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Plate tectonics is a theory that attempts to explain the structure of the Earth’s crust, including
the distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, fold mountains and rift valleys. It is mainly based
on Alfred Wegner’s theory of continental drift and Harry Hesse’s theory of sea-floor
spreading.

Layers of the Earth

The Earth consists of 4 main layers: crust, mantle, outer core and inner core. The layer
between the crust and mantle is known as the lithosphere.
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The crust

The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth, between 0 and 70 km thick. It floats on the
semi-molten upper mantle and consists of multiple oceanic and continental plates.

The mantle

The mantle amounts for 84% of the Earth’s volume and 67% of its mass. It is approximately
2,900 km thick and can be divided into two layers: the asthenosphere (upper mantle) and the
lower mantle.

The outer core

The outer core is around 2200 km thick and consists of slow-moving metals that create the
Earth’s magnetic field. The transition between the inner core and outer core lies at around
5100 km below the Earth’s surface.

The inner core

The inner core is a solid mass of metal that is up to 6378 km below the surface and reaches
temperatures of over 5000°C.

Theory of plate tectonics and mechanism of plate movement

Convection currents are indicated in red, black arrows show plate movement
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The crust is divided into several lithospheric plates, or rigid slabs of rock, that float on the
asthenosphere.

But this not a constant process. Magma from the mantle rises to create mid-oceanic ridges and
then moves apart, where other parts of the crust are destroyed by subduction (they re-enter the
mantle) to reduce the pressure from the newly formed crust.

The circulation of magma and movement of plates is caused by convection currents that arise
from temperature differences due to radioactivity and the residual heat of the Earth.

Alfred Wegner on Continental Drift (the forerunner of plate tectonics theory)

(NOT EXPLICITLY REQUIRED BY THE SYLLABUS)

Alfred Wegner suggested in 1912 that “around 300 million years ago all continents were
joined together by a single supercontinent called Pangea, surrounded by an ocean called
Panthallassa. These continents have since drifted apart from one another.”

He suggested various pieces of evidence of continental drifting.

 The Jig-Saw Puzzle: The borders of continents seem to compliment each other, eg.
South America and Africa.

 Fossil remains: Spores of ferns have been founds on all southern continents, but they
can not have crossed a wide ocean. Same is true for fossil evidence of many land species.
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 Rock sequences and geological structures were found to be similar on multiple

continents.

 Oil and coal has been found on Antarctica, meaning that the continent was once
located in a different climatic zone, with active plant growth.

Types of plate boundaries

A plate boundary is the border between two or more tectonic plates. There are different types
of plate boundary, depending on the direction in which the plates are moving and whether the
plates are continental or oceanic. The main types of plate boundary are: constructive,
destructive and transform.

Distribution of tectonic plates

The map shows the major tectonic plates and their direction of movement.

Convergent (destructive) plate margins

Oceanic and continental plates may meet in one of three ways:
 oceanic-continental
 oceanic-oceanic
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 continental-continental.
Oceanic-continental
Where oceanic and continental plates meet the oceanic crust sinks, or subducts, below the less
dense and lighter continental crust. Subduction leads to the formation of an ocean trench.
These trenches can be up to 11,000m deep. They mark the point where the oceanic plate
enters the asthenosphere. As it does this the continental crust buckles forming the trench.
As an oceanic plate converges on a continental plate the sedimentary rock formed on top of
the ocean crust folds upwards along the leading edge of the continental plate. The oceanic
plate is subducted under the continental plate (or oceanic plate), as it is more dense.

This often leads to the formation of volcanoes at destructive plate boundaries, as friction and
heating cause the oceanic plate to melt and pressure builds up beneath the crust. This pressure
is eventually released when magma rises through lines of weakness in the crust. Lava then
solidifies to create a volcano.

When violent eruptions occur over an extended period of time, islands may form between
oceanic plates, eventually giving rise to island arcs.

Also, subduction causes the seafloor and outermost crust (the lithosphere) to bend and form a
steep, V-shaped depression.

Oceanic-oceanic

Where two oceanic plates converge the denser crust subducts the other. This creates a trench.
As the oceanic plate descends it melts, and the magma rises forming a volcanic island chain,
known as an island arc. The north-west Pacific Ring of Fire has a series of island arcs
including the Aleutian Islands.
Continental-continental
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Where two continental plates meet there is typically no subduction. A collisional plate
boundary is formed when two continental plates collide (eg. Eurasian and Indian plate).

Fold mountains form along collisional boundaries as continental plates move towards each
other and exert pressure on each other. No subduction occurs as rocks are of the same density.
Instead, the crust becomes crumpled into a series of folds and the layers of crust are uplifted.

