METEOROLOGY (Management Level)

Chief Mate-FG (Phase-1)

Notes by: Anupam Singh Rajput
For more notes visit the website
marineredition.com
: mailto:smart@marineredition.com
: SMART MARINER (Click to subscribe)
Q NO 1
• Tide Calculations for Standard and Secondary
Ports (including shorter method of SHM)

Q NO 2
• Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS)

Q NO 3
• Climatology/ Frontal / Non Frontal depressions

Q NO 4
• Ice/ Atmosphere

Q NO 5
• Ocean Currents/ Waves

Q NO 6
• Weather Forecasting/ Weather
Routeing
DISCLAIMER:
The vision and mission of SMART MARINER EDITION to guide all the mates to prepare for their competency
examination. The intention is to provide a short, meaningful, easy understandable answers of all the questions which
may be asked in the written/oral examinations.

For anyone appearing for examination, a good understanding of how the questions are asked & how we have to
answer them smartly is invaluable. For this a good guide is essential.

At Mariner Edition we strongly believe that one should get all the guides, study material & answer for their doubts at
one place.

The study material of Mariner edition brings in large element of theoretical knowledge & also the understanding of
application of the knowledge on-board ship.

This website provides you information on the various subjects & topics. In case you require further information please
feel free to contact me anytime. Contact details are given under CONTACT US icon on our website
https://marineredition.com/

It is intended solely for use by the individual for preparation of exams. You are hereby notified that any disclosure,
copying, distribution or taking action in relation of the contents of this information is strictly prohibited and may be
unlawful.

To find out more, visit our website.

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA

FIRST MATE OF A FOREIGN GOING SHIP (PHASE - I)

FUNCTION: NAVIGATION (Management Level)

PAPER: METEOROLOGY

TIME: 2 HOURS PASS MARKS: 50 MAX.MARKS: 100

NOTES:
1. Question No.1 is compulsory.
2. Attempt any FOUR questions from the remaining 5 Questions.
3. All questions carry equal marks i.e. 20 marks each.
4. Use Admiralty Tide Tables 1992 Edition (ATT 1992).
Q.1. Tide calculations for Standard Port and Secondary Port (including shorter method of harmonic method)
1. Calculate by SHM Shorter method the HOT at Port Adeliade (Outer Harbour) on 20th February 1992 at 0930
Hours LT. (Ans: 1.096 mtr)
2. Calculate by SHM Shorter method the HOT at MASQAT on 10th April 1992 at 0600 Hours LT. (Ans: 1.28 mtr)
3. Calculate the HOT at Sultanpur (No. 4344, ATT-2) at 0900 Hours Local Time on 19th April 1992 by SHM
Method.
4. Find the HOT at Cape Town Harbour on 6th March 1992 at 0830 Hrs by SHM method.
5. Find the HOT at DERBY (ATT No 6278, ATT-III) on 4th Feb 1992 at 1330 Hrs by SHM method.
6. Using the Harmonic Constant method find the Height of Tide at 0430 Hours on 2nd Jan 1992 at VLISSINGEN
(FLUSHING).
7. Find the Height of Tide at 1330 hours on 14/02/1992 at 1330 Hours at Sunday Island.
8. Find the Height of Tide at Bhavnagar (#4346) on 9th Feb 1992 at 1200 hrs by SHM Method.
9. Find the HOT at Cape Town (ATT Vol 2- #3782) on 12th Jan 1992 at 0600 Hrs
10. Find the HOT at Cape Town (ATT Vol 2- #3782) on 19th March 1992 at 1430 Hrs using SHM Method of Tidal
prediction.
11. By using SHM Method, find the HOT at Woods Hole (#2790) on 10th March 1992, at 1730 Hours LT
12. Calculate by SHM method, the HOT at Good’s Island (ATT-3) on 20th January 1992 at 1300 Hrs LT.
13. Calculate the HOT by Harmonic Constant method for the port of Mumbai, Apollo Bandar at 0630 hours GMT
on 15th January 1992 (Use Shorter Method)
14. Find the HOT by SHM method at 0518 hrs LT on 23rd April 1992 at HONGKONG, Port No, 7110 (ATT Vol-III)
15. Using Simplified Harmonic Constant Method, find HOT at Hoek Van Holland (No. 1505, ATT Vol-1) at 0800
hours on 13th March 1992.
16. Find the HOT for Coconut Island (#5807) at 2030 hours on 26th February, using shorter method of SHM Tide
calculation.
Q.2. Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS)
1) State the conditions favourable for the formation of a Tropical Revolving Storm. (19 times)
(OR),
State the factor affecting movement of TRS? (4 times)

2) What are the warning signs of an approaching Tropical Revolving Storm and the weather associated with it. (12 times)
(OR),
What type of weather is associated with ‘EYE’ and ‘EYE WALL’ of a TRS

3) With respect to a TRS explain: i) Tropical depression ii) Track iii) Path iv) Trough v) Vertex vi) Dangerous Semi Circle
vii) Navigable semi-circle viii) Dangerous Quadrant +1 ix) Navigable quadrant x) Vertical wind shear xi) Characteristic
and Alternate path

4) What is TRS? With suitable sketch describe its structure, formation, development and decay. (3 times)
(OR),
With suitable diagram, Explain the structure of TRS? (4 times)
(OR),
Draw a cross section of TRS showing areas of cloud and precipitations (2 times)
(OR),
Explain well developed TRS structure with diagrams.

5) Explain with a suitable sketch the movement of a tropical revolving storm in the Northern and Southern
Hemisphere. (4 times)
(OR),
Explain with the help of suitable sketches the most probable path of a cyclone in the North and South Hemisphere (2 times)
(OR),
Describe with a neat sketch, typical path of a TRS in Southern hemisphere. Why does TRS not always follow such a
track? (4 times)

6) Draw the isobaric pattern of a well-developed TRS. (2 times)

7) Give the names of the TRS in different parts of the world. (3 times)
(OR),
List the areas where tropical storms frequently occur and their approximate yearly frequency together with local
names. Mention against each areas the period of the year when TRS generally develop. Which are the regions in the
world free of tropical storms and why?

8) Avoiding actions in NH:

a) With the diagram, explain avoiding action for TRS in Northern Hemisphere (7 times)
(OR),
Explain the actions to be taken by own vessel in the dangerous quadrant of a TRS in Northern Hemisphere (4 times)
(OR),
Describe the avoiding action in northern hemisphere for a ship in (i)in dangerous semicircle +1 (ii)Navigable semicircle
(OR),
Avoiding action to be taken if you are in the right hand semi-circle of a TRS in Northern Hemisphere.

b) Explain your actions in avoiding a TRS in Northern Hemisphere when it is near the point of re-curvature with the
help of safety sector method.
(OR),
Your ship is bound from Norway to Miami (Florida) in the month of October. You are receiving storm warning giving
you the position of eye of TRS every 6 hourly. How would you avoid the influence of TRS by the use of “Safety Sector Method”?
(OR),
If you were receiving weather reports giving position of centre of TRS with its movement, how will you keep your vessel safe?
If know the position of storm’s centre, Use Safety Sector Method
9) Avoiding actions in SH:
State your actions to avoid getting closer to the eye of TRS if you were in Southern Hemisphere. (5 times)
(OR),
Describe the practical rules for avoiding eye of a TRS in the southern hemisphere. Support your answer with neat
sketches. (4 times)
(OR),
Explain the evasive actions to be taken by own vessel in the path of a TRS in Southern Hemisphere.
(OR),
What action to be taken if vessel in southern hemisphere is in the path of the storm and presently experiencing
winds BF scale 5. Assume navigable waters all around.
(OR),
What action to be taken if vessel is inside navigable quadrant in the southern hemisphere

Other Avoiding actions:

b) Action to be taken when the approach of TRS is confirmed. (2 times)
Write joint answer from 8 & 9

b) If the position of your ship is in the dangerous semicircle of a TRS what action you would take to keep your vessel
safe. (2 times)
Write joint answer from 8 & 9

b) With respect to Tropical Resolving Storm (TRS) explain the following: You are bound from Amsterdam to the West
Indies and you receive weather bulletin and visual warning of hurricane moving N.E., and that its centre will pass over
or near your position. State what action you would take, giving your reasons.
Write answer from 8: Avoiding action in NH

b) While heading N.E. in the North Atlantic (Latitude 10° N) at 10 knots, you receive information that a tropical storms
in the vicinity is travelling at 15 knots, wind variable moderate SW’ly swell. What action would you take? (2 times)
Write answer from 8: Avoiding action in NH

10)a) What are the causes for curving and re-curving of TRS? (2 times)

b) Why does a TRS re-curve and what is the importance of cyclostrophic wind in TRS?

c) Why does the speed of TRS increase after re-curving? (2 times)

11) State the regulation given in SOLAS regarding reporting a TRS & list the information which must be included in
such a report. (4 times)
(OR),
Describe the messages required to be sent as per SOLAS. (2 times)
12) Describe the following in respect to Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS):

a) Why ITCZ cannot be termed as an Equatorial Front or Inter-tropical front. (3 times)

b) What is the reason for fewer occurrences of T.R.S. formation in South Atlantic and eastern part of South Pacific?

c) Why do TRS usually form on the Western extremities of the ocean?

Q.3) Climatology/ Frontal / Non Frontal depressions

1) Write short notes on following: a) Depletion of ozone layer and its impact on environment b) Frontolysis and its
significance to the mariner. (9 times)

2) What are the causes and effects of Global Warming? How it is affecting the change in the weather? (7 times)
(OR),
Describe the effect of accumulation of greenhouse gas in the atmosphere

3) Describe the characteristics and weather associated with various types of clouds? (3 times)
(OR),
Describe the characteristic and weather associated with the following types of clouds: i) Altocumulus ii)
Nimbostratus iii) Cumulonimbus (5 times)

4) Describe the weather associated with the passage of warm front and Occluded front. (4 times)
(AND),
Describe the sequence of clouds and weather at cold & Warm front (3 times)
(OR),
Explain the sequence of weather when a cold front passes over an observer in the Northern Hemisphere.

5) Explain the term “air mass” and “front”. With suitable sketches, explain the life cycle of a frontal depression. (3 times)

6) Explain why ITCZ cannot be termed as an Equatorial front or an Inter-tropical front.

7) Make plan and cross sectional sketches of a typical frontal depression in the Southern hemisphere, showing the
probable path, fronts, isobars with pressures, wind directions & forces and clouds.

8) Describe in detail the probable sequence of weather that would be experienced during the passage of the warm
(or), cold front by an observer to the north (or), south of this depression. (2 times)

9) Explain in detail weather sequence on-board a vessel in Southern Hemisphere as it passes north of a SE moving
frontal depression a) On passing the warm front b) Within warm air mass c) On passing the cold front Illustrate your
answer with a neat sketch

10.a) ‘Frontal Depressions are encountered in a row’. Justify your answer with the help of suitable sketches (4 times)
b) How is a frontal depression formed?
c) Sketch and describe isobars and wind circulation in a frontal depression. (2 times)
d) Describe in stages the formation of ‘non-frontal’ depression+2

11) Explain the process of frontogenesis.

12) What is an air mass? How are air masses classified? b) What will be the effect on weather when an air mass
situation over North America moves towards the Atlantic Ocean in summer and winter. (3 times)

13) Describe the characteristics of a region acting as the source region for an Air Mass

14) Define adiabatic changes & environmental lapse rate. Describe how lapse rate and condensation level determine
the formation of different types of clouds. (2 times)

15) What is adiabatic and isothermal changes and it’s significance to weather?

16) Describe the effects of temperature changes over land and sea? (3 times)

17) Explain the importance of humidity, temperature and wind shear on atmosphere equilibrium

18) Explain Buy’s Ballots Law, Veering and Backing.

19) Describe the characteristics and location of Trade Winds.

20) With suitable diagram, Describe the local winds for the Mediterranean Sea
21) Why is it that in some ocean there are Trade winds and in others in the same Latitudes there are monsoons (2 times)

23) Write short notes on: (a) Geostrophic Winds (8 times) (b) Cyclostrophic wind (c) Absolute Instability of Air (3 times)
(d) Refraction of Sea Waves. (e) Warm & Cold Front (3 times) (f) Occluded Front

24) Write short notes on: i) Air mass types ii) Types of clouds associated with warm front of a TLD iii) Global warming.

25) Write short notes (Any Five) (i) Col. (ii) Semi-diurnal Variation of Atmospheric Pressure (iii) Advection Fog (iv)
Thunderstorm (v) Fohn Wind Effect (vi) Families of Depression (2 times)

26) Write notes on following: a) Coriolis Force (5 times) b) ITCZ c) Pressure Gradient (4 times)

27) Write short notes on: i) Wave nomogram ii) Wave refraction iii) Occlusion

28) Write short notes on: i) Synoptic charts ii) Prognostic charts

FOG

29) Define surface analysis and prognosis charts. Explain how you would use these charts for: i) Determination of
surface winds ii) Forecasting the movements of fronts iii) Forecasting of sea fog. (8 times)

30) What are the causes of sea fog? State the localities in which it is most frequent. (2 times)

31) List the area and seasons in which sea fog is to be expected. Explain how the occurrence of sea for can be
predicted on board ship (3 times)
32) Write notes on: a) List different types of FOG. b) Explain why there is persistent fog off the Grand banks of Newfoundland.

33) Explain how advection fog and radiation fog are formed. Which one does not form over the sea and why?

Q.4) Ice/ Atmosphere

1) Explain the purpose, duties and responsibilities of International Ice Patrol? (7 times)
(OR),
Describe the function of International Ice Patrol. (7 times)

2.a) Explain the formation of sea ice (5 times)

(OR),
Explain with block diagram the various stages in the development of sea ice. (2 times)
(OR),
Explain with help of a suitable diagram the sequential formation of sea ice. (2 times)

b) Describe the factors on which the movement of sea ice is dependent upon. (2 times)

c) State the limitations of radar as a means of detecting ice. (2 times)

d) Explain the precautions to be taken when navigating in or near an area affected by sea ice. (3 times)

e) Describe the signs which may indicate proximity of ice on clear days and nights
(OR),
Explain signs of approaching Ice bergs and actions will you take on seeing these signs.

3) What do you understand by Fast Ice & Pack Ice? Explain with help of a sketch the different manners in which river
water (fresh water) and sea water (salt water) freeze as air temperature falls. (6 times)

4.a) What is an iceberg and how it forms?

b) Write down different types of icebergs found at sea

c) Explain the formation of icebergs from floating glaciers, ice shelf and characteristics of each.
(OR),
Define an iceberg. Describe the icebergs of Arctic and Antartic
5) Describe the Ice bergs of Arctic region and usual path they take. Describe the life span of Arctic region Icebergs (5 times)

6) Discuss with the aid of suitable sketches the normal season and probable movement of North Atlantic Icebergs from
birth/origin to decay. (8 times)
(OR),
How do icebergs of the northern hemisphere form and decay? (2 times)

7) How is sea ice different from icebergs?

8.a) Describe the factors which may give rise to ice accretion and methods of reducing ice accretion. (8 times)
(OR),
Describe the accretion of Ice and what precaution are required to be taken to avoid ice accretion on-board?
(OR),
What is ice accretion? What are the conditions when this can occur on board? (2 times)
(OR),
Explain the three mechanisms of ice accretion on board a ship.

b) What are the duties of Master when such conditions are encountered at sea? (2 times)

9.a) What do you understand by “Ice Accumulation”? (2 times)

b) What precautions would you take to minimize ice accumulation on board? (3 times)

10) Hazards associated with ice accretion and ice accumulation (2 times)

11) Explain the phenomenon of freezing spray and actions to be taken to minimize its effects

Ques) Briefly explain the formation of sea ice, icebergs in higher latitudes in Northern Waters? (3 times)
Write joint answers from Ques 2.a & 4.a

12) Information given in ice charts

13) What all details are promulgated in the ice report?

