roots
ventral motor and dorsal sensory nerve root. Each dorsal
nerve root has the ganglion. They ventral and dorsal nerve
roots unite in the intervertebral foramen to form the nerve
trunk which soon divides into ventral and dorsal rami. Below
the lower end of the spinal cord the nerve roots form the
bundle called as cauda equina which looks like tail of a horse.
Transverse section of the spinal cord with spinal nerve
formation –
SPINAL CORD
 Transverse section of the Spinal cord –
 The transverse section (‘H’ shaped) of the spinal cord shows
following features,
 Central canal
 Anterior median fissure
 Posterior medial sulcus
 Posterior median septum
 Posterolateral sulcus
 Grey commissure
 Grey matter (coloumn) as ventral (anterior), lateral and dorsal
(posterior)
 White matter (funiculus) as anterior, lateral and posterior
SPINAL CORD
 Internal structure of the Spinal cord –
 Internal structure of the spinal cord shows grey matter and
lamina. In the spinal cord grey matter lies inside and the white
matter lies outside which is opposite in the brain.
 Grey matter of the spinal cord shows the nucleus as,
 Posterior grey coloumn – Substantia gelitinosa, nucleus
proprius, dorsal nucleus and posteromarginal nucleus.
 Lateral grey coloumn – Intermediomedial and
intermediolateral nucleus.
 Anterior grey coloumn – Retrodrsolateral, dorsolateral,
ventrolateral, dorsomedial, ventromedial, accessory and
phrenic nucleus.
 Lamina is the layered arrangement of the spinal cord neurons.
This lamina of the spinal cord is arranged from number I to X.
Internal structure of the spinal cord
Tracts of the Spinal cord
Tracts of the Spinal cord
 Tract –
 Collection of nerve fibres within the central nervous system
that connects the 2 masses of the grey matter is called as
tracts. Tracts of the spinal cord are as follows,
 Descending tracts ending in the spinal cord –
 Corticospinal tract –
 This tract extends as, cerebral cortex --- corona radiata---
internal capsule --- crus cerebri --- ventral part of the pons ---
pyramid in medulla oblongata --- crossing over of the fibres
(pyramidal decussation) --- 80% fibres enters lateral funiculus
of the spinal cord --- forms lateral corticospinal tract in grey
matter of the spinal cord --- 20% fibres enters the anterior
funiculus of the spinal cord --- forms anterior corticospinal
tract --- responsible for voluntary movements.
Tracts of the Spinal cord
 Rubrospinal tract –
 Red nucleus of mid brain --- tegmentum of the midbrain -
-- crossing over the fibres as tegmental decussation ---
deseeds through the pons and the medulla oblongata ---
ends in the lateral funiculus of the spinal cord --- helps in
flexor movements of the body.
 Tectospinal tract –
 Neurons in superior colliculus of mid brain --- Dorsal
tegmental decussation --- Pons and medulla oblongata ---
Anterior funiculus of the spinal cord.
Tracts of the Spinal cord
 Vestibulospinal tract -
 Lateral vestibulospinal tract --- neurons in lateral vestibular nucleus -
-- lateral funiculus of the spinal cord.
 Medial vestibulospinal tract --- Inferior olivary nucleus in the
medulla oblongata --- anterior funiculus of the spinal cord ---
fascillatory for extensor muscles.
 Olivospinal tract –
 Inferior olivary nucleus of the medulla oblongata --- ventral horn
cells of the spinal cord.
 Reticulospinal tract –
 Medial reticulospinal tract --- fibres from the medial part of the
reticular formation of the pons and the medulla oblongata ---
Anterior funiculus of the spinal cord --- responsible for the
movements of the trunk and the limbs.
 Lateral reticulospinal tract ---fibres from the ventrolateral part of
the reticular formation --- lateral funiculus of the spinal cord.
Descending tracts of the Spinal cord
ending in the Brainstem
 Corticonuclear tract –
 Nuclei of various cranial nerves supply skeletal muscles
are equivalent to ventral horn cells of the spinal cord.