For example, the Himalaya’s were formed at the margin of the Eurasian and Indian plates,
which are converging due to mantle convection currents. As neither plate was more dense, no
subduction occurred and pressure built up. This forced the plates to fold upwards and form an
area of fold mountains known as the Himalaya’s. (Prior to their collision, the two land masses
were separated by the Tethys sea.)

þingvellir, Iceland – where the North American and Eurasian plate separate
Conservative plate margins
At conservative plate margins, tectonic plates slide past each other. There is no volcanic
activity associated with conservative plates, though earthquakes can often occur. This is
because plates do not pass each other smoothly; friction causes resistance. As pressure builds
the crust can fracture releasing energy as earthquakes.

A conservative plate margin

It is possible to see the boundary between plates along a conservative margin. An example of
this is the San Andreas fault in California. This is where the North American and Pacific
plates slide past each other.
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Constructive (divergent) plate boundary

A constructive boundary is formed when two plates are moving apart, creating gaps in the
Earth’s crust and thereby allowing magma to surface and form new crust. They are called
constructive since new crust is born. More than often, magma bursts through the crust, giving
rise to volcanoes as the lava cools.

Many constructive plate boundaries are mid-oceanic ridges, eg. the fault line between the
Eurasian and North American plates.

Rift Zones
Rift zones also occur on land and help explain how continents break up. The continental crust
must be thin for rifting to happen. One of the best examples is Iceland’s rift valley, þingvellir.
This is where the North American Plate and the Eurasian plate are separating. A graben or
sunken valley has been formed where the crust has been stretched, causing faulting.
In the rare case that continental plates diverge, land is pulled apart and forms a rift valley. The
most famous rift valley is East African rift system, where the African plate is splitting into
the Somalian plate and the Nubian Plate. These plates are moving away from each other, so
Africa will be divided into two land masses. Between them, a new oceanic curst will form as
magma from the mantle will surface to fill any possible gap between the two plates.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are sudden, violent vibrations of the Earth’s crust produced by the shock waves
(from displacement along a fault).

The point in the Earth where an earthquake originates is called the focus. The epicentre is the
point on the Earth’s surface vertically above an earthquake. The epicentre is usually the
location where the greatest damage associated with an earthquake occurs.

Why people choose to live in earthquake-prone areas

People may live near fault lines where earthquakes occur, as severe earthquakes are very
infrequent. Earthquake monitoring systems and earthquake resistant infrastructure may
convey a false sense of security. Also, earthquake-prone areas may have good economic
opportunities, eg. California. Additionally, local communities may have bonded to the soil
due to family tradition, culture or religion. Furthermore, people may be forced to live near
earthquakes, due to population pressure and poverty (they can not afford to live elsewhere).
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Impacts of earthquake

 Deaths/injuries

 Collapse of buildings and homelessness

 Flash flooding

 Electricity supply disrupted

 Gas pipeline fractured/fires break out;

 Roads blocked/destroyed
Factors affecting the intensity of earthquakes

 The depth and magnitude (energy released)

 The duration and time of the earthquake

 The local geology (rock structure)

 The location of the epicentre (in a rural or urban area)

 The building standards (eg. earthquake prone housing or low quality materials)

 The awareness and education of residents regarding evacuation and emergency

services

 Secondary hazards

Earthquake monitoring
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Earthquakes are being monitored to predict further seisomological activity (movement in the
ground caused by earthquake vibrations) and reduce the impacts of tectonic hazards.

A seismograph and seismometer are used to measure the magnitude of an earthquake. This is
displayed in the form of the Richer Scale, a logarithmic scale that records the energy released
by movement in the ground. The Richter Scale goes from 0 to infinity, however, most
earthquakes are between 0 and 9.

The following website shows all current earthquakes with a magnitude of more than
2.5: Earthquakes US Government Map

Another important scale is the Mercalli scale, which is used to depict the impacts of an
earthquake. The Mercalli scale classifies earthquakes from 1 to 12, depending on the damage
caused. An earthquake intensity of 1 would be measurable only using instruments, an
intensity of 6 would cause trees to sway and create slight damage. An intensity of 12 would
result in total destruction.