(OR),
What report you will file on encountering ice at Sea.

14) Write down the obligation of Ship’s Master for reporting dangerous ice

ATMOSPHERE
1) Describe in detail (with the help of a neat sketch) the conditions and values of lapse rates, which lead to stability /
instability at atmosphere. (5 times)
(OR),
What is an adiabetic process? Discuss Stability of atmosphere in detail giving suitable sketch

2) Write short notes on Diurnal variation of temperature and atmospheric pressure? (4 times)

3) What is atmosphere? Write its constituents and structure. Atmosphere remains in contact with the earth’s surface –
explain how.

4.a) Give a graphical representation of how atmospheric temperature varies with height in different layers of atmosphere.
b) With the help of a sketch, explain “General distribution of surface temperature and atmospheric pressure” on
Earth’s surface. (2 times)

5) Write short notes on (with neat diagrams)

a) Isobars b) Isallobars c) Atmospheric pressure RIDGE +1 (d) Anticyclone +1 (e) Ridge and trough isobaric pattern

6) Write notes on: i) Geostrophic wind ii) Gradient wind +1 iii) Katabatic wind iv) Sea breeze

7) Write short notes on the following: i) Eckman spiral ii) Vector mean current iii) Corona (2 times)
ANSWERS FOR ATMOSPHERE ARE COMBINED WITH Q.3(CLIMATOLOGY) ANSWERS
Q.5) Ocean Currents/ Waves

Ocean Currents

1) Explain main causes of ocean currents. Give example of two warm ocean currents and two cold currents and causes
of these currents. (2 times)
(OR),
What are the primary factors influencing the motion of surface currents. What is the indirect effect of wind on the
surface currents & how do they affect the strength of currents as well as local climate? (2 times)
(OR),
a) Explain reasons of current. (6 times) b) Identify any two major ocean currents and write short notes on them.
2)a) Describe the effect of wind blowing over a long coastline and how this influences the currents in the South Pacific
Ocean. (2 times)

b) Describe the effect that the rotation of earth has on ocean currents. Why is the direction of the surface current in
any particular area parallel to the isobars there?

3) What are the differences between a drifts and stream current? Mention a good example of each. Name the
prominent currents of South Pacific Ocean? (3 times)

4) Explain briefly: (i) Drift Current (ii) Upwelling Current (iii) Gradient Current (6 times)
(OR),
Explain the cause of Gradient Current. (2 times)
(OR),
Briefly explain Gradient Current and Up-welling current. Give suitable examples (4 times)
(OR),
Explain with a suitable example upwelling current and its effect on weather. (3 times)

5)a) Why the surface currents attain higher rates in Western side of oceans as compared to Eastern side of Ocean (2 times)

b) Eastern shore of large Ocean are prone to which currents? Give some examples.

6) Describe how the weather is affected by various currents?

7) Describe the surface current circulation in the North & South Atlantic Ocean along with the causes of formation of
these currents. (4 times)
(OR),
Describe with suitable sketch the Ocean currents of North Atlantic Ocean. Identify the warm and cold currents. (3 times)

8)a) Explain with reason the flow of surface and under current in strait of Gibraltar. (5 times) : North Atlantic Ocean

b) Explain with sketches, the formation of Benguela Current on the West coast of Africa. (3 times) : South Atlantic Ocean

9.a) Describe with suitable sketch the Ocean currents of North and South Pacific Ocean. Also identify the warm and cold currents.

b) Describe the cause of formation of Kuroshio Current in North Pacific Ocean. (2 times)

10.a) Sketch and describe the currents of the South Indian Ocean. Also identify the warm and cold currents.

b) Describe the current circulation in Bay of Bengal during SW Monsoon and NE Monsoon. (3 times)

c) Give a brief description of the currents in the Arabian Sea for January and July. Explain the reasons for the
difference during these months? (2 times)

11)a) What are the wind and current a ship will face in its journey from Liverpool to Cape Town? (2 times)

b) Describe the current prevailing in Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Give necessary sketches (2 times)

Ques) Discuss about the various names of ocean currents in different ocean areas? (2 times)
Write joint answer from Ques 7,9 & 10
12) Describe the forms of display which are commonly used to depict ocean current (2 times)
(OR),
Describe the various forms of depicting ocean currents on charts.

13) How does the ocean current charts help the mariners?

Waves

1) Explain: (i) Trough (ii) Crest (iii) Wave Length (iv) Wave Height (3 times)

2) Define speed, period, length and significant wave height. What is their relationship? What are the factors governing
wave height and direction.

3) Explain methods of estimating wave heights and wave periods. (3 times)

4) Explain the shallow water effects on a wave when it is approaching a coast line.

5) Write short notes on: i) Storm surge ii) tsunami iii) freak waves iv) Refraction of Sea Waves

6) State the causes of Southwest Monsoon in the Arabian Sea. What effect does it have on the general surface current
circulation in the Arabian Sea? (2 times)

Q.6) Weather Forecasting/ Weather Routeing

1) Describe various types of Weather Facsimile Charts / Weather related information available to the mariner. How
are these charts used for Weather Routeing purposes? What do you understand by Vessel's performance curves and
their use? (8 times)
(OR),
What is the different weather information available from the charts received by a facsimile receiver? (2 times)
(OR),
Describe Ship’s Performance Curves and their use in ship’s weather routeing. (2 times)

2) What is Ship Weather Routeing? Write its objectives. Also write the process of carrying out Weather Routeing. (5 times)
(OR),
Explain the method of Shipboard weather routing with suitable diagrams. (5 times)
(OR),
What are the objectives of Ship Weather Routeing? Describe the method of the shipboard weather routeing taking
an appropriate example. (2 times)
(OR),
a) Describe the method of weather routeing using forecast data. b) Describe the information which can be used
from routeing charts, sailing directions and Mariner’s Handbook for weather routeing. (Write answer from Q.5)

3) Enumerate the factors to be taken into consideration for ship’s weather routeing? (3 times)
(OR),
Your ship, a bulk carrier, carrying steel cargo is due to sail from Southampton to New York in the month of
December. What all are the factors you will consider regarding weather routeing for your passage across the Atlantic
Ocean? (3 times)

4) a) What are the advantages of ship’s weather routeing?

b) What are the limitations of weather routing? (2 times)

5) Identify the various types of weather routing services available for shipping and describe any one of them. (6 times)
6) Describe optimum routeing. How would you achieve the objective of weather routeing in optimum routeing? (6 times)

7) a) Describe the procedures for climatological routeing. b) Explain the purpose for Maritime Forecast Code and data
given by MARFOR. (3 times)

8) State the differences between weather routeing and climatologically routeing. Explain how you will carry out
weather routeing on board your vessel. (2 times)

Q.6) a) Describe briefly the importance of weather routing discussing the factors that are taken into consideration for
weather routing. (2 times)
Write answer from 5: Factor to be taken into consideration
b) Discuss how weather routing helps in the safe navigation of the vessel.
Write answer from 2: Objective of weather routing

Q.6) Describe optimum routing and explain the methods used on board ship for weather routing. (2 times)
Write answer from 6: Optimum routeing
Write answer from 2: Method for weather routeing

b) Explain the information contained on a Surface Analysis Chart.

Write answer from 1: Surface weather analysis chart

9) List the information given in Shipping Forecast issued for coastal areas. (2 times)
(OR),
Explain the contents of coastal weather bulletin issued by Indian Meteorological Department

10) a) List the information given in Synoptic Weather Chart. What information can a mariner obtain from it? How
would you find the pressure gradient from it? (4 times)

b) List out various information given in weather fax charts and wave charts? (2 times)

c) Write down the information given in a weather routeing chart

11) Describe various methods/ sources of information inputs for making of analytical weather for synoptic hour.

12) How is weather forecasting carried out? Show by an example how you would make a short time weather forecast.
Use a simple weather map of a frontal depression locating your vessel in the warm sector in the Northern Hemishere

13) Describe Significant wave height and fetch. (5 times)

(OR),
Describe significant wave height and the factors that influence the height of wave. (4 times)

14) a) Explain: i) Wave Chart ii) MAFOR Chart iii) Significant wave height b) Explain wind rose chart. (5 times)
 Q.1 Tide calculations for Standard Port and Secondary Port
(including shorter method of harmonic method)
(Page No 14 to 25)

Notes by: Anupam Singh Rajput

For more notes visit the website
marineredition.com
: mailto:smart@marineredition.com
: SMART MARINER (Click to subscribe)
 Q.2 Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS)
(Page No 27 to 48)

Notes by: Anupam Singh Rajput

For more notes visit the website
marineredition.com
: mailto:smart@marineredition.com
: SMART MARINER (Click to subscribe)
 Q.3 Climatology/ Frontal / Non Frontal depressions
(Page No 50 to 91)

Notes by: Anupam Singh Rajput

For more notes visit the website
marineredition.com
: mailto:smart@marineredition.com
: SMART MARINER (Click to subscribe)
 Atmosphere
Troposphere :
 It extends from sea level to about 9 km. in
the polar region and to about 16 km. in the
equatorial region.
 Most of the air mass and water vapour lies
in this region.
 Temperature decreases with height at
about 0.6° C / 100m. (Lapse rate).
Variations in this value are common.
 Sometimes due to local influences
 thin layers are formed in which
temperature may remain constant
(Isothermal layer), or
 through which the temperature
may actually increase with height (Temperature inversion).
 Normal weather phenomena, clouds and storms occur in this region.
Composition of gases in Troposphere
 Composition of main gases present in this region, expressed as %age of
the total volume, are approximately as
follows :
 Nitrogen --- 78.09%
 Oxygen --- 20.95%
 Argon --- 0.93%
 Carbon dioxide --- 0.03%
 It helps in supporting plant and animal life
on Earth, but it has very little bearing on
meteorological processes and properties.
 In addition to the above composition, the air
contains substantial amount of water vapour, which varies considerably
depending on the temperature of air and the amount of evaporation and
condensation taking place.
  The amount of water vapour plays a vital role in determining the
meteorological processes.

 Density of atmosphere reduces with height, but the rate of decrease is

more at lower level as compared to that at higher level.
 Nearly half the mass of the
atmosphere lies below 5 km. and nearly
two-thirds lies below 9 km., with no
definite upper limit.
 It has been observed that meteors
entering the atmosphere at a height of
130-160 km. turn white hot due to
friction with air. This shows that air is
present well above this limit.
Tropopause :
 This is a thin layer separating the
Troposphere from Stratosphere.
 This is so called because at this level the
fall of temperature with height abruptly
stops.

Stratosphere :
 It extends from above the
Tropopause to about 50 km.
above the sea level.
 The temperature remains
steady with increase in height
and even increases slightly
with height in the upper part.

 At about 20 to 40 km. above sea level

there is a thin layer of ozone, which
absorbs the ultra-violet radiation of the
sunlight and thus prevents damage to
all forms of life.
Stratopause :
 This is a region of about 5 km. which
separates the Stratosphere from the
Ionosphere above it.

Ionosphere :
 It is sub-divided into Mesosphere or the
D-layer, and
 the Thermosphere or the E & F layers,
above the D-layer.
 This is an
electrically
conducting region,
which helps in reflecting the radio signals
back to the Earth and thus helps in
propagating the signals to very large
distances.
 The optical phenomenon Aurora occurs
within this region.
Diurnal variation of Temperature
Factors governing the variation of temperature
 Altitude of the Sun
 Length of the Day
 High Latitude of the Observer
 Cloud Cover & Water Vapour
 Dust & Other Pollutants
 Ocean Currents
 Pressure Distribution
Altitude of Sun :
 When the Sun is at a low altitude

 the insolation (Solar Radiation) arrives at an acute angle to the Earth’s

surface.
  Much of it is reflected back
to space as short wave
radiation, without affecting
the surrounding air.
 Some of the insolation,
which is absorbed by the
Earth, is spread over a large
surface area.
 Thus, the temperature of the Earth does not increase much.
 When the Sun is at a high altitude
 The insolation (Solar Radiation) reaches the Earth practically at
right angles.
 Much of it is absorbed
and re-radiated later on as
long waves, which heat
the surrounding air.
 Also, the insolation is
concentrated over a
small surface area and so the temperature of the Earth increases.

Length of day :
 This will determine the amount of insolation received by the Earth’s
surface and the consequent heating of the air above it.
 The length is based on the declination of the Sun and the latitude of the
observer as follows :
 If both declination and latitude are of same names i.e. both are North
or South, then the length of the day is longer than night.
 Furthermore, the length of the day will increase if the values of
declination and / or latitude increase.
 If both are of opposite names i.e. one is North and the other is South,
then the length of the day is shorter than night.
 Furthermore, the length of the day will decrease if the values of
declination and / or latitude increase.
 High latitude of observer :
 As declination of the Sun is
maximum 23.5°, its altitude
during the day will always be
low for any observer in higher
latitudes.
 So, all the insolation will be received at an acute angle.
 Hence the heating of the air will be
less, as explained above, even though the
length of the day may be long.

 Cloud cover and water vapour will affect the heating of air as
explained in the previous Sub-sub-sub-topic.
 Dust and other pollutants will absorb part of the insolation and thus
reduce the heating of the Earth’s surface and the air above it.
 Ocean currents close to the coast will affect the temperature of air in
coastal regions.
 Pressure distribution and the resulting wind systems will change the air
temperature of a region by bringing in warm or cold air mass from the
neighbouring regions.
Temperature zones
 Due to the inclination of the Earth’s axis the declination of the Sun
changes from 23½°N (Tropic of Cancer) to 23½°S (Tropic of Capricorn).
Hence during the year maximum heat is received within this region.

 From 23½°N to 66½°N (Arctic circle) and from 23½°S to 66½°S

(Antarctic circle) the Sun’s rays reach the Earth at an inclination to the
surface and hence the amount of heat received is comparatively less.
 The Polar regions above 66½°N and S receive very little sunlight and
heat.
 Due to the above reasons the Earth is divided into the following
temperature zones :
  Torrid zone : From 23½°N
to 23½°S.
 Temperate zone : From
23½°N to 66½°N and from
23½°S to 66½°S.
 Frigid zone : Above 66½°N
and S.
 Lines joining places having
the same temperature are
called Isotherms.

Diurnal variation of air temperature

 After sunrise the amount of insolation received by the Earth keeps on
increasing with the increase in altitude of the Sun, as explained above.
 This continues till noon after which the insolation received by the Earth
starts reducing till sunset due to decrease in the Sun’s altitude.
 As the temperature of the Earth’s surface starts increasing during the day
it also starts re-radiating heat (terrestrial radiation) and this amount
keeps on increasing as the temperature of the Earth’s surface keeps
increasing.
 Before noon the insolation is much more than the terrestrial radiation.
Hence the temperature of the Earth and the air in contact with it keeps
increasing.
 Around noon the insolation reaches its maximum value and then it starts
reducing but it is still more than the terrestrial radiation and hence the
temperature of the Earth and the air in contact with it continues to
increase.
 After meridian passage of the Sun the gap between the insolation and
terrestrial radiation keeps reducing and around 1400 hr. they become
equal.
 Subsequently the terrestrial radiation becomes more than the insolation
and so the temperature of the Earth and the air in contact with it starts
reducing.
  Hence the maximum air temperature is experienced at 1400 hr. to
1500 hr.

 After sunset there is no insolation, however the terrestrial radiation

continues during the night, but with a reducing rate, due to reduction in
the temperature of the Earth’s surface.
 Hence the temperature of the Earth and the air in contact with it
continuously reduces during the night.