 Corticopontocerebellar tract –
 Fibres from the lobes of cerebral cortex --- internal
capsule --- crus cerebri
 --- pontine nuclei --- middle cerebellar peduncle ---
cerebellar tracts.
Ascending tracts ending in the Brain
 Spinocortical tract –
 Anterior and lateral funiculus of the spinal cord ---
medulla oblongata --- pons --- midbrain --- thalamus ---
internal capsule --- cerebral cortex.
 Spinorubral tract –
 Lateral funiculus of the spinal cord --- pons ---medulla
oblongata --- pons --- tegmentum of the mid brain --- red
nucleus of the mid brain.
 Spinotectal tract –
 Anterior funiculus of the spinal cord --- medulla
oblongata --- pons --- tegmentum of the mid brain ---
superior colliculus of the mid brain.
Ascending tracts ending in the Brain
 Spinovestibular tract –
 Anterior and lateral funiculus of the spinal cord --- lateral
and medial vestibular nucleus.
 Spinoolivary tract –
 Ventral horn cells of the spinal cord --- inferior olivary
nucleus of the medulla oblongata.
 Spinoreticular tract –
 Anterior and lateral funiculus of the spinal cord --- medial
and ventrolateral part of the reticular formation.
Ascending tracts ending in the Brainstem
and Cerebellum
 Fasciculus gracilis
 Fasciculus cuneatus
 Ventral Spinocerebellar tract
 Dorsal Spinocerebellar tract
 Lateral spinothalamic tract
 Ventral spinothalamic tract
 Blood supply of the spinal cord –
 Spinal cord is supplied by anterior and 2 posterior spinal arteries,
branches from the vertebral artery also from the redicular arteries
forming a structure called as arterial vasacorona.
 Venous drainage of the spinal cord forms another structure called as
venous vasacorona through 6 longitudinal venous channels as
unpaired anteromedian and posteromedian channels and paired
anterolateral and posterolateral venous channels.
Spinal Cord
 Clinical Anatomy -
 Syringomyelia – Dilation of the central canal of the spinal
cord usually begin in the cervical region.
 Poliomyelitis – It is a viral disease involving the anterior
horn cells leading to flaccid paralysis of the affected
segment.
Spinal Cord
 Upper motor neuron and lower motor neuron
comparision points

LMN Paralysis UMN Paralysis

Muscle tone abolished Muscle tone increased
Leads to flaccid paralysis Leads to spastic paralysis
Muscle atrophy later No atrophy of muscles
Reaction of degeneration seen Reaction of degeneration not
seen
Tendon reflexes absent Tendon reflexes exaggerated
Limited damage Extensive damage
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Definition –
 A part on the nervous system that innervates smooth
and cardiac muscles, glandular tissues and governs
involuntary actions like secretion, vasoconstriction,
peristalsis etc. which consist of parasympathetic and
sympathetic nervous system is called as autonomic
nervous system. It is also called as vegetative nervous
system. The word vegetative means state of severe
impairment in which only involuntary bodily actions are
sustained.
 Autonomic nervous system includes the nerves supplying
the viscera along with the parts of the brain and spinal
cord.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Sympathetic Nervous System –
 Sympathetic nervous system concern with preparing the
body to react to the situations of stress or emergencies
that contains mainly adrenergic fibres which tends to
depress secretion, decrease the tone and contractibility of
the smooth muscles, increase the heart rate and which
consist of preganglionic and postganglionic sympathetic
neurons is called as sympathetic nervous system. It also
includes afferent and efferent nerve fibres which are
secretomotor to sweat glands, influences the smooth
muscles, blood vessels dilation of the pupil etc.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Parasympathetic Nervous System –
 Parasympathetic nervous system contains chiefly
cholinergic fibres tends to induce the secretion, increase
the muscle tone and contractibility of the smooth
muscles, slows the heart rate and which consist of
preganglionic and postganglionic parasympathetic neurons
is called as parasympathetic nervous system. These nerve
fibres do the constriction of the pupil, produces
movements in the hollow organs and secretomotor the
all the glands except the sweat glands.