LEDC’s vs. MEDC’s

Earthquakes tend to have much more devastating impacts in LEDC’s than in MEDC’s, as
LEDC’s often have poor quality housing which easily collapses, especially if building
regulations are not enforced. Also, medical infrastructure is of a comparatively low standard,
so people can not be treated for their injuries. Furthermore, LEDC’s often lack emergency
systems and may not be educated regarding precautions. Additionally, LEDC’s may not have
sufficient money for rebuilding and may have to rely on international aid, which could be
delayed by poor transport and communications such as destroyed airports. Common problems
in LEDC’s such as lack of food, poor water, and sanitation may be worsened by an
earthquake.

Earthquake proof buildings

People have invested into buildings that are more resistant to earthquakes to minimise the
damage by these hazards, especially in areas where they occur on a regular basis.

Some common techniques include:

 using hollow concrete blocks

 using shatterproof glass

 making foundations of stone

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 using springs

 constructing a reinforced concrete roof and reinforced steel corner pillars

Volcanoes

Volcanoes may be active, dormant or extinct.

 Active volcanoes are expected to erupt soon or are erupting already. eg. Kilauea on
Hawaii which has been erupting since 1983. Currently, around 1500 volcanoes are
considered active.

 A dormant volcano is not currently active or erupting, but geologists think that it will
erupt in future. eg. Yellowstone caldera

 An extinct volcano is a volcano that is considered dead, meaning it should not erupt
again, usually because it has no lava supply. eg. Kilimanjaro in Tanzania
Stratovolcano or shield volcano

There are two main types of volcano. Stratovolcanoes have steep sides and viscuous lava and
pyroclastic materials. They are explosive with dormant phases and form along destructive
margins involving an oceanic plate. Composite volcanoes (stratovolcanoes) have a steep
slope. Shield volcanoes have a more gentle profile and are found along constructive
boundaries and at hotspots, where they erupt continuously, but not violently. They release
non-viscous lava.

Characteristics of volcanoes

All volcanoes share a few common features. A volcano receives a supply of magma from the
magma chamber (beneath the volcano). During an eruption, magma rises from the magma
chamber through the main vent, where it is ejected into the atmosphere. The top of a volcano
is known as a crater, because of the depression in the ground from an eruption.

Why people (choose to) live near volcanoes

People may choose to live near volcanoes, as volcanic ash often provides fertile soils for
farming (cultivation of crops). Furthermore, volcanic soils are often rich in resources, such as
sulfur, and thus allow for employment in mineral intensive industries. Volcanoes are also a
popular tourist destination, and therefore provide job opportunities is tourist-related
industries. Besides, volcanic areas are often rich in geothermal energy, and thereby meet the
energy needs of nearby settlements. Additionally, local communities may have bonded to the
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soil due to family tradition or they may rely on eruption prediction techniques, such as
seismology. In these cases, benefits of living near a volcano would seem to outweigh the
risks.

However, people may be forced to live in close proximity to volcanoes, as they can not afford
to move elsewhere or the country/area they live in is severely overpopulated.

Impacts of volcanoes

 Deaths/injuries due to burning from the pyroclastic flow and suffocation from toxic
fumes

 Disruption of transport facilities (eg. roads) and infrastructure due to falling

debris and lava bombs

 Crops destroyed by ash

 Ash cloud reduce visibility and block air traffic

 Ice caps may melt and trigger flash floods due to intense heat

 etc.
Further information:

Case Studies on Eyjafjallajökull (volcano in Iceland) and Haiti earthquake 2010

Eyjafjallajökull is a stratovolcano in Iceland, located approximately 125 km SE of the capital

Reykjavik. It is found along the Mid-Atlantic ridge, where new earth crust is created.
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Lava eruptions in March 2010 were followed by an explosive eruption on April 14th
2010.The lava flows damaged many homes and roads and services were disrupted due to
evacuation measures.

Flooding was caused as glacial ice melted and torrents of water were flowing down the slopes
of the land. Also, ash covered large plots of agricultural land, damaging the crops.

The massive ash cloud blocked air traffic in large parts of Europe for several days, leaving
tourists and business people stranded at their destinations.

Immediate responses included an emergency evacuation of more than 800 people. Longterm
responses are the reconstruction of damages houses and roads and research on the effect of
ash on air planes.

Earthquake: Haiti, 2010

On the 12th of January 2010 a 7.0 magnitude earthquake struck Haiti, the epicentre of the
quake being merely 15 km SW of the capital city, Port-au-Prince.

Stress building up along the conservative margin between the North American Plate and the
Carribean plate was released by slippage along the fault running parallel to the plate boundary
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south of Port-au-Prince. The major earthquake was followed by several aftershocks up to a

magnitude of 5.0 on the Richter scale.