 Soon after sunrise the insolation starts increasing and equals the
terrestrial radiation i.e. the temperature of the Earth and the air in
contact with it would have reached its minimum value.
 After this the air temperature will again start increasing.
 The above analysis is based on clear sky without pollution or water
vapour. Presence of these ingredients would considerably alter the above
data.
Diurnal variation of range of air temperature over land and sea
 Over land, variation of temperature may be as high as 20°C
 While over sea it may be only 1°C.
The reasons are as follows:
a) Specific heat, b) Conduction, c) Convection, d) Radiation,
e) Evaporation

a) Specific Heat

 It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass

of a substance by unit degree.
 Specific heat of land is low as compared to that of sea.
 During the day, even though the amount of insolation received by the
land and sea are the same, the temperature of land increases considerably
more than that of sea.
 Hence the air above land is hotter than over sea.
 During the night the land re-radiates heat faster than sea. Hence the land
and the air above it cools more than sea.
 b) Conduction

 Land is a poor conductor of heat as compared to sea.

 The insolation received by land during the day remains concentrated
in the upper few centimetres only,
 While the same insolation received by sea
spreads over a large expanse.
 Hence during the day, the temperature of
air above land increases faster and more
than that over sea.
 For the same reason at night, due to terrestrial radiation, the
temperature over land falls faster than over sea.

c) Convection
 Convection currents in the sea help to
spread the heat to deep waters and the surface
remains comparatively cool.
 Hence the air temperature above it also
remains less.
 There is no such thing on land.

d) Radiation
 Radiation penetrates deep into the sea whereas it
cannot go deep into land.
 Hence the land surface can heat the air above it
to a higher temperature than sea.

e) Evaporation

 Evaporation of water is continuously taking

place at sea whereas it is practically negligible on land.
 Latent heat required for it is derived from the
sea surface, which helps to cool it and thus reduce the
temperature of air above it.
Relative Humidity and Dew Point
Humidity
 Evaporation is the escape of water vapour from the surface of water.
 This goes on continuously and it increases with the increase in the
temperature of water.
 Considering that three-fourth of the Earth’s surface is covered with water,
large quantity of water vapour is formed in the lower levels of the
atmosphere.
 Quantity of water vapour present in the atmosphere is called Humidity.
Absolute Humidity
 Actual mass of water vapour contained in a parcel of air is
called Absolute Humidity (gm./m3)
Relative Humidity
 The ratio of the actual amount of water vapour contained in a given
mass of air, to the maximum amount of water vapour it can hold at
that temperature, is called Relative Humidity (RH).
 It is expressed as %age of the maximum water vapour it can hold.

 Capacity of air to hold water vapour increases with the increase in

temperature of air.
 If the temperature of a given mass of air is increased but there is no
change in the amount of water vapour in it, then its RH would have
decreased.
 Hence the RH of an air mass is inversely proportional to its
temperature.
 This also implies that diurnal variation of temperature will cause a
Diurnal variation of RH.
 When a given mass of air at a given temperature is holding maximum
amount of water vapour, then the air is said to be Saturated or its RH is
100%.
Dew Point --- Measurement and its significance
 Consider a mass of air at a certain
temperature and having some RH.
 If it is cooled, then gradually it will
reach a state of saturation.
 The temperature at which it reaches this
state is called Dew Point of that mass
of air.
 Hence the Dew point of a given
sample of air depends on its initial
temperature and RH.
 Hygrometer or Psychrometer is used to
obtain wet and dry bulb thermometer
readings.
 Enter the meteorological
tables with the dry bulb reading
and the difference of wet and dry
bulb readings to obtain the values
of Dew point and RH.
 By knowing these values ventilation of the cargo holds may be restricted
or allowed to prevent damage to the cargo, as follows :
Cargo Sweat
 If a ship is carrying cargo from cold region to warm region then the
temperature of outside air will be more than the temperature of the cargo
and the air inside the cargo hold.
 If ventilation is carried out and the warm air from outside is allowed to
enter the hold then this air will be cooled by coming in contact with cold
cargo.
 If this cooling continues beyond the dew point of the incoming air then
water vapour will condense on the cold cargo, called Cargo Sweat.
 To prevent this cargo sweat
Restrict ventilation when the
temperature inside the cargo
hold is less than the Dew point
of the outside air.
 If such restriction may
damage the cargo inside the hold
then de-humidifiers should be used on ventilators so that much of the
water vapour in the incoming air is removed.
Ship Sweat
 If a ship is carrying cargo from warm region to cold region then the
temperature of outside air will be less than the temperature of the cargo
and the air inside the cargo hold.
 If ventilation is
not permitted then
the warm air inside
the hold will be
cooled by
conduction due to
contact with the
shipside steel, which
is cooled by contact
with the cold water
outside the ship.
  If this cooling
continues beyond the
dew point of the warm
air then water vapour
will condense on the
shipside steel,
called Ship Sweat.
 To prevent this ship
sweat allow
ventilation when the
temperature inside the cargo hold is more than the Dew point of the
outside air.
Lapse Rate
 The variation in environmental lapse rates throughout the Earth's
atmosphere is of critical importance in meteorology.
 This is particularly more in case of tropopause.
 The atmospheric temperature varies with the height.
 Air temperature readings at different heights can be
received from instruments carried by various means such
as radiosondes, rockets, etc.
Environment Lapse Rate (ELR)
 The ELR is the rate of decrease of temperature with height in the
environment.
 It is obtained from the environment curve.
 The rate is not constant and varies with the amount of solar radiation
reaching the earth's surface.
 The larger the amount of solar radiation reaching the surface, the higher
is the surface temperatures and the greater the ELR.
 The average ELR is between per mile but it may vary
considerably.
 The ELR is said to be positive when temperature decreases with
height in the environment.
 It is Zero when temperature is constant with height (isothermal) and
 ELR is negative when temperature increases with height.
Environment Curve
 Radiosondes are used by
meteorologist to measure the
environmental lapse rate and
compare it to the predicted adiabatic
lapse rate to forecast the likelihood
that air will raise.
 Charts of the environmental lapse
rate are known as thermodynamic
diagrams.
 The graph obtained by plotting and
joining these readings shows the
variation of temperature with height
in air which is static.
 This graph is called the
environment curve.

 The curve will usually show a

general fall of temperature with
height in the environment.
 It will also show that the change of
temperature varies throughout the
height of the atmosphere.
 At
some
levels the variation of temperature per mile
may be greater than at other levels.
 At some levels, the temperature may even
increase with height.
 In other
words, the
temperature lapse rate is not constant for
all levels of the atmosphere.
Explore the interactive below to study the
variation in pressure and temperature with height
within different layers of the atmosphere.
  The temperatures here are given in the
Kelvin scale.
 The Kelvin
scale is an
absolute,
thermodynamic
temperature
scale using as its
null point absolute zero (0 K), the
temperature at which all thermal motion
ceases.
Variation of atmospheric pressure with height
 Atmospheric pressure decreases as height
increases.
 The graph of the lapse rate of atmospheric
pressure against height above sea level is a
curve.
 The average lapse rate is about 115 mb per km
height in the lower levels of the atmosphere
(up to 5 km height).
 At higher levels, the lapse rate is higher.
 Instruments that measure height above sea
level, called altimeters, work on the predictable
lapse rate of atmospheric pressure.

Variation of temperature with height

 In the troposphere, the
temperature of air normally falls
steadily as height increases.
 Sometimes, local influences cause
the temperature of air to:
(a) Increase with height instead of
falling. This is called a temperature inversion.
OR
(b) Remain constant with height. The air is then said
to be an isothermal layer.

However, both above conditions, (a) and (b), are

temporary and will return to normal subsequently.

Adiabatic lapse rate of temperature

 Adiabatic change of temperature of a parcel of air is the change in its
temperature due to increase or decrease of its volume, without any
exchange of heat from the surroundings.
 If the volume is increased, the temperature of the parcel would decrease
and vice-versa.
 This is due to a law in physics.
 If a parcel of air is made to rise in the atmosphere, its volume would
increase in accordance with the rarer air at that height.
 This expansion causes the parcel of air to cool, though no exchange of
heat has taken place with the surrounding air.
 This cooling is hence adiabatic.
Wet and dry air
 Any parcel or sample of air that is fully saturated is called wet air or
saturated air.
 Any sample of air that is not fully saturated is called dry air.
Adiabatic changes
DALR (Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate)
 It has been observed that the temperature of a dry parcel of air, which is
made to rise, falls at a steady rate of for every km of ascent i.e., the
adiabatic lapse rate of a dry parcel of air, or
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is per km.
SALR (Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate)
 The temperature of a saturated parcel of air, which is made to rise, falls at
a rate of approximately per km of ascent i.e.,
  The adiabatic lapse rate of a saturated parcel of air, or Saturated
Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR), is about per km.
 SALR is less than DALR because, as the saturated air is cooled, its
capacity to hold water vapour decreases and the excess moisture
condenses into water droplets.
 This condensation releases latent heat that warms up the parcel of air.
 The temperature of the rising parcel of saturated air, therefore, falls only
by about per km instead of .
 SALR is slightly variable – less at the equator and more at the poles.

 When we require an average value of the adiabatic lapse rate of any

parcel of rising air, and we do not know its exact moisture content, an
average value of per km height would give a reasonably
approximate result.
Stability of air
 A ship may be unstable, a person may be mentally unstable, but air? Yes,
air also can be unstable!
 Equilibrium of air is its tendency to return to its original position, when
slightly displaced by an external force.
 In the accompanying diagram, consider a point P at sea level, having an
atmospheric temperature of .
 If a parcel of air at P is made to rise slightly by some disturbance, its
temperature would fall by per km height (DALR)
 If the parcel is dry, and by about per km height (SALR) if it is
saturated, shown by the DALR and SALR lines.
Absolute stability
 If the surroundings (environment) are
such that the actual lapse rate
existent is less than DALR and
SALR, absolute stability is said to
exist (see ELR (1) in figure).
 i.e., if dry, the temperature of parcel at
1 km height is
  if wet, the temperature of parcel at
1 km height is
 Present temperature of surrounding
air at 1 km height, as per ELR (1) in
figure, is more than .
 The parcel of air is thus colder and
hence denser than the surrounding air at
that level and it would hence try to return
below to its original position.

 Since this happens regardless of whether the parcel is originally saturated

or not, this condition is referred to as absolute stability.
Absolute Instability
 If the environment is such that the actual lapse existent is more than
SALR and DALR, absolute instability is said to exist (see ELR (2) in
figure).
 i.e., if dry, the temperature of parcel
at 1 km height is
 if wet, the temperature of parcel at 1
km height is
 Present temperature of surrounding
air at 1 km height as per ELR (2) in
figure, is less than .
 The parcel of air is thus warmer and
hence less dense than the surrounding
air at the same level and would thus
try to continue upwards in the direction of the original disturbance.
 Since this happens regardless of whether the parcel is originally saturated
or not, this condition is referred to as absolute instability.

Conditional Stability
  If the environment is such that the actual lapse rate existent is less than
DALR but more than SALR, conditional stability is said to exist (see
ELR (3) in figure).
 i.e., if dry, the temperature of
parcel at 1 km height is
 if wet, the temperature of parcel
at 1 km height is
 Present temperature of
surrounding air at 1 km height
as per ELR (3) in figure, is
between and .

 This means that if the parcel of air is dry, it is colder (and hence
denser) than the surrounding air at the same level, and would try to
return below to its original position i.e., stable equilibrium.

 If the parcel of air is saturated, it is warmer (and hence less dense)

than the surrounding air at the same level, and would try to continue
upwards, in the direction of the original disturbance i.e., unstable
equilibrium.
 Because stability or instability, in this case, depends on whether the
parcel is dry or saturated, this condition is referred to as conditional
stability.
Neutral equilibrium of air
 If the ELR coincides with DALR when the parcel of air is dry or with
SALR when the parcel is saturated, then the parcel of air which is
displaced upwards, is at the same temperature as that of the surrounding
air at the same level and would have no tendency to return to its original
position or to continue to move upwards in the line of original
disturbance.
 This condition is called indifferent or neutral equilibrium.
Diurnal variation of pressure
 Pressure is the force /unit area.
 In case of atmosphere the pressure will be the total mass of air, upto
the top of the atmosphere, standing over a unit area of Earth’s
surface.
 This has been estimated to be about 1 kg. / cm2.
 Instead of air if we consider a heavier material like mercury then a
column of 750 mm. of mercury will exert the same pressure as the
total column of air.
 This column is called a Bar and for measurement purposes it is
divided into 1000 Millibars.
 Under the SI system of units, the pressure is measured in Pascals
which is same as Newton/m2.
1 Millibar = 100 Pascals, 1 Bar = 1000 Millibars = 100000 Pascals =
1 Kg./cm2 = 100 KN/m2
Semi-diurnal variation of atmospheric pressure
 Owing to many causes, which are not fully understood by man,
atmospheric pressure changes with the time of the day.
 It has been observed that it is highest at about 1000 and 2200 hours and
 lowest at about 0400 and 1600 hours Local Mean Time.
 Since this happens twice a day, it is called semi-diurnal variation of
atmospheric pressure.
Semi-diurnal range of atmospheric pressure
 The difference between the maximum and minimum values is called
the semi-diurnal range of atmospheric pressure.
 The average semi-diurnal range is more in the tropics than in middle
latitudes.
 In tropical regions it is about 3 mb (i.e., up to mb from normal)
and
 In UK (lat N) it is about 0.8 mb (i.e., up to mb from normal).
 In high latitudes, it is negligible and frequently masked by fronts and
frontal depressions.
 The rate of change of pressure at a given place is called Pressure or
Barometric tendency.
  It is usually measured for a period of 3 hours to enable the meteorologist
to prepare his weather predictions.
 Lines drawn on the chart joining places having the same barometric
tendency are called Isallobars.
Geostrophic wind
 By simple logic wind would blow from high-pressure
area to low-pressure area or from isobar of higher value
towards isobar of lower value at a velocity or force
called the Gradient force of wind.
 This force is directly
related to the pressure
gradient in the region or inversely related to
the distance between the isobars, and acts at
right angles to the isobars.
 Due to rotation of the Earth the Coriolis or
Geostrophic force is created which acts at
right-angles to the direction of motion of
the wind and deflects it to the right in the
Northern hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern hemisphere.
 In a Northern hemisphere consider that isobars are running parallel to
each other.
 The wind will blow at right angles to the isobars towards the low pressure
according to the Gradient force.
 At the same time Coriolis force will act at right angles to the direction of
wind and deflect it to the right.
 The resultant wind will blow at some
angle between the two forces.
 As the direction of wind changes, the
direction of Coriolis force will also change,
while the direction of the Gradient force will
remain the same.
 Hence the resultant wind will continuously change direction to the right
and follow a curved path.
 At some point the two forces will
become opposite to each other and
wind will blow parallel to the
isobars towards the right of the
original direction. This is
called Geostrophic wind.
 Exactly the same effect will occur
in the Southern hemisphere except that the final direction of wind will be
to the left of the original direction.
 Geostrophic force is minimum at Equator and increases with the
latitude of the observer and reaches maximum at the poles.
 Within few degrees of the Equator this force is negligible and so the
wind practically blows across the isobars in accordance with the
Gradient force.
 The above analysis is based on the assumption that the isobars are
parallel.
 However even if these are curved, the net result of the wind direction
remains the same.
 So, in the Northern hemisphere if isobars are in concentric circles with
the low pressure in the centre, the Geostrophic wind will circulate in an
anti-clockwise direction and cut inwards across the isobars and spiral
towards the centre.
 Similarly, if the high
pressure is in the centre
then the Geostrophic
wind will circulate in a
clockwise direction and
cut outwards across the isobars and spiral away from the centre.
 Exactly opposite will happen in the Southern hemisphere.

 Buys Ballot’s law is derived from the above principles.