C.N.S. and A.N.S.
Sympathetic Nervous System
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Ganglion –
 It is the mass of nerve tissue containing the nerve cell.
The enlargement upon a nerve or 2 or more at their
point of junction or separation is called as ganglion.
 Chemical messengers in A.N.S. –
 The chemical messengers in the autonomic nervous
system are Acetylcholine, Adrenaline and nor- adrenaline.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Autonomic Nervous System includes -
 Areas controlling visceral functions located in cerebral hemispheres
(limbic region), hypothalamus, parts of the thalamus and the
 prefrontal cortex.
 Autonomic nerve centres in the brainstem located in the reticular
formation and in general visceral nuclei of the cranial nerves.
 Autonomic centres in the spinal cord located in the
intermediolateral grey coloumn.
 Sympathetic trunks are pair of ganglionated longitudinal cords of
sympathetic nervous system on either side of the vertebral coloumn
extending from the base of the skull to the coccyx. Each sympathetic
trunk bears number of enlargements placed along its length called as
sympathetic ganglion which are 22 or 23 on each trunk.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 These sympathetic ganglion are distributed as,
 Cervical region - 03
 Thoracic region – 11
 Lumbar region – 04
 Sacral region – 04
 The inferior cervical ganglion and the 1st thoracic ganglion
are often fused to form a large ganglion called as stellate
ganglion.
 Rami communicants are the connecting bridge like
structures between the spinal nerve and the sympathetic
trunk. There are 2 types of the rami communicants as
white and grey rami communicants.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
White Rami Communicants White Rami Communicants
Mylinated fibres Unmylinated fibres
Carries the fibres from the spinal Carries the fibres from the spinal
nerve to the sympathetic trunks nerve to the sympathetic trunks
Present only in thoracic and upper Present only in the cervical and
lumbar regions sacral regions
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Autonomic plexuses are formed by the visceral
branches of the sympathetic trunk and the
parasympathetic fibres from the vagus nerve or the pelvic
splanchnic nerves. These plexuses are,
 Thorax – Superficial and deep cardiac plexus.
 Abdomen – Coeliac plexus.
 Pelvis – Superior and inferior hypogastric plexuses.
 Gut – Myentric plexus.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 PRE AND POST GANGLIONIC NEURONS –
 Preganglionic neuron carries impulses from the central
nervous system to the sympathetic ganglion and post
ganglionic neuron carries the impulses from the sympathetic
ganglion to any muscle / gland / vessel / organ / target
structure.
 Sympathetic Preganglionic Neuron -
 Its course is as,
 Cell bodies located in the intermediolateral part of the spinal
cord (grey coloumn) in the thoracic and upper 2 or 3 lumbar
segments --- fibres from these neurons forms ---
thoracolumbar outflow.
 Axons --- sympathetic trunk --- end at cells of the ganglion or
in peripheral ganglion.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Sympathetic Postganglionic Neuron -
 This is located in ganglion on the sympathetic trunk and also in
the peripheral autonomic plexuses.
 Axons --- innervates the sweat glands or the cranial nerves or
the branches of the vessels or the visceral branches --- plexus
with blood vessels.
 Parasympathetic Preganglionic Neuron -
 1st group is located in the general visceral nuclei of the
brainstem --- axons forms cranial parasympathetic outflow ---
passes through 3rd, 7th, 9th, 10th cranial nerves --- end in
peripheral ganglion (Vagus nerve).
 2nd group located in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, sacral segments of the
spinal cord --- axons forms --- sacral parasympathetic outflow
--- axons leave the spinal nerve --- end in pelvic splanchnic
nerves.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Parasympathetic Postganglionic Neuron -
 Related to 3rd, 7th, 9th cranial nerves in cilliary,
submandibular and optic ganglion.
 Related to vagus nerve in thoracic and abdominal
plexuses.
 Related to sacral parasympathetic outflow in pelvic
autonomic plexuses.
Human Nervous System