The earthquake resulted in approximately 230,000 deaths (massive loss of life), destruction of
180,000 homes and around 5,000 schools. It left 19 million cubic metres of debris in
Port-au-Prince and many services were badly disrupted or destroyed. A major secondary
effect was widespread chlora due to polluted drinking water.

Haiti suffered so much because of the widespread poverty that left more than 80% of the
population in poorly constructed, high density concrete buildings. Lack of stable goverment
and medical infrastructure limited search and rescue efforts. Furthermore, the earthquake had
a shallow focus, resulting in severe ground shaking, and the epicentre was located close to the
densely populated capital.

Short-term responses to the earthquake included search and rescue efforts, as well as the the
import of food, water and shelter from the USA and Dominican Republic. Longterm
responses included reparation of three-quaters of the damaged buildings. Besides, migration
was common as people moved away to stay with their families. Also, people received cash or
food in exchange for public reconstruction work and the World Bank pledged $US100m to
support the reconstruction and recover

CASE STUDY-Turkey-Syria Earthquake 2023 FEBRUARY

At 4:17 am local time on February 6, 2023, a 7.8 magnitude earthquake struck 23 miles
northwest of Gaziantep, Turkey, with tremors felt as far away as Lebanon and Israel. Less
than 15 minutes later, a series of 60 aftershocks began, with the strongest equaling 7.5 on the
magnitude scale occurring at 1:24 pm local time, just nine hours after the first earthquake
began. This powerful aftershock struck 50 miles north of the epicenter of the earlier
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earthquake.
Hundreds of aftershocks were reported following the initial twin earthquakes, including
significant quakes near Goksun, Golbasi, Adiyaman province, and Matalya provinces. After
visiting the impacted areas, Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan declared a three-month
state of emergency for ten provinces in the southeastern region of Turkey.

Impacts of the Eartquake.

The earthquakes caused power outages, leveled buildings, and substantially damaged
roadways and bridges.A significant winter storm in the west and northwest of the country
exacerbated the deteriorating situation, creating travel disruptions and hampering relief efforts.
Weather-related landslides created road closures, and a significant fire in the strategically
important port of Iskenderun in Hatay province resulted in a complete halt in operations, with
all scheduled shipments being diverted to other ports. Hatay Airport closed due to severe
structural damage, and Gaziantep International Airport, Kahramanmaras Airport, and
Sanliurfa GAP Airport are only open to flights carrying humanitarian aid. Significant
disruptions to essential water supplies, fuel, and electricity supplies are ongoing. Additionally,
the communications infrastructure was severely impacted, impeding contact with people on
the ground.As of February 10, 2023, media sources report over 22,000 deaths and tens of
thousands of injuries across Turkey and Syria. The number of fatalities is expected to rise as
rescue efforts continue among the rubble of cities, towns, and provinces in both countries.

Response to the Earthquake

Crisis24 risk intelligence analysts issued critical alerts within moments of the initial
earthquake and continued to monitor the situation, updating clients with new details as the
condition worsened.

The multidisciplinary intelligence team included geopolitical, health and medical,

environment, and maritime experts – all coordinating with our crisis response teams to
provide detailed updates of the on-the-ground situation so they could proactively reach out to
clients with personnel in the zone of impact.
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Incident Management -Upon confirmation of personnel in the area of impact, Crisis24 stood
up an incident management team comprised of intelligence analysts, crisis response experts,
medical experts, executive protection detail, security staff, and other first responders. The
team immediately initiated our critical outreach process built on industry-proven standards.
Utilizing components of our proprietary risk management platform, the team identified
potentially affected personnel through Critical Monitor, confirmed their well-being through
Critical Outreach, and initiated direct contact with people via Communicator, our two-way
notification tool. With multiple communication channels available, including in-app push
notifications, SMS, email, and text-to-voice, the chances of reaching people increased.
Crisis24’s dedicated hotline response coordinators reviewed client crisis response protocols to
determine appropriate courses of action.

Crisis Response -As mass-casualty reports were confirmed and the operating infrastructure
collapsed, our crisis response team initiated a controlled and structured response strategy,
identifying potential security and medical scenarios that could develop, including evacuation
and shelter-in-place options. Initial assessments included evacuation and route planning,
medical supplies audits and infrastructure review, and the availability of medical staff,
medicine, food, water, and other necessities.

Medical Assessments-Detailed assessments were conducted to ascertain the impact on

hospitals and medical facilities, medical transportation services, availability of air ambulance
services, and airport/airfield conditions and capabilities. The medical response team
developed a medical triage plan with first responders, factoring in types of injuries, the
on-the-ground operating environment, availability of medical personnel, and options to stand
up a temporary medical facility.