 It states that in the Northern hemisphere if the observer faces the wind,
the low pressure will
lie to his right, and
vice-versa in the
Southern hemisphere.
  This law is not applicable close to the Equator as due to absence of the
Geostrophic force the wind blows across the isobars.
Frictional force
 The Geostrophic wind may be deflected slightly due to friction offered by
land or sea over which it is blowing.
 In addition, this force also counters the Geostrophic force and reduces its
value to about two-thirds over sea and to about one-half over land.
 At more than 600m. above sea level this force is normally not present.
 The resultant wind direction will be inclined at
an angle to the isobars depending on the
quantum of the above forces.
 This inclination is called In-draft.
 It has been observed that over land the In-
draft is about 30° towards the low pressure,
and over sea it is about 10°.
 At high levels the wind blows practically
parallel to the isobars due to absence of the frictional force.
 If there was no Coriolis Force, the Global wind belts at the surface would
blow strictly in the North- South direction.
 Due to the rotation of the Earth, any movement of the air in the Northern
Hemisphere is deflected towards Right and in
the Southern Hemisphere is deflected to the
Left.
 This apparent deflection is called the Coriolis
Force.
 The amount of the deflection the air makes
depends on a speed at which the air is moving and its latitude.
 Thereby slowly moving winds will be deflected only a small amount,
while Stronger winds will be deflected more.
 Likewise winds blowing closer to the Poles will be deflected more than
the winds at the same speed close to the Equator.
 The CORIOLIS FORCE is ZERO at the Equator.
RECAP
 Pressure Gradient causes the air parcels to accelerate across the Isobars
from areas of High Pressure towards the areas of Low Pressure.
  The Coriolis effect then deflects air parcel to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the LEFT in the Southern Hemisphere.
 As the wind gains speed, the Coriolis effect increases in magnitude until
it balances the Pressure Gradient Force.
 The result is an unaccelerated Horizontal wind blowing parallel to the
Isobars that is called the Geostrophic Wind.
Trade winds and Westerlies
Trade Winds
 Trade winds roughly cover almost the entire area
tween and latitudes on both sides of the equator.
 The trade winds are a result of a pressure gradient from the sub tropical
belt of high pressure to the equatorial belt of low pressure.
 In the northern hemisphere, the wind moving towards the equator is
deflected by the earth’s rotation to flow south-westward.
 Thus, the prevailing wind there is from the north east, and it has been
named as the North East Trades.
 In the southern hemisphere, deflection of the wind is towards the left, this
causes the South East Trades.
 The trade winds are considered to be steady and persistent in direction.
 They bring heavy rainfall to the eastern coasts of continents lying within
the tropics because they blow on-shore.
 On the western coasts of continents, these trade winds do not bring any
rainfall as they are off-shore winds or winds blowing just parallel to the
shores.
 So the western areas within the tropics suffer from aridity.
 This explains the great deserts of the Sahara, Kalahari, Atacama and the
Australian deserts, all lying on the western margins of the land masses
within the tropical latitudes.
Westerlies
 The Westerlies or the prevailing westerly winds blow
between and north and south latitudes
 From the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the sub polar low
pressure belts.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, the Westerlies generally blow from the
south west to the north east, and
  In the southern hemisphere from the North West to the south east.
 Westerlies are not as constant in strength and direction as the trade winds.
 They are rather stormy and variable though the main direction remains
from west to east.
 They are also known as anti-trade winds, because their movement is in
the opposite direction from that of the trade winds.
 In the northern hemisphere, land masses cause considerable disruption in
the westerly winds.
 But in the southern hemisphere, between and , the Westerlies
gain great strength and persistence because of the vast expanse of oceans
in their belt.
 This made the mariners of old call them the roaring forties, the furious
fifties and the screaming sixties.
 In olden days, sailing vessels had to face great danger while sailing in the
opposite direction in the face of the prevailing westerly winds.
Polar, Ferrel and Hadley Cells
Polar Winds
 The winds blowing in the Arctic and the Antarctic latitudes are known as
the polar winds.
 They have been termed the polar easterlies, as they blow from the
polar high pressure centers towards the sub polar low pressure belts.
 These winds are extremely cold as they blow from the landmass
capped with ice.
 Southern hemisphere has more regular polar winds than the northern
hemisphere.
Hadley Cells
 Hadley Cell is closer to the Equator,
consists of winds, converging and rising,
at the Equator and then diverging
North and South of the equator as it
reaches the upper Troposphere.
 The wind then sinks at 30° latitude
(North or South) as they converge with
the Winds in the Ferrel Cell.
 They hit the surface and diverge back to the Equator, to complete the cell.
This provides the Equator-ward wind component of the Trade Winds.
Ferrel Cells
 Ferrel Cells, as winds sinking at 30° North &
South Latitudes and then travelling Pole ward as
they hit the ground and diverge with the winds
from Hadley Cell.
 This provides the Pole-ward component of the
Mid-latitude Westerlies.
 This wind travels towards the Poles, until
they converge with winds in Polar Cell at 60°
Latitude.
 This wind then rise up and spread out equator-ward to complete the cell.
Polar Cells
 Polar Cells has winds rising up at 60°
Latitude and spreading out Pole ward as they
reach upper Troposphere.
 The winds sink down at Poles and then
diverge towards the Equator, until they reach
60° Latitude where they rise up again to
complete the cell.
 They provide the Equator-ward
component of the Polar Easterlies.
CORIOLIS Force and its effect
 If there was no Coriolis Force, the global
wind formed at the surface, will strictly
blow in the North- Soth direction.
 Due to the
rotation of the
Earth, any
movement of the air in the Northern
Hemisphere is deflected towards Right and in
the Southern Hemisphere is deflected to the
Left
  This apparent deflection is called the Coriolosis Force.
 The amount of the deflection the air
makes depends on a speed at which
the air is moving and its latitude.
 Thereby slowly moving winds will
be deflected only a small amount.
 While Stronger winds will be
deflected more.
 Likewise winds blowing closer to the Poles will be deflected more than
the winds at the same speed close to the Equator.
 The CORIOLIS FORCE is ZERO at the Equator.
Major Pressure Belts and Wind System
WESTERLY BELT:
 On the Pole-ward side of the Sub
Tropical High Pressure Belts, are
the regions where the mobile
depressions and anticyclones of the
temperature Zones are found.
 As this pressure system moves
generally from a Westerly
direction, they cause considerable
variations in the wind direction and
fall at any given place.
 On the whole, there is a
predominance of Westerly Winds.
 In the Southern Hemisphere these winds often reach gale force and they
are known as the Roaring Forties
Sub Tropical Anticyclone Belt
 These are belts of Light and variable winds.
Fine clear weather marks the central regions of
the Sub tropical High Pressure Belts.
 They are mainly located 30 deg to 35 deg North
and South are referred to as Horse Latitudes.
Trade Wind Belts
 This is the belt of winds which exists
between the Sub tropical Anticyclone and the
ITCZ
 The Notrh East Trade winds are in the
Northern Hemisphere and the South East
Trade winds are there in the Southern
Hemisphere.
 The general tend of trade winds as shown
by the Vector.
 Mean winds and the mean position of the ITCZ are illustrated below for
January and July.
 Note that the typical North East Trades evident in other areas are absent
in the North Indian Ocean.
 In July, the particular feature of the area are the MONSOONS.
 The wind direction and speed with an air trade wind belt varies, the
average strength is force Four, with the general tendency to increase in
strength during the Winter season.
 The common cloud is Cumulus with vertical development and showers.
 Occasionally Trade winds may be absent. Their place can be taken by
Tropical Storms.
Doldrums Belt
 This is the Zone of Light and variable winds which form a narrow belt
between the Equator and about Latitudes 12° Noth which varies with
Longitude and the season.
 The doldrums are generally known for Light and variable winds.
 But storm, Heavy Rain and Thunderstorms are also experienced.
 Global Winds

 At the most fundamental level, 1. If Earth did not rotate, what

the global winds are set in would the global atmospheric
motion by differential heating of circulation be like?
Earth's surface by sunlight, i.e.
2. What is the Hadley Cell?
the tropics are warm and polar
areas cold. 3. Low pressure systems are the
 This differential heating gives ITCZ, polar fronts, and
rise to pressure differences and, subpolar Lows. At what
consequently, to the pressure latitude are they located and
gradient force that compels air to what are their characteristics?
move.
4. High pressure systems are the
 Ultimately, as we saw earlier, the
subtropical Highs (horse
moving air redistributes heat
latitudes), and polar Highs. At
from areas of surplus to areas of
what latitude are they located
deficit.
and what are their
 Remember the
characteristics?
vertical motion of air at
High and Low pressure 5. Based on your knowledge of
centers described in the sky conditions for High and
previous section, Low pressure, at what latitude
do you think the subtropical
deserts are located? The
tropical rainforests?
 At the equator, the warm
BOX 1
surface causes low pressure and
rising air.
 At the poles, cold air produces high pressure and sinking air.
 If Earth did not rotate, this would describe the global circulation.
 Air would rise at the equator, flow at high altitude to the Poles, then sink
and return to the equator along the surface forming two gigantic
circulation cells.
 On planets like Venus, with negligible Coriolis force due to very slow
rotation this is, in fact, what happens.
Global Pressure
 On Earth, however, Coriolis makes the situation more complicated.
 Air rises near the Equator, but rather than flowing all the way to the
poles, Coriolis deflection produces sinking air at about 30° north and
south latitudes as shown on the right side of the diagram below.
 This vertical motion in the tropics is so well defined that it has a name:
 The Hadley Cell. Rising air in the Hadley cell along the equator produces
deep clouds, thunderstorms, and rain in a band of low pressure called
the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
 Sinking air near 30° latitude causes high pressure areas called
the subtropical highs.
 The highs produce clear skies and calm winds in a latitude band
sometimes called the Horse Latitudes, which lie just north of the
Hawaiian Islands and dominate Hawaiian weather.

 Coriolis makes the air flow at higher latitudes even more complicated, but
in general air flows out of the subtropical highs poleward along the
surface then rises again at the Polar Front, which wobbles between 50°
and 70° latitude.
 At the polar front, air rises, producing cloudy skies in a band of bad
weather sometimes called the Subpolar Low.
 At the highest latitudes, circulation is similar to the Hadley cell, except
much smaller.
 Air sinks over the poles, where Polar
High pressure, clear skies, and cold air
dominate, then flows equatorward and
rises again at the Polar Front.

 These large circulation cells produce

global pressure bands in latitude zones
as shown in the accompanying diagram
as HIGH (30° latitude and the poles)
and LOW (equator and 50-70°
latitude).
 The surface pressure bands not only determine the climate at their
location, but also drive the vast global surface winds.
 Studying the diagram will help you, not only in this class, but in
understanding the weather wherever you travel in the world.
Global Winds
 The diagram above shows two idealized views of air motion, the vertical
cross-section shown on the right and the horizontal winds drawn over the
image of Earth.
 Look at the very center near the word "Equator."
 Notice high pressure is to the north and low pressure is at the equator
itself.
 Remember the rules regarding air motion in relation to pressure
differences.
 Imagine standing on the high pressure area in the northern hemisphere
looking equatorward and holding out your right arm.
 The PGF sets air in motion from you toward the equatorial low.
 The moving air is then deflected in the direction your arm points, to the
right, by Coriolis.
 That motion forms the northeast trade winds as shown in the diagram.
 Now do the same for the southern hemisphere.
 Imagine standing on the high in the South Pacific, and looking north
toward the equator, holding out your left arm this time.
 Air is deflected by Coriolis to the left, in the direction your arm is
pointing, forming the southeast trade winds.
 The trade winds, so-named because of their dependability for sailing
ships, are usually very reliable and cover nearly one half of Earth's
surface.
 Trade wind weather is generally dry and sunny because of the subtropical
High pressure influence.
 Areas near the equator lie in a low pressure zone (remember the ITCZ
from the Global Pressure section above?) where winds are generally light
or calm, a condition that mariners term the doldrums.
 (This is a good place to note how winds are named: winds are named for
the direction they come from. So, northeast trade winds come from the
northeast, westerly winds come from the west, sea breezes come from the
sea, valley breezes come from the valley, and so on.)
 Now apply the same reasoning to the winds between the subtropical highs
and the polar front, or subpolar lows.
  Air flows from high to low pressure and Coriolis deflection
produces westerly winds in both the northern and southern hemispheres
between about 30° and 60° latitude.
 Westerly winds tend to shift direction much more than the trades and also
tend to be more blustery.
 In the southern hemisphere, they blow with such ferocity that mariners
named these latitudes the Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties, and
Screaming Sixties.
 The highest average wind speed, in fact, occurs off the coast of Antarctica
near 60° S latitude at over 60 kilometers (37 miles) per hour. That's
the average wind speed.
 Cold Polar Easterlies cover the highest latitudes for the same reason
easterly trade winds prevail in the tropics.
 Finally, one should note that the diagram shows a very idealized version
of the global winds.
 Heating and cooling of land surfaces causes much variation, such as
seasonal monsoons in tropical Asia.
 Nonetheless, it generally holds true, especially over the oceans.
 For the purposes of testing and your own long-term understanding of the
weather in other parts of the world, memorizing the yellow global wind
and pressure belt diagram will be quite helpful.
Sub tropical oceanic highs
 You have studied the forces that cause wind over the oceans.
 The movement of wind varies.
 The wind blowing over the polar regions, the tropics and in the temperate
regions all have their own distinctive characteristics.
 In places the winds blow permanently in a particular direction throughout
the year.
 These are known as permanent winds.
 They are also called as the planetary or prevailing winds.
 Certain winds blow in one direction in one season and in the opposite
direction in another. They are known as periodic winds.
 There are some local winds too, caused by local factors in different
parts of the world. Let us study these in detail.
 The planetary wind system includes the High & Low Pressure Belt.
 Winds tend to blow from High Pressure Centres to Low Pressure Centres.
  Land masses cause considerable disruption of the winds, particularly in
the Northern Hemisphere.
Trade Winds
 The Trade Winds and the Westerlies are the main planetary winds of
the world.
 Trade winds roughly cover the entire area between 30 deg North & 30
Deg South latitudes on both sides of the equator.
 The Trade winds area are a result of the Pressure Gradient from the
Subtropical belt of High Pressure to the Equatorial Belt of Low
Pressure.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, the wind moving towards the Equator, is
deflected by the earth’s rotation to flow south westward.
 Thus the prevailing wind there is from the North-East, and it has been
named as the North-Easterly Trade Winds.

 In the Southern Hemisphere, the deflection of the wind is towards the

left, this cases the South Easterly Trade Winds.
Westerlies
 The Westerlies are the prevailing westerly wind blow between 35 deg
North/ South and 60 Deg North/ South latitudes from the Sub-
tropical High Pressure belts towards the Sub-Polar Low Pressure
Belts.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, the Westerlies generally blow from the
South West to the North East, and in the Southern Hemisphere from the
North West to the South East.
Periodic and Local Winds
Fohn wind effect:
 Wind from sea having high Relative Humidity (RH) strikes a mountain
and starts ascending it.
 The temperature of the rising air will decrease at DALR and its RH will
increase.
 Once the air mass becomes saturated the temperature will decrease at
SALR, which is less than the DALR.
 This will cause rain on the windward side of the mountain.
  On top of the mountain the temperature of air will be very low, and it will
be saturated.
 When the air mass descends on the leeward side of the mountain the
temperature will rise and the air will become unsaturated.
 As it descends further the temperature will increase at DALR and the RH
will continuously decrease.
 Hence near the ground level the air on the leeward side of the mountain
will be drier and will be at a higher temperature than on the
windward side.
 Also, rain will be experienced on the windward side and not on the
leeward side.
Land and sea breeze:
 Due to low specific heat of land as compared to water, it gets heated
during the day and cools during the night, faster than sea.
 Hence there is always considerable difference in temperature of air over
land and sea.
Sea Breeze
 During day the air mass over land is very hot so it becomes lighter than
the surrounding air and hence rises, thus creating a low pressure over
land.
 As the air mass over sea is not as hot
so there is a high pressure over the
sea.
 Distance between the high and low
pressures is not much i.e. the pressure
gradient is high.
 Hence winds blow directly across the
isobars, which run parallel to the
coast, from sea towards land. This is
called Sea breeze.
 It normally sets at about 1000 hr.
with force of about 3 to 4 and dies down by sunset.
 Land Breeze
 At night temperatures and pressures over
land and sea are reversed and so winds
blow across the isobars, which run
parallel to the coast, from land to sea,
called Land breeze.
 It normally sets in about 2 hours after
sunset and lasts till sunrise.
 Sea breeze is much stronger than land
breeze.
 These are normally experienced upto
about 20 miles inland from the coast and
are prominent along high, dry, rocky or desert coastline.
Katabatic wind:
 On clear nights the land becomes colder than sea.
 If there is a high mountain close to the sea, then the cold air on top of the
mountain being heavier tends to flow down the slope by gravity and
blows across the sea with force 7 or more.
 This wind is not based
on pressure conditions
and hence cannot be
predicted.
 These are experienced in
Adriatic Sea, off
Greenland and Norway.

