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Earth’s Dynamic Processes – Semester Final
Notes
1. Rock Deformation
Definition:
Rock deformation refers to the change in shape, position, or volume of rocks due to stress (force
per unit area) applied by tectonic forces.
Types of Stress:
Compression – squeezes rocks together (at convergent boundaries)
Tension – pulls rocks apart (at divergent boundaries)
Shear – rocks slide past each other (at transform boundaries)
Types of Deformation:
1. Elastic deformation: temporary change; returns to original shape
2. Plastic deformation: permanent change without breaking
3. Fracture (brittle failure): rock breaks when stress exceeds its strength
Structures Caused by Deformation:
Folds (bends): Anticlines (upfolds), Synclines (downfolds)
Faults (breaks with movement): Normal, Reverse, and Strike-slip faults
2. Earthquakes
Definition:
An earthquake is the shaking of the ground caused by the sudden release of energy along a
fault.
Focus and Epicenter:
Focus: The actual location underground where the rupture begins
Epicenter: The point on the surface directly above the focus
Types of Seismic Waves:
1. P-waves (Primary): Fastest, compressional, travel through solids and liquids
2. S-waves (Secondary): Slower, shear waves, travel only through solids
3. Surface waves: Cause most damage; travel along Earth’s surface
Measuring Earthquakes:
Richter scale: Measures magnitude (energy released)
Mercalli scale: Measures intensity (effects on people/buildings)
3. The Earth's Interior
Understanding Earth’s interior comes mostly from seismic wave studies and volcanic activity.
Layers Based on Composition:
Crust – outermost; solid; oceanic (basalt) and continental (granite)
Mantle – solid but flows slowly (plasticity); rich in silicate minerals
Core – inner (solid iron) and outer (liquid iron/nickel); generates magnetic field
Layers Based on Physical Properties:
Lithosphere – rigid crust + uppermost mantle; broken into tectonic plates
Asthenosphere – semi-fluid layer beneath lithosphere; allows plate motion
Mesosphere – solid lower mantle
Outer Core – liquid metal
Inner Core – solid metal
4. Plate Tectonics
Definition:
Plate tectonics is the theory that the Earth’s lithosphere is broken into plates that move over the
asthenosphere.
Causes of Plate Motion:
Mantle convection: hot mantle rises, cool mantle sinks
Slab pull: cold, dense plates sink into the mantle at subduction zones
Ridge push: plates slide down the slope formed at mid-ocean ridges
Tectonic Plates Examples:
African Plate, Eurasian Plate, Pacific Plate, North American Plate, etc.
5. Historical Development of Continental Drift and Plate
Tectonics
Continental Drift (Alfred Wegener, 1912):
Proposed that continents were once joined in a supercontinent called Pangaea
Evidence:
o Matching coastlines (e.g., South America and Africa)
o Fossil correlation (same species on different continents)
o Similar rock formations and glacial evidence
➡ Limitation: Couldn’t explain how continents moved.
Plate Tectonics Theory (1960s):
Combined ideas from continental drift, seafloor spreading, and earthquake/volcano
data
Proposed that plates move on the asthenosphere
Supported by:
o Discovery of mid-ocean ridges
o Paleomagnetic reversals on ocean floor
o Age of oceanic crust (younger near ridges)
6. Plate Boundaries
Tectonic activity (earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building) mostly happens at plate
boundaries.
Three Types of Boundaries:
1. Divergent Boundaries
Plates move apart
Occurs at mid-ocean ridges
Creates new oceanic crust
Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge
2. Convergent Boundaries
Plates collide
o Oceanic-Continental: subduction zone, volcanic arcs (e.g., Andes)
o Oceanic-Oceanic: subduction, island arcs (e.g., Japan)
o Continental-Continental: mountain ranges (e.g., Himalayas)
3. Transform Boundaries
Plates slide past each other
No crust created or destroyed
Causes shallow earthquakes
Example: San Andreas Fault (California)
✅ Quick Summary Table
Topic Key Point
Rock Deformation Folds, Faults, Types of Stress
Earthquakes Focus, Epicenter, Seismic Waves
Earth’s Interior Crust, Mantle, Core; Lithosphere vs Asthenosphere
Plate Tectonics Plate motion due to convection, ridge push, slab pull
Continental Drift Wegener’s evidence for Pangaea
Plate Boundaries Divergent, Convergent, Transform
Would you like a labeled diagram of:
Earth's interior?
Types of faults and folds?
Plate boundaries with real-world examples?
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