Anabatic wind:
 During day air in the valley becomes warm due to contact with land
surface while the air over land at higher altitude is relatively cold.
 This causes the air to blow gently up the slope of land with little force.
Tornado:
 This is a violent whirl of wind of about 100m. diameter having cyclonic
winds of 150 knots at its centre.
 It appears like a huge dark funnel shaped cloud with its base in the sky
and tapering down to the ground.
 It mainly occurs in Middle West and Central plains of USA. It occurs
when the Maritime Polar air from NW overruns the Maritime Tropical air
from Gulf of Mexico.
Waterspouts:
 This is usually formed when a Tornado travels to sea from land. It is
similar in appearance to a Tornado but not as violent.
 It usually lasts from 10 to 30 minutes.
Nor’wester:
 These are thunderstorms experienced in the State of Bengal at the head of
the Bay of Bengal, from March to May and they cease once the SW
monsoon sets in.
 They occur in the afternoon around sunset time particularly after a hot
day, and last for 3 to 4 hours only.
 They approach from NW direction and hence this name is given.
 They move slowly over land but once at sea they pick up speed.
Elephantas:
These are squalls, blowing in from South or East, experienced on the West
coast of India in September towards the end of SW monsoon.
Etesian:
This is summer winds blowing from Northerly direction in the Aegean Sea and
Eastern Mediterranean.
Gregale:
This is NEly wind blowing in Western and Central Mediterranean in winter, off
the coasts of Malta and Sicily.

Harmattan:
This is Easterly wind blowing on the West coast of Africa from November to
March. Coming from the Sahara desert it is dry and brings lot of dust and sand.

Khamsin: This is a Southerly wind blowing in Egypt and Red sea from
February to June. It is hot, dry and dusty.

Levanter: This is Easterly wind blowing in Straits of Gibraltar which brings

cloud, haze and fog.

Bora: This is Katabatic wind blowing down the mountain on coast of Adriatic
in winter.

Mistral: This is Katabatic wind blowing from North to NW direction down the
mountain slope into the Rhone valley.

Norther: This is Northerly gale occurring in winter in Chile, Gulf of Mexico

and Western Caribbean.

Pampero: This is a strong squall occurring from June to September in Rio-de-

La Plata at the passage of a cold front when the wind backs suddenly from
North to South or SW. It is accompanied with rain, thunder and lightning.

Sirocco: This is hot and dry wind coming from the deserts of South Africa into
the Mediterranean.

Shamal: This is usually a NWly wind in the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. It
can be a normal wind or gale associated with depression. In some areas it even
blows from West or SW direction. It brings lot of dust and fine sand, which
reduces visibility considerably. During summer the wind force may be upto 7
but in winter it may go upto 9.
Southerly Buster: This is a Southerly wind occurring on the SE coast of
Australia, mainly in summer season, from behind a cold front.

Sumatra: This is SW squalls occurring between May and October in Malacca

Straits and West coast of Malaya. These are accompanied with thunderstorm.
Gradient and cyclostrophic winds
Pressure Gradient Force
 Wind is movement of air in the
atmosphere caused by differences in
atmospheric pressure between two localities.
 The atmosphere tries to achieve uniform
pressure by transferring air, from one region of
high pressure (excess air) to another region of
low pressure (deficient air), in the form of wind.
 However, wind does not blow directly from high to low pressure.

 Due to the pressure gradient, geostrophic force and frictional force, wind
tends to blow in a circular manner around regions of high or low pressure.
Pressure Gradient
 The change in pressure measured
across a unit distance is called a
pressure gradient.
 It results in a net force directed from
high pressure to low pressure, the
'pressure gradient force', which triggers
the initial movement of air.
  In the case of severe depressions, the angle of in-draft is greatly affected
by a third force called Cyclostropic force and is explained later on
under Tropical Revolving Storms.
Cyclostrophic force causing the Gradient wind
 As stated above, the winds circulate around a low pressure like in a
Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS).
 This creates the centrifugal force, also called the Cyclostrophic force,
which acts radially outwards opposite to the Gradient force and thus
reduces its value to some extent.
 In effect it causes a reduction in the angle of in-draft because the other
forces stated in the previous Sub-sub-sub-topic are not affected.
 As the winds come closer to the centre of the storm, its force increases,
which also increases the Cyclostrophic force.
 Hence closer to the centre where this force is maximum, the winds blow
practically parallel to the isobars. This is called Gradient wind.
 Cyclostrophic winds are characterized by a balance between the
pressure gradient force and the centrifugal force, primarily
occurring in small-scale, curved wind flows like tornadoes or dust
devils, where the Coriolis force is negligible.

 What is Cyclostrophic Wind?

Cyclostrophic wind is a type of wind circulation that results from a balance
between the local atmospheric pressure gradient and the centrifugal force.
 Where does it occur?
It's most prominent in small-scale, high-speed, curved wind flows, such as:
 Tornadoes
 Waterspouts
 Dust devils
 Other small atmospheric circulations
 Why is the Coriolis force negligible?
In these small-scale systems, the curvature of the airflow is so great that the
centrifugal force (the force that pulls objects away from the center of a curve)
becomes the dominant force, outweighing the Coriolis force.
 How does it differ from other wind types?
Unlike larger-scale cyclonic systems (like hurricanes), cyclostrophic winds can
rotate in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction, depending on the
specific conditions.
 Example:
 Imagine a tornado;
 The air is swirling rapidly around a low-
pressure center.
 The centrifugal force, due to the rapid
rotation, is balanced by the pressure gradient
force (the force that pushes air from high to
low pressure), resulting in a cyclostrophic
wind flow.

A line drawn on the weather map, connecting points of

equal pressure, is called the ISOBAR.
The change in pressure measured
across a unit distance is called a
Pressure Gradient.
This gradient results in a net
force that is directed from High Pressure to Low
Pressure. This force is called a Pressure Gradient
Force.
This force triggers the initial movement of the air.
Doldrums
 The equatorial region is relatively warmer, causing a low pressure
area known as the doldrums (also known as the equatorial low).
 It is a belt of light converging winds and rising air.
 Sailing vessels tended to drift a lot due to less or no wind movement at
all.
 The doldrums, a term originally used by sailors, is called the Inter-
tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

General wind and Pressure System

The general pressure and wind systems which would exist if the entire surface
of the Earth is only water –
 There would be a permanent low pressure area over the equator
(equatorial low) and at N & S (Temperate latitude low).
 There would be permanent high pressure area at N & S (sub- tropical
high) and at also the poles (polar high).
 Wind would blow from area of high pressure (HP) to area of low pressure
(LP) being deflected to its right in the northern hemisphere and left in the
southern hemisphere, as shown in the accompanying figure.
 Because the winds converge at the equator, that area is called the
Inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ).
 The converging air would ascend, with little or no horizontal movement.
 Sailing vessels used to be stuck for long periods for lack of wind to
propel them.
 Hence this area is also called ‘Doldrums’ meaning area of inactivity
or stagnation.
ITCZ (Inter-tropical Convergence Zone)
 Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is also known by sailors as
the Doldrums or the Calms because of its monotonous, windless
weather.
 It is a low-pressure area where the NE and SE trade winds converge.
 It encircles Earth near the thermal equator, though its specific position
varies seasonally.
 It is characterised by convective
activity, which often generates
vigorous thunderstorms over large
areas.
 It is most active over continental
land masses by day and relatively
less active over the oceans.
 It plays an important role in the
global circulation system and is also
known as the Equatorial
Convergence Zone
or Intertropical Front.

 Thermal Equator, also known as Heat Equator, is a belt encircling the

Earth, defined by the set of locations having the highest mean annual
temperature at each longitude around the Earth.
 It is not identical to the geographic Equator.
 Chennai, India, at 13° N 080° E is considered to lie on the thermal
equator.
 The movement of the thermal
equator causes the prevailing pressure and
wind pattern to move to the north and
south as shown in the image.
 It is important to understand the
cause and impact of the ITCZ.
 Let’s take a look at the trade winds
and air masses over Africa.
 North-east trade winds originate
from the tropical continental air mass.
 South-west trade winds originate from the tropical maritime air mass.

 The tropical maritime air mass originates in the Atlantic Ocean in the
vicinity of the Gulf of Guinea.
 Since it is originated in tropical latitudes, it is very warm with high
relative humidity. This causes unstable weather in the region.
  The tropical continental air mass
originates in the large land mass
in low latitudes, such as the
Sahara Desert.
 Since it originated in tropical
latitudes it is very warm and its
relative humidity is low. This
causes stable weather in the
region.
 When these two air masses
meet, moist air is forced upward.
 The rising air is cooled adiabatically causing water vapour to condense,
resulting in a band of heavy precipitation around the world.
 As the ITCZ moves north it carries
the tropical maritime air mass winds over
the land.
 This will bring wet weather.
 Because of the influence of
tropical continental winds, places north of
the ITCZ will be experiencing hot dry
weather.
 Thunderstorms are common
phenomena beneath the ITCZ.
 Because of ITCZ’s nature of changing location, rainfall is affected in
many countries near the equator, resulting in the wet and dry seasons of
the tropics.

.
 Q.4 Ice/ Atmosphere
(Page No 93 to 104)

Notes by: Anupam Singh Rajput

For more notes visit the website
marineredition.com
: mailto:smart@marineredition.com
: SMART MARINER (Click to subscribe)
Q.4) Ice/ Atmosphere

1) Explain the purpose, duties and responsibilities of International Ice Patrol? (7 times)
(OR),
Describe the function of International Ice Patrol. (7 times)

The International Ice Patrol is an organization operated by the U.S. Coast Guard, established in 1914 after the tragic
sinking of RMS Titanic in 1912.
It monitors the presence and movement of icebergs in the North Atlantic Ocean, especially around the Grand Banks of
Newfoundland.
The International Ice Patrol (IIP) is recognized under Chapter V/Regulation 6 of SOLAS titled, “Ice Patrol Service”.

Purpose of International Ice Patrol Services:

 In general, to contribute to Safety of Life at sea, Safety of Navigation and Protection of the Marine Environment.
 To monitor the extent of the Iceberg danger near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
 To provide Limits of All Known Ice (LAKI) to the maritime community.

Duties and responsibilities of International Ice Patrol Services:

 Surveillance of Icebergs by regular aircraft reconnaissance (survey to gain information) and satellite monitoring
to detect icebergs drifting near the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
 Collect data on sea surface temperature, ocean currents, and weather to predict iceberg drift.
 Provide daily North Atlantic Ice Charts showing iceberg danger zones.
 These are broadcasted to ships via radio, NAVTEX, and satellite systems.
 Helps mariners plan safe routes around ice-prone areas during iceberg season (typically Feb–Aug).

Necessity of the Ice Patrol Services

 The cold Labrador Current, carries some Ice Bergs south to the vicinity of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and
into the great circle shipping lanes between Europe and major ports of the East coast of USA and Canada.
 In this area, the Labrador current, meets the warm Gulf Stream and the temperature difference between the two
air masses is about 20°C, which results in Dense Fog.
 The combination of Icebergs, fog, severe storms, fishing vessels and busy transatlantic shipping lanes makes this
area most vulnerable for navigation.
 While sailing through this area, ships try to make their voyage as short and as economical as possible (Optimum
Routeing).
 Therefore, ships in the vicinity of the “Limits of All Known Ice” (LAKI), normally will pass just to south of this
boundary.
 For vessels crossing the North Atlantic Ocean , the farther south the Ice Limits are, the farther the ship must travel
to avoid the icebergs.

2.a) Explain the formation of sea ice (5 times)

(OR),
Explain with block diagram the various stages in the development of sea ice. (2 times)
(OR),
Explain with help of a suitable diagram the sequential formation of sea ice. (2 times)

Formation of Ice is a complex process. The fresh water and sea water freeze in dissimilar manner.

Formation of Sea Ice

➢ With Salt present in water, it delays the lowering of temperature of the water to below its normal freezing point.
➢ The higher the salinity the greater will be the effect on the freezing of water, i.e it takes longer time to freeze.
➢ As the surface water cools, it becomes more dense and sinks, being replaced by warmer, less dense water from below
which in turn, is cooled. This is continued and called Convection.
➢The formation of Ice at Ocean/ Sea thus take sometime to form than does the lake ice in similar conditions.
Stages in the Development of Sea Ice:

(i) Frazil Ice

 Tiny needle-like ice crystals suspended in supercooled water.
 Occurs when sea surface temperature drops below -1.8°C.
 Appears as slushy water.

(ii) Grease Ice

 As frazil crystals accumulate, they form a greasy, soupy layer.
 Looks oily or slick, hence the name.
 Still not solid – flows with water movement.

(iii) Pancake Ice

 Grease ice begins to consolidate into round, flat disks.
 Disks collide and form raised edges.
 Common in turbulent seas.

(iv) Nilas
 A thin, elastic, new sheet of ice formed from freezing of grease ice.
 Dark, flexible, and up to 10 cm thick.
 Can bend without breaking.

(v) Young Ice

 Transitional stage between nilas and first-year ice.
 Thickness: 10–30 cm.
 Begins to stiffen, with surface ridging possible.

(vi) First-Year Ice

 Ice that has grown through a single winter.
 Thickness: 30 cm to 2 m.
 Harder and less saline than newly formed ice.

(vii) Multiyear Ice

 Survives one or more summer melt seasons.
 Thicker, more compact, and less saline than first-year ice.
 Appears bluish-white, and is stronger.
b) Describe the factors on which the movement of sea ice is dependent upon. (2 times)

Main Factors Influencing Sea Ice Movement:

(i) Wind (Primary Driving Force)

 Wind is the most important factor, accounting for up to 70–80% of sea ice drift.
 Acts on the surface of the ice, pushing it in the wind direction, slightly deflected due to Coriolis effect.
 Stronger wind = faster ice drift.

(ii) Ocean Currents

 Subsurface currents like the Labrador Current, Beaufort Gyre, and East Greenland Current influence the
direction and speed of sea ice.
 Sea ice drifts slightly slower than the underlying current.

(iii) Coriolis Effect

 Due to Earth’s rotation, ice movement is deflected:
 To the right in the Northern Hemisphere
 To the left in the Southern Hemisphere
 Causes ice to move at an angle (typically 20°–40°) to the wind direction.

(iv) Ice Type and Concentration

 Multiyear ice or thick ice moves slower due to its mass.
 Thin or new ice moves faster and responds more quickly to wind and currents.
 Dense ice packs move as a unit, while loose ice responds more individually.

(v) Geographical Constraints

 Coastlines, islands, and shallow areas (shoals, sandbars) block or redirect ice flow.
 Ice can pile up (ridging or rafting) near obstacles.

(vi) Temperature & Melting

 Melting reduces ice strength, making it more fragile and mobile.
 Brine drainage also affects ice buoyancy and motion.

c) State the limitations of radar as a means of detecting ice. (2 times)

Limitation of RADAR as a means of detecting ice:

(i) Difficulty in Differentiation: Standard marine radar cannot reliably distinguish between different types of ice, such as
old ice and first-year ice.

(ii) Sea Clutter: Sea clutter, caused by reflections from waves, can mask the return signals from smaller ice features,
making them difficult to detect, especially in close proximity to the vessel.

(iii) Growlers: Small pieces of ice, like growlers, are particularly difficult for radar to detect due to their small size and low
radar cross-section.

(iv) Weather Conditions: Heavy precipitation, such as snow or rain, can interfere with radar signals, reducing detection
range and making it harder to identify ice.

(v) Ice Thickness and Meltwater: Thick ice or ice with meltwater on the surface can reflect radar signals in a way that
makes it difficult to distinguish from open water.

(vi) Limited Range and Resolution: Radar has a limited range, and the resolution may not be sufficient to detect very
small ice features at greater distances.
d) Explain the precautions to be taken when navigating in or near an area affected by sea ice. (3 times)

Precautions to be taken when navigating in or near an area affected by sea ice:

(i) Route Planning and Ice Information

 Use updated ice charts from authorities like the International Ice Patrol (IIP) or national ice services.
 Use ice routing services and plan the safest and most ice-free route.
 Avoid routes through high-concentration or multiyear ice, especially if vessel is not ice-class.

(ii) Use of Navigational Aids

 Use radar, ice radar, and satellite images to detect icebergs and ice edges.
 Keep radar gain and clutter settings properly adjusted.
 Use visual lookouts during daylight hours, especially during fog or snow.

(iii) Slow Down Speed

 Reduce speed in ice-infested areas to minimize impact in case of collision with ice.
 Slower speeds allow better maneuverability and reaction time.

(iv) Maintain Effective Lookout

 Post extra lookouts (including from bridge wings or crow’s nest).
 Use binoculars and infrared/thermal cameras (if available) during low visibility.

(v) Avoid Ice Pressure Zones

 Avoid areas where ice is compressed by wind or current—risk of hull being trapped or damaged.
 Watch for ridging or rafting zones.

(vi) Avoid Close-Quarter Manoeuvring

 Avoid sudden helm or engine movements in ice.
 Do not attempt to turn sharply or back into ice unless specifically trained and equipped.

(vii) Prepare and Protect Equipment

 Ensure all deck machinery (anchors, winches, rudder) is free of ice and functional.
 Cover air intakes and other vulnerable machinery to prevent ice blockage.

(viii) Monitor Weather & Ice Forecasts Continuously

 Continuously monitor updates via:
 NAVTEX
 SafetyNet (Inmarsat-C)
 HF/MF/VHF broadcasts
 Ice patrol websites

(ix) Be Prepared for Emergency

 Keep lifesaving appliances ice-free and ready.
 Have an emergency plan in case the vessel gets beset (trapped) in ice.

e) Describe the signs which may indicate proximity of ice on clear days and nights
(OR),
Explain signs of approaching Ice bergs and actions will you take on seeing these signs.

Signs of Ice on Clear Days & Nights

(i) Blinking (Ice Blink)

 White glare on the underside of clouds caused by sunlight reflecting off sea ice.
 Appears as a bright patch on the horizon.
 Seen above ice fields even when ice is not directly visible.
 (ii) Sudden Drop in Air or Sea Temperature
 Indicates approach to colder ice-covered waters.
 Rapid drop in sea surface temperature (SST) is especially significant.

(iii) Change in Sea Surface Appearance

 Ice-infested waters often appear:
 Greener, duller, or glassy.
 Less wave activity or smoother surface due to ice dampening.

(iv) Floating Fragments of Ice

 Presence of growlers, bergy bits, or small ice floes.
 May be difficult to detect by radar, so visual lookout is essential.

(v) Wildlife Indications

 Birds, seals, or penguins can indicate nearby ice fields or icebergs.
 Marine life often follows ice edges.

(vi) Other Ships Altering Course

 Observing other vessels taking avoidance actions or slowing down may indicate ice presence.

Actions to Take on Seeing These Signs

(i) Reduce Speed: Slow down immediately to give more time to maneuvere and reduce collision impact risk.
(ii) Post Extra Lookouts: Use binoculars, night vision (if available), and assign extra watchkeepers on bridge wings or
monkey island.
(iii) Alter Course: If ice is sighted ahead, alter course well in advance. Give wide berth (at least 1-2 NM) to any sighted
iceberg or icefield.
(iv) Use Radar Carefully: Tune radar settings to detect small targets (use short range, high gain, low clutter).
(v) Monitor Sea Surface Temperature: Keep logging SST using engine room sensors or sea water intake thermometers.
Sudden temperature drops indicate ice nearby.
(vi) Inform Engine Room: Put engine room on standby in case rapid maneuvering is needed.
(vii) Report Ice to Authorities: If uncharted ice is found, report to the International Ice Patrol, nearby vessels, or
relevant NAVAREA.
(viii) Follow Routing Advice: If in North Atlantic, follow IIP-recommended iceberg limits and ice avoidance routes.
Avoid night navigation in iceberg zones if possible.

3) What do you understand by Fast Ice & Pack Ice? Explain with help of a sketch the different manners in which river
water (fresh water) and sea water (salt water) freeze as air temperature falls. (6 times)

Fast-Ice: Fast ice is a sea ice which remains stationary, being attached to the shore, rock, shoals, icebergs or other
obstruction. It does not move with winds or currents.

Pack Ice: Pack ice is a floating sea ice that is not attached to any land or fixed object. It moves freely under the influence
of wind, currents, and tides.

The process by which river water (fresh water) and sea water (salt water) freeze as air temperature falls:
Formation of Sea Ice
Same as Ques 2.b

Formation of Ice in Fresh water

➢ The loss of heat from a body of fresh water takes place mainly from the surface exposed to the air.
➢ As the surface water cools, it becomes dense and sinks and is displaced by warmer less dense water from below
setting in Convectional Currents.
➢ The warm water having come on top, will be cooled and continuing the process of overturning, i.e setting up the of
the convection till the entire body of water attains a temperature of 4°C.
➢ The maximum density of fresh water occurs at 4°C, and the upturning will be ceased and
➢ Thus if further cooled, the cooling of water below 4°C, causes an increase in its volume and consequently decreases in
density and so the convection stops.
➢ Once the stable condition is achieved, cooling of surface water leads to a rapid drop in temperature and formation of
ice begins when temperature falls to 0°C.
➢ The thin layer of Fresh water staying on top can then be rapidly cooled down to the Freezing Point and the Ice forms
on the surface, while the underlying water may still be close to 4°C.

4.a) What is an iceberg and how it forms?

 Iceberg is a large mass of floating ice, having a height of at least 5 metres above sea level.
 It could be of glacier or ice-shelf origin, and which may be afloat or aground.
 Sizes of icebergs are small, medium, large and very large.
 May be described as tabular, domed, pinnacled, wedged, dry-docked or blocky.

Formation of an Iceberg:
(i) Snow Accumulation
 In cold polar regions, snow falls continuously over many years.
 The snow gradually compresses into firm (compact snow) and then into glacial ice under its own weight.
(ii) Glacier Formation
 Over time, this compressed ice forms a glacier, which slowly moves downhill due to gravity.
 The glacier flows from land into the sea or toward an ice shelf edge.
(iii) Calving
 When a glacier or an ice shelf reaches the ocean, large chunks of ice break off from the edge.
 This process is called calving.
 The broken-off chunk becomes an iceberg and begins to float in the sea.
(iv) Drifting
 After calving, the iceberg floats (since ice is less dense than seawater) and drifts with currents and wind.
 About 90% of an iceberg is underwater, only 10% is visible above sea level.

b) Write down different types of icebergs found at sea

(i) Tabular Iceberg: A flat-topped iceberg whose horizontal dimension is much greater than the vertical dimension.
Most show horizontal banding of snow layers.
(ii) Domed Iceberg: An iceberg which is smooth and rounded on top.
(iii) Pinnacled Iceberg: An iceberg with a central spire, or pyramid, with one or more spires.
(iv) Wedged Iceberg: An iceberg which is rather flat on top and with steep vertical sides on one end, sloping to
lesser sides on the other end.
(v) Drydocked Iceberg: An iceberg which is eroded such that a U-shaped slot is formed near or at water level, with
twin columns or pinnacles. This is also referred to as a twinned iceberg.
(vi) Blocky Iceberg: A flat-topped iceberg with steep vertical sides, usually a fragment of a tabular berg.
(vii) Glacier berg: An irregularly shaped iceberg.
(viii) Iceberg Tongue: A major accumulation of icebergs projecting from the coast, held in place by grounding and
joined together by fast ice.
(ix) Sloping iceberg: An iceberg which is rather flat on top and with steep vertical sides on one end, sloping to lesser
sides on the other end.
(x) Weathered iceberg: An iceberg that shows marked signs of deterioration from the effects of atmosphere and
ocean.
c) Explain the formation of icebergs from floating glaciers, ice shelf and characteristics of each.
(OR),
Define an iceberg. Describe the icebergs of Arctic and Antartic

Icebergs from Floating Glaciers (Tidewater Glaciers)

Formation Process:
 Snow falls in highland polar regions and compacts into ice over time.
 This forms glaciers that flow slowly downhill under gravity.
 When a glacier reaches the coast, it may extend over the sea, becoming a floating glacier
 Eventually, due to stress and buoyancy, chunks of ice break off the edge—this is calving.
 The calved ice floats away as an iceberg.

Characteristics of Icebergs from Glaciers:

 Usually irregular in shape (domed, jagged, pinnacled).
 Contain many cracks and crevasses.
 Often smaller than icebergs from ice shelves.
 Seen in Greenland, Alaska, Arctic etc.
---------------------------------
Icebergs from Ice Shelves
Formation Process:
 In Antarctica, continental glaciers flow outward and form huge floating platforms over the sea called ice shelves.
 These shelves are hundreds of meters thick and extend far into the sea.
 Due to internal pressure, wind, and tides, large flat sheets of ice break off (calve) from the ice shelf edge.
 These become massive, tabular icebergs.

Characteristics of Icebergs from Ice Shelves:

 Very large and flat-topped (tabular).
 Often hundreds of kilometers wide and long.
 Have steep sides and may rise high above the sea.
 Common around Antarctica.

5) Describe the Ice bergs of Arctic region and usual path they take. Describe the life span of Arctic region Icebergs. (5 times)

Icebergs of the Arctic Region:

 Origin: Arctic icebergs are primarily calved from glaciers along the coast of Greenland.
 Major sources: Jakobshavn Glacier (West Greenland), Scoresby Sound (East Greenland)
 These glaciers flow into deep fjords and release large chunks of freshwater ice into the sea, forming icebergs.

Usual Path of Arctic Icebergs

(i) West Greenland Current: Icebergs drift south along the coast of Greenland via the cold West Greenland Current.
(ii) Labrador Current: They enter the Labrador Sea and are carried further south by the Labrador Current. This current
brings them into the North Atlantic Ocean.
(iii) Grand Banks of Newfoundland: Many icebergs reach the Grand Banks, off the coast of Newfoundland, which is the
southernmost limit of Arctic icebergs. This is the same region where the Titanic disaster occurred in 1912.
Greenland → Baffin Bay → Davis Strait → Labrador Sea → Newfoundland (Grand Banks)

Life Span of Arctic Icebergs

 From calving to melting: About 1 to 3 years.
 In open sea (post-calving): Most last several months, depending on:
• Size
• Water temperature
• Wave action
• Air temperature
6) Discuss with the aid of suitable sketches the normal season and probable movement of North Atlantic Icebergs from
birth/origin to decay. (8 times)
(OR),
How do icebergs of the northern hemisphere form and decay? (2 times)

(I) Origin of Icebergs of the North Atlantic Region:

 Origin: Arctic icebergs are primarily calved from glaciers along the coast of Greenland.
 Major sources: Jakobshavn Glacier (West Greenland), Scoresby Sound (East Greenland)
 These glaciers flow into deep fjords and release large chunks of freshwater ice into the sea, forming icebergs.

(II) Normal season of Icebergs of the North Atlantic Region:

Season Activity Level

Winter (Dec-Feb) Minimal calving
Spring (Mar-May) Start of increased calving and iceberg movement
Summer (June-July) Peak iceberg movement and southern drift
Late Summer-Autumn (Aug-Oct) Iceberg continue to melt and decay in warmer waters

(III) Probable movement of Icebergs of the North Atlantic Region:

(i) West Greenland Current: Icebergs drift south along the coast of Greenland via the cold West Greenland Current.
(ii) Labrador Current: They enter the Labrador Sea and are carried further south by the Labrador Current. This current
brings them into the North Atlantic Ocean.
(iii) Grand Banks of Newfoundland: Many icebergs reach the Grand Banks, off the coast of Newfoundland, which is the
southernmost limit of Arctic icebergs. This is the same region where the Titanic disaster occurred in 1912.
Greenland → Baffin Bay → Davis Strait → Labrador Sea → Newfoundland (Grand Banks)

(IV) Decay of Icebergs of the North Atlantic Region:

 From calving to melting: About 1 to 3 years.
 In open sea (post-calving): Most last several months, depending on:
• Size
• Water temperature
• Wave action
• Air temperature
 Large icebergs may survive several months to a year, but most melt completely in the North Atlantic before
autumn.
7) How is sea ice different from icebergs?

Sea ice and icebergs are both forms of ice found in the ocean, but they originate from different sources and have distinct
characteristics.
Sea ice is formed from the freezing of ocean saltwater, while icebergs are chunks of freshwater glacial ice that break off
from glaciers or ice shelves.

Sea Ice
Origin: Forms directly from the freezing of seawater at the ocean's surface.
Composition: Primarily composed of frozen saltwater, with some brine (salt water) trapped within its structure.
Formation: Forms and melts entirely within the ocean.
Thickness: Generally thinner than icebergs, typically ranging from a few centimeters to a few meters thick.
Extent: Covers vast areas of the ocean, particularly in polar regions, but its extent fluctuates with the seasons.

Icebergs:
Origin: Formed from glaciers or ice shelves on land. They break off (calve) from these formations and float into the ocean.
Composition: Primarily composed of freshwater ice, which is less dense than saltwater.
Formation: Formed on land and then float into the ocean.
Thickness: Can be significantly thicker than sea ice, with some icebergs being massive structures.
Extent: Individual icebergs can vary greatly in size and shape, from small growlers to massive tabular icebergs.

8.a) Describe the factors which may give rise to ice accretion and methods of reducing ice accretion. (8 times)
(OR),
Describe the accretion of Ice and what precaution are required to be taken to avoid ice accretion on-board?
(OR),
What is ice accretion? What are the conditions when this can occur on board? (2 times)
(OR),
Explain the three mechanisms of ice accretion on board a ship.

Ice accretion, also known as icing or glaze, refers to the process where ice accumulates on the surface of an object,
typically a solid object, due to freezing precipitation or the freezing of super-cooled water droplets

Factors Which May Give Rise to Ice Accretion

The transit of a cold frontal system in winter will rapidly bring down the air temperature, causing the vessel’s steel
structure to cool.
Ice accumulates on ships due to three causes:
 Precipitation (rain, drizzle or snow) falling on very cold decks and freezing into ice called hoar frost.
 If the sea surface temperature drops below + 4° C, Water coming on deck - spray (wind force 4 and above)
and/or water shipped (due to pitching or rolling in heavy sea and/or swell).
 Direct freezing water droplets in form of fog or mist falling on very cold masts, rigging and superstructure –
called rime. It forms on the windward side only and can grow up to one centimetre per day.

Dangers of ice accretion

 Crew cannot go on deck for any work, especially for dropping or picking up anchor.
 Stability of the ship would be reduced – weight of ice above would decrease the GM and also the range of
positive stability.
 If such danger is critical, vessel have to steer into lower latitudes – higher temperatures - till the ice melts off.
 Any electrical machinery on deck may not function.
 Vessel’s trim may change by the head causing difficulty in steering.
 Pipelines on deck may freeze.
 Viscosity of hydraulic oil in the systems may increase.
 Castings made from cast iron could fracture.
 Icing of bridge windows could occur leading to difficulty in maintaining proper visual lookout.
 Deck scuppers may be blocked.
Preparations if Ice Accretion is expected/ Precaution required to be taken to avoid ice accretion on-board

 Take additional bunkers as an allowance for manoeuvring in heavy weather and for deviations due to ice and ice
accretion.
 Maintain a large stock of de-icing salt on board.
 Change to lower sea suction and provide temporary steam pipes at the intakes.
 Cover the mooring lines, cable drums, etc., with plastic covers.
 Cover all exposed motors and control stands.
 In exceptional circumstances, and subject to the vessel’s stability, reduce the ballast tank levels if there is a risk
of the ballast freezing.
 Check the ballast air-pipes for clogging with ice, prior to any ballasting or de-ballasting.
 If ice accretion is rapid, then maintain steerage away from the spray.
 Keep both anchors slightly out of the hawse-pipes, so that ice formed inside the hawse-pipes can be broken by
heaving the anchor.
 Cover the spurling pipes.
 Cover the fairlead openings by canvas and wooden templates.
 Keep crowbars and ice-picks ready for use.
 The crew should be appropriately clothed according to the temperature and wind conditions.
 Keep the Radars on ‘stand by’ if not in use.
 Switch on the bow thruster heater for about 3 hours before arrival, and turn them slowly every hour to ensure
that the oil is warm.
 Check electrical insulation.
 Drain the fire lines on deck and grease their expansion joints.
 Spread de-icing salt on decks.
 Lower a length of manila rope in the scuppers to prevent icing.
 Switch on the heating coils of the emergency generator.
 Follow the manufacturer’s instructions with regard to the engine cooling system. Fill it with a solution of water
and antifreeze at the recommended ratio to provide protection down to at least minus 40° C.
 Maintain the outside air-circulation into the engine room at the minimum required.
 Close all doors to all spaces.
 Close the Fore Peak tank manually operated valves.
 Close all tank manholes.
 Turn on the accommodation heating and ensure that the sanitary and domestic water flow is satisfactory.

Methods of reducing ice accretion

Heating: Applying heat to surfaces using hot air, resistive heating elements, infrared radiation, or microwave heaters can
melt ice or prevent its formation.
Mechanical Removal: Techniques like pneumatic systems, water jets, or ultrasonic vibrations can dislodge ice buildup.
Expulsive Methods: Using pressurized air or other means to physically expel accumulated ice.
Ice-phobic Coatings: Materials like super-hydrophobic surfaces can reduce ice adhesion and promote ice shedding.
Surface Geometry: Modifying surface shapes to minimize water droplet impact and ice accumulation.
Anti-icing Fluids: Applying fluids that prevent water droplets from freezing or delay the freezing process.
De-icing Salts: Using chemicals like sodium chloride or magnesium chloride to lower the freezing point of water and aid
in ice removal.

b) What are the duties of Master when such conditions are encountered at sea? (2 times)

It is the responsibility of the master to monitor routine navigational, meteorological, and environmental data including
ice data, ice charts and satellite images when navigating in colder regions or seasonal winter regions where ice
formations could be possible.

Write more same points as of Precaution required to be taken to avoid ice accretion on-board from Ques 8.a
9.a) What do you understand by “Ice Accumulation”? (2 times)

Ice accumulation refers to the build-up of ice over time, typically caused by freezing rain, sleet, or freezing drizzle.
It can also occur through the freezing of water vapour (rime ice) or the re-freezing of melted snow and ice.

Ice accumulation may occur from three causes:

 Fog, including fog formed by evaporation from a relatively warm sea surface, combined with freezing conditions;
 Freezing drizzle, rain or wet snow.
 Spray or sea water breaking over the ship when the air temperature is below the freezing point of sea water
(about -2° C).

b) What precautions would you take to minimize ice accumulation on board? (3 times)

Write same points as of Precaution required to be taken to avoid ice accretion on-board from Ques 8.a

10) Hazards associated with ice accretion and ice accumulation (2 times)

Write same points as of Dangers of ice accretion from Ques 8.a

11) Explain the phenomenon of freezing spray and actions to be taken to minimize its effects

Icing from Sea Water

 When the air temperature is below the freezing point of sea water and the ship is in heavy seas, considerable
amounts of water will freeze on to the superstructure and those parts of the hull; which are sufficiently above
the waterline to escape being frequently washed by the sea.
 The amounts so frozen to surfaces exposed to the air will rapidly increase with falling air and sea temperatures;
and have in extreme cases lead to the capsizing of vessels.
 Nevertheless, the dangerous conditions are those; in which strong winds are experienced in combination with
air temperatures of about -2°C or below; freezing rain or snowfall increases the hazard.
 The rapidity with which iceberg accumulates increases progressively as the wind increases above force 6 and as
the air temperature falls further below about -2°C.
 It also increases with decreasing sea temperatures.
 The rate of accumulation also depends on other factors; such as the ship’s speed and course relative to the wind
and waves, and the particular design of each vessel.

12) Information given in ice charts

Ice analysis charts: These charts indicate amounts and boundaries of each type of ice, ice-packs, ice-leads and ice-bergs,
based on actual observation.

Ice prognosis charts: These charts contain the same type of information as ice analysis charts, but predicted for a
specified future time, and are usually made 12 hours and 24 hours in advance.

After studying the situation shown by the ice analysis chart and taking into account various factors such as winds,
currents, temperatures of air and sea, etc., the prognosis charts are made by experts.

13) What all details are promulgated in the ice report?

(OR),
What report you will file on encountering ice at Sea.

Extract from Regulation 32 of Chapter V of SOLAS 1974, entitled ‘Information required in danger messages’:

 Ice, derelicts and other direct dangers to navigation:

o The kind of ice, derelict or danger observed
o The position of the ice, derelict or danger when last observed
o The time and date (Universal Coordinated Time) when the danger was last observed.
  Subsequent observations: Sub-freezing air temperatures associated with gale force winds causing severe ice
accretion on superstructures:
o Time and date (Universal Coordinated Time)
o Air temperature
o Sea temperature (if practicable)
o Wind force and direction

Examples of messages

Ice
TTT ICE. LARGE BERG SIGHTED IN 4506 N, 4410 W, AT 0800 UTC. MAY 15.

Icing
TTT EXPERIENCING SEVERE ICING. 1400 UTC. MARCH 2. 69 N, 10 W. AIR TEMPERATURE 18F (-7.8C). SEA TEMPERATURE
29F (-1.7C). WIND NE. FORCE 8.

14) Write down the obligation of Ship’s Master for reporting dangerous ice

Write same as Ques 13

 Q.5 Ocean Currents/ Waves
(Page No 106 to 122)

Notes by: Anupam Singh Rajput

For more notes visit the website
marineredition.com
: mailto:smart@marineredition.com
: SMART MARINER (Click to subscribe)
Q.5) Ocean Currents/ Waves

Ocean Currents

1) Explain main causes of ocean currents. Give example of two warm ocean currents and two cold currents and causes
of these currents. (2 times)
(OR),
What are the primary factors influencing the motion of surface currents. What is the indirect effect of wind on the
surface currents & how do they affect the strength of currents as well as local climate? (2 times)
(OR),
a) Explain reasons of current. (5 times) b) Identify any two major ocean currents and write short notes on them.
Main causes of ocean currents are as follows:
(i) Gravity
 Diameter at pole is lesser than the diameter at Equator, hence the gravitational pull at the Pole is more than at
the Equator.
 This causes the water at Poles to subside and is replaced by the water from Equatorial region.
 This helps in creating a flow of water from Equator towards the poles on the sea surface
(ii) Coriolis force
 Due to rotation of the Earth, the movement of water will be deflected to the right in the Northern hemisphere
and to the left in the Southern hemisphere.
 This force is minimum at the Equator and maximum at the Poles.
 This causes the water to flow in a circular fashion in all the oceans.
 In North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the currents flow in clockwise direction,
 While in South Atlantic, South Pacific and Indian Oceans currents flow in anti-clockwise direction.
(iii) Wind
 The impact of wind on sea surface and the resulting friction between water and air creates a flow of water in
the direction of wind.
 This is very prominent in the Arabian sea during SW monsoon, which causes the current to flow from the SW
direction, which is against the normal clockwise flow during other parts of the year.
 Similar effect takes place in the Bay of Bengal during NE monsoon when the current flows from NE direction
against the normal clockwise flow during other parts of the year.
 NE and SE trade winds blowing towards the Equator cause the Equatorial current North and South of the
Equator to flow in the Westerly direction.
 Similarly, Westerlies blowing in Lat. 40°N cause the North Atlantic and North Pacific currents to flow Eastward,
 While the Westerlies blowing in Lat. 40°S create the Southern Ocean current.
(iv) Pressure
 In high-pressure region, the water level will tend to fall, while in a low-pressure region, the water level will
tend to rise.
 This could generate a flow of water on the sea surface from low pressure region towards high-pressure region.
(v) Precipitation
 Heavy rainfall in a particular region will increase the sea level.
 Consequently, this will generate a flow of water towards an area having no rain fall.
(vi) Density
 Density of water increases due to increase in salinity and due to high evaporation, while it reduces due to high
temperature.
 Combination of all these factors can cause the water of high density to subside, which will be replaced by flow
of water of less density from another region.
(vii) Coast-line
 A current flowing in a particular direction due to the above causes will change direction due to land masses or
coast line in its path.
Warm and Cold Currents
Whenever a current is warmer or colder than the sea through which it flows, it is called a warm or cold current
respectively.
Warm currents: When a current from equatorial regions passes through higher latitudes, it will be a warm current.
Warm currents are generally experienced along the western shores of large oceans.
Examples of warm currents:
1. The Gulf Stream,
2. The North Atlantic Drift,
3. The Norwegian Current,
4. The Brazilian Current,
5. The Kuro Shio,
6. The Alaskan current,
7. The East Australian current,
8. The Mozambique current,
9. The Agulhas current.
Cold currents: When a current from higher latitudes passes through lower altitudes, it will be a cold current.
If it came from polar regions, it will be very cold.
Cold currents are generally experienced along the eastern shores of large oceans.
Examples of cold currents:
1. East Greenland current
2. Baffin Land current (Davis current)
3. Kamchatka current.
4. The Labrador current,
5. The Portuguese and Canary currents,
6. The Falkland current,
7. The Benguela current,
8. The Oya Shio,
9. The Californian current,
10. The Humboldt current and
11. The West Australian current.

2)a) Describe the effect of wind blowing over a long coastline and how this influences the currents in the South Pacific
Ocean. (2 times)
Write joint answers from Q.No.1 & 9.a

b) Describe the effect that the rotation of earth has on ocean currents. Why is the direction of the surface current in
any particular area parallel to the isobars there?

 Due to rotation of the Earth, the movement of water will be deflected to the right in the Northern hemisphere
and to the left in the Southern hemisphere.
 This force is minimum at the Equator and maximum at the Poles.
 Major surface currents are driven by wind, which drags on the water surface. The Coriolis effect deflects these
wind-driven currents, causing them to form large, circular gyres.
 The pressure gradient force causes air to move from high to low pressure. As this air is deflected by the
Coriolis force, it flows along the isobars (lines of equal pressure).
 Similarly, surface ocean currents, driven by wind, also tend to flow parallel to isobars due to the same balance
of forces.
3) What are the differences between a drifts and stream current? Mention a good example of each. Name the
prominent currents of South Pacific Ocean? (3 times)
Write joints answers from Q.No.4(i) & 9.a
4) Explain briefly: (i) Drift Current (ii) Upwelling Current (iii) Gradient Current (6 times)
(OR),
Explain the cause of Gradient Current. (2 times)
(OR),
Briefly explain Gradient Current and Up-welling current. Give suitable examples (4 times)
(i) Drift Current
 Drift is the direct effect of wind blowing over long stretches of ocean for long periods.
 The frictional effect of the wind, on the sea surface, causes the sea surface to move.
 However, Coriolis force deflects the drift current to the right in the northern hemisphere (left in the southern
hemisphere) by about to 30° to 45°.
Example of drift current are:
• North and South Equatorial currents are caused by the Trade winds.
• North Atlantic and North Pacific currents are caused by the Westerlies.
• Southern Ocean current is caused by the Westerlies.
 The maximum strength of a drift current is only up to about 2 knots.
 If, however, there are other strengthening factors such as gradient, shape of the coast, etc., the drift current
can increase two or three-fold and is then called a stream.
Movement of a large mass of water in a definite direction is known as stream current. It is faster than the
drift. Example: Gulf stream, Kuroshio Current

(ii) Upwelling Current

 When wind blows across the ocean surface, they can push surface water away from coastline or in open sea
areas. The outflow of water from the coast is replaced by an upward/vertical movement (upwelling) of sea-
water, from a depth up to about 150 metres or so.
 Since this upwelling takes place from below, the water that comes to the surface is colder than the
surrounding sea-surface.
 Upwelling is a significant process that replenishes nutrients in surface waters, leading to increased biological
productivity and supporting rich marine ecosystems.
 Upwelling currents are experienced along the eastern shores of oceans, in low latitudes where direct effect of
wind blowing over long stretches of ocean for long periods.
Example of upwelling current are:
• Canary current and Benguela current of the East Atlantic.
• Californian current and Peru (Humboldt) current of the East Pacific.

(iii) Gradient Current

 A gradient current is caused by differences in level (resulting from natural slopes or build-up by winds) or by
differences in density (resulting from differences of temperature or salinity).
 The greater the salinity, the greater the density and vice versa.
 The lower the temperature, the greater the density and vice versa.
 When different water-masses lie adjacent to each other, gradient currents are set up between them because
of differences in temperature and salinity.
Example of gradient current are:
• The surface current that flows from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean is a result of differences in level.
• The Mediterranean Sea, being land-locked, experiences severe evaporation. Since the input by rivers
and rain is very small, its level falls and a gradient current from the Atlantic flows in through the Strait
of Gibraltar.
• The northerly current along the east coast of Africa in the Arabian sea.
• Along the east coast of India in the Bay of Bengal, during the latter part of the NE monsoon, flows
against the NE winds because of a thermal gradient.
• The gradient is formed by the cooling of the waters at the head of the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal by
the cold NE monsoon during December and January.
5)a) Why the surface currents attain higher rates in Western side of oceans as compared to Eastern side of Ocean (2 times)
 Western ocean currents are stronger than eastern ocean currents due to a combination of the Coriolis effect,
prevailing winds, and the shape of ocean basins.
 The Coriolis effect, caused by the Earth's rotation, deflects ocean currents.
 In the Northern Hemisphere, currents are deflected to the right, and in the Southern Hemisphere, they are
deflected to the left.
 This, along with wind-driven surface currents, creates a westward-flowing current along the western side of
ocean basins, known as western boundary currents, which are faster than the weaker eastern boundary
currents.

Here's a more detailed explanation:

Wind-driven circulation: Prevailing winds, like the trade winds and westerlies, create large, circular surface currents
called gyres in the major ocean basins.
Coriolis effect: The Coriolis effect causes these gyres to displace their centers westward, resulting in strong western
boundary currents along the eastern coasts of continents.
Western intensification: This westward intensification of currents occurs because the Coriolis effect is stronger at
higher latitudes, and the flow is channelled into a narrower band.
Steep ocean-surface slope: The transport of surface waters towards the western boundary causes the ocean surface to
slope more steeply on that side, resulting in faster geostrophic flow.

b) Eastern shore of large Ocean are prone to which currents? Give some examples.

 The eastern shores of large oceans are primarily prone to cold currents.
 These currents transport cooler water from the poles or high latitudes, typically along eastern coastlines in
both the northern and southern hemispheres.
 Warm currents, which transport warmer water from the tropics, are more commonly found along western
coastlines.
Examples of cold currents along eastern shores:
 Humboldt Current (Pacific Ocean): Flows southward along the coast of South America.
 Canary Current (Atlantic Ocean): Flows southward along the coast of Africa.
 Benguela Current (Atlantic Ocean): Flows southward along the coast of South Africa.
 California Current (Pacific Ocean): Flows southward along the coast of North America.
 Kurile (Oyashio) Current (Pacific Ocean): Flows southward along the coast of Asia.
 East Greenland Current (Atlantic Ocean): Flows southward along the coast of Greenland.

6) Describe how the weather is affected by various currents?

Effects of ocean currents on climate

The effects of ocean currents on climate are numerous and a few are listed below as examples:
➢ UK and northern coasts of Europe are to warmer in January than Newfoundland.
➢ The Westerlies, blowing over the former, come from over the warm North Atlantic current and carry the oceanic
influence far inland, whereas the Westerlies over the latter, come from cold hinterland.
➢ Ports in Eastern Canada (latitude 55°N) are ice-bound in winter, whereas the ports in Norway (latitude 70°N), are
not ice-bound.
➢ Callao (latitude about 12°S), in Peru, is about 6°C cooler than Salvador (similar latitude) in Brazil.
7) Describe the surface current circulation in the North & South Atlantic Ocean along with the causes of formation of
these currents. (4 times)
(OR),
Describe with suitable sketch the Ocean currents of North Atlantic Ocean. Identify the warm and cold currents. (3 times)

North Atlantic Ocean

Ocean currents in the North Atlantic Ocean are as follows:
Sr No Name of Current Warm or Cold Direction & Other description
current
1 North Equatorial Current Warm Current These currents originate at about 23° North and flow due WEST
at an average speed of about 0.7 knots.
2 The Gulf Stream Warm Current These currents originate in the Gulf of Mexico and NW of Cuba and
flows NE along the eastern coast of the United States and Canada.
3 The North Atlantic Current The eastward moving Gulf Stream widens and changes
direction to NE to form the North Atlantic Current.
3.a Norwegian Current Warm Current NE Drift Current is the NE extension of the Gulf Stream, which
continues to carry warm water towards northern Europe
3.b Irminger Current Warm Current Part of the NE Drift current branches to form Irminger Current.
Irminger current flows NW and curves to meet the
East Greenland Current.
3.c East Greenland Current Cold Current This current flows on the east coast of Greenland. It flows South
West and South.
3.d West Greenland Current Cold Current The West Greenland current continues to flow along the west
coast of Greenland and through “Davis Strait” and “Baffin Bay”
3.e Labrador Current Cold Current It flows from the Arctic Ocean, south along the coast of
Labrador and around Newfoundland, to the Great Banks. It
carries large quantity of ice with it.
4 The Canary Current Cold Current It flows southward along the western coast of Africa, and then
westward towards the Caribbean.
South Atlantic Ocean

Ocean currents in the South Atlantic Ocean are as follows:

Sr No Name of Current Warm or Cold Direction & Other description

current
1 South Equatorial Current Warm Current It is flowing Westwards, under the influence of Trade winds. It is
found South of the Equator and parallel to it, in Lat. 20°S
2 Southern Ocean Current Warm Current It flows Eastwards and part of it curves towards North on
passing the Sothern tip of South America (Cape Horn). It
continues to flow Northward as “Falkland current and meets
the Brazil Current which is flowing in the opposite direction.
3 Brazil Current Warm Current It is also a warm current in continuation of the South Equatorial
current flowing Southwards.
4 Fakland current Cold Current It is a cold current. It is coming from Cape Horn to meet the
warm Brazilian current in Lat. 40°S where Advection fog is
formed.
5 South Atlantic current Cold Current It flows Eastwards into the ocean. It is joined by both the above
currents.
6 Agulhas current Cold Current It is coming from the Cape of Good Hope. It meets a part of the
Southern Ocean current and flows Northwards.
7 Benguela Current Cold Current It meets the Agulhas current near West coast of Africa, and It
flows NW wards to ultimately meet the South Equatorial
current to complete an anti-clockwise circulation.
8)a) Explain with reason the flow of surface and under current in strait of Gibraltar. (5 times)

The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow waterway connecting the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea.
It exhibits a very important and unique two-layer flow system involving surface current flowing eastward and
undercurrent flowing westward.

Here’s the detailed explanation with reasons:

Flow Pattern in the Strait of Gibraltar:
1. Surface Current – Eastward (from Atlantic to Mediterranean)
Direction: From the Atlantic Ocean into the Mediterranean Sea.
Reason:
• The Mediterranean Sea has high evaporation rates, especially in the eastern part (due to hot and dry climate).
• This results in a net loss of water from the Mediterranean.
• To compensate for this water loss, Atlantic surface water flows eastward through the Strait of Gibraltar.
• This inflow is warmer, less salty, and less dense compared to Mediterranean water.

2. Under Current – Westward (from Mediterranean to Atlantic)

Direction: From the Mediterranean Sea into the Atlantic Ocean, at depths below 150–200 m.
Reason:
• The water in the Mediterranean becomes more saline and denser due to:
• High evaporation
• Limited freshwater inflow
• Restricted exchange with the open ocean
• This dense water sinks and flows outward at depth into the Atlantic as a subsurface counter-current.
Known as the Mediterranean Outflow Water (MOW).

b) Explain with sketches, the formation of Benguela Current on the West coast of Africa. (3 times)

Direction: Along the south-western coast of Africa, the Benguela Current flows northward.
It is a cold current which meets the Agulhas current near West coast of Africa, and It flows Northward
to ultimately meet the South Equatorial current to complete an anti-clockwise circulation.

Formation:
South Atlantic Gyre: The Benguela Current is part of the larger South Atlantic Gyre, a system of rotating ocean
currents.
South Atlantic Current: A branch of the West Wind Drift (Antarctic Circumpolar Current) flows eastward and
then northward along the coast of South Africa.
Prevailing Winds: South-easterly trade winds blow along the coast, pushing surface water away from the
shore.
Upwelling: This offshore water movement causes cold, nutrient-rich water from the deep ocean to rise to the
surface along the coast, forming the Benguela Current.
9.a) Describe with suitable sketch the Ocean currents of North and South Pacific Ocean. Also identify the warm and cold currents.

North Pacific Ocean

Ocean currents in the North Pacific Ocean are as follows:

Sr No Name of Current Warm or Cold Direction & Other description

current
1 North Equatorial Current Warm Current It is flowing Westwards, under the influence of Trade winds. It is
located North of the Equator and parallel to it, in Lat. 20°N.
2 Kuroshio Current Warm Current It is continuation of the North Equatorial current near Philippines,
flowing NE wards along the coast of Taiwan and Japan.
3 Oyashio Current Cold Current It flows SW wards along the eastern coast of Hokkaido (Japan) and
then curves eastward towards the Pacific Ocean.
It meets the warm Kuroshio current, due to which Advection fog is
formed on the East coast of Japan.
4 The North Pacific Current Warm Current It is continuation of both the above currents flowing Eastwards
in Lat. 40°N.
5 Californian current Cold Current It is continuation of part of the North Pacific current flowing
Southwards along the coast of California. It finally joins with the
North Equatorial current to complete a clockwise circulation.
South Pacific Ocean

Ocean currents in the South Pacific Ocean are as follows:

Sr No Name of Current Warm or Cold Direction & Other description

current
1 South Equatorial Current Warm Current It flow westward and slowly turn SW and later South along the East
Coast of Australia to form the East Australian Coast Current.
2 East Australian Current Warm Current It is continuation of the South Equatorial current flowing
Southwards along the coasts of Australia and Tasmania.
3 South Pacific current Cold Current It flows Eastwards circumventing the Earth. It is joined by the
East Australian current at South of New Zealand.
4 West Wind Drift Cold Current It flows eastward that encircles Antarctica and connects all
three major ocean basins (Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian)
5 Humbolt current (Peru Cold Current It flows Northwards along the Peru coast (western coast of
Current) South America), and it finally joins the South Equatorial current
to complete an anti-clockwise circulation.

South

9.b) Describe the cause of formation of Kuroshio Current in North Pacific Ocean. (2 times)

The cause of formation of Kuroshio Current in North Pacific Ocean:

 Factors like wind patterns, water density differences (due to temperature and salinity), and the Coriolis
effect (caused by Earth's rotation) play a role in shaping the Kuroshio ocean currents in North Pacific
Ocean.
 The Kuroshio's origin from the westward-flowing North Equatorial Current. This current is driven by the
trade winds and is part of the larger North Pacific Subtropical Gyre.
 Bifurcation: As the NEC approaches the Philippines, it encounters the archipelago and begins to split. This
splitting is influenced by the Coriolis effect and the presence of landmasses.
10.a) Sketch and describe the currents of the South Indian Ocean. Also identify the warm and cold currents.

South Indian Ocean

Ocean currents in the South Indian Ocean are as follows:

Sr No Name of Current Warm or Cold Direction & Other description

current
1 South Equatorial Current Warm Current It is flowing Westwards, under the influence of Trade winds. It is
found South of the Equator and parallel to it, in Lat. 20°S
2 Mozambique current Warm Current It is continuation of the South Equatorial current. After striking the
East coast of Africa, it flows Southwards along the African coast.
3 Agulhas current Warm Current It is continuation of the Mozambique current. Part of it flows
further Southwards and goes around the Cape of Good Hope to
form the Benguela current on the West coast of Africa, and
another part flows Eastwards.
4 Southern Ocean current Cold Current It flows Eastwards circumventing the Earth and is joined by the
Agulhas current.
5 West Australian current Cold Current It is continuation of the Southern Ocean current flowing
Northwards along the West coast of Australia, and finally joins the
South Equatorial current to complete an anti-clockwise circulation.
b) Describe the current circulation in Bay of Bengal during SW Monsoon and NE Monsoon. (3 times)

During South West Monsoon:

 During the southwest monsoon season (June-September), there is a southwest ward-flowing current along the
western coast of India.
 This current is caused by the southwest monsoon winds blowing from the Arabian Sea towards the Indian
subcontinent.
 In the Open waters this current is Easterly.
 The coastal circulation of water in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal is both clockwise and is strengthened.

During Northeast Monsoon:

 During the northeast monsoon season (October-March), there is a reversal of the currents along the eastern
coast of India.
 The northeast monsoon winds blow from the northeast towards the Indian Ocean, causing a northeast ward-
flowing current along the eastern coast.
 In the open waters of both Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, the current sets in a westerly direction.
 Near the coasts of the Arabian Sea, there is a weak circulation in the anti-clockwise direction.
 In the northern part of Bay of Bengal, the circulation is clockwise.

Later NE Monsoon Circulation (FEB- APR)

 In the open waters near the Equator, the flow changes to Easterly.
 Near the coast of the Arabian Sea, circulation is reversed to Clockwise direction.
 The flow of water in Bay of Bengal however remains unchanged.
 The currents are much variable in this season than from November to January.

c) Give a brief description of the currents in the Arabian Sea for January and July. Explain the reasons for the
difference during these months? (2 times)

Current in the Arabian Sea for January

See NE monsoon of 10.b

Current in the Arabian Sea for January

See SW monsoon of 10.b

11)a) What are the wind and current a ship will face in its journey from Liverpool to Cape Town? (2 times)
b) Describe the current prevailing in Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Give necessary sketches (2 times)

Mediterranean Sea

Sr No Type of current Name of Current Direction & Other description

1 Surface Current Levantine Current It flows eastward along the southern coast of Turkey and then
turns southward along the coast of Syria and Lebanon.
2 Surface Current Western It flows eastward along the northern coast of Africa and then
Mediterranean Current northward along the eastern coast of Spain and France.
3 Intermediate and Mediterranean This is a deep, saline water mass that flows out of the Strait of
Deep Currents Outflow Water (MOW) Gibraltar into the Atlantic Ocean.
4 Intermediate and Western Cold and dense water that forms in the Gulf of Lions and flows
Deep Currents Mediterranean Deep towards the east in the deep layers of the western
Water Mediterranean.

Black Sea

Sr No Type of current Name of Current Direction & Other description

1 Surface Current Black Sea Surface This generally flows in a clockwise direction in the open sea,
Current driven by the predominant wind patterns.
2 Intermediate and Black Sea Deep Water It forms in the central part of the Black Sea due to winter
Deep Currents cooling and freshening of surface waters.
It flows towards the Black Sea basin's deepest areas.
3 Inflow and Bosporus Currents The Bosporus Strait is a crucial chokepoint where water flows into
Outflow the Black Sea from the Mediterranean (known as inflow) and out
of the Black Sea into the Mediterranean (known as outflow)
12) Describe the forms of display which are commonly used to depict ocean current (2 times)
(OR),
Describe the various forms of depicting ocean currents on charts.

Ocean currents are depicted on charts using a variety of symbols and notations, including arrows, colour gradients,
and contour lines, to represent direction, speed, and sometimes temperature.
These charts aid in navigation, weather forecasting, and understanding oceanographic patterns.

Here's a breakdown of the common methods:

1. Arrows:
Direction: The direction the arrow points indicates is the flow of water.
Length/Colour: The length or colour of the arrow can sometimes indicate the speed of the current. Longer or brighter
arrows may represent faster currents, while shorter or paler arrows may indicate slower currents.
Example: A chart use a long, red arrow to show a strong, warm current like the Gulf Stream.

2. Colour Gradients:
Temperature: Colour gradients are commonly used to represent water temperature, with warmer waters often
depicted in red or orange hues and colder waters in blue or green.
Example: A chart might show a warm current like the Kuroshio Current with a reddish hue, transitioning to cooler
blues as it moves towards higher latitudes.

3. Other Symbols:
Current Roses: These diagrams show the frequency and direction of currents at a specific location.
Current Speed: In some charts, specific speed values are indicated alongside the current direction, often using text or
numerical notations.
Streamlines: These lines represent the path of water flow and can be used to visualize complex current patterns.

4. Chart Types:
Routeing Charts: These charts are used for general route planning and often display major currents, wind patterns,
and other navigational information.
Oceanographic Charts: These charts provide more detailed information about ocean currents, temperature, salinity,
and other oceanographic parameters.
13) How does the ocean current charts help the mariners?

Ocean current charts help mariners in multiple important ways that enhance navigation safety, efficiency, and fuel
economy.

1. Efficient Route Planning

• Mariners can use favourable currents (e.g., Gulf Stream) to increase speed and save fuel.
• Helps in avoiding adverse currents that may reduce vessel speed and increase fuel consumption.

2. Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA) Accuracy

• By knowing current direction and speed, mariners can calculate more accurate ETA.
• This is especially important for port scheduling and logistics.

3. Fuel and Cost Savings

• Sailing with favourable currents reduces engine load, leading to less fuel usage and lower operational costs.

4. Safety and Maneuvering

• Currents near coasts, straits, or river mouths can affect maneuverability.
• Knowledge of local currents helps in safe berthing, unberthing, and transit through narrow waters.

5. Emergency Situations
• In case of engine failure or drifting, current charts help predict drift direction and rescue planning.

6. Weather Routeing Integration

• Ocean currents are used in combination with weather forecasts for optimum routeing, avoiding both heavy
weather and unfavourable currents.

Waves

1) Explain: (i) Trough (ii) Crest (iii) Wave Length (iv) Wave Height (3 times)

(ii) Crest: A crest point on a wave is the highest point of the wave. A crest is a point on a wave where the displacement
of the medium is at a maximum.

(i) Trough: A trough is the opposite of a crest, so the minimum or lowest point of the wave.

(iii) Wave Length: It is a horizontal distance between successive trough & crest.

(iv) Wave Height: It is twice of amplitude. It is vertical distance measured from crest to trough.
2) Define speed, period, length and significant wave height. What is their relationship? What are the factors governing
wave height and direction. (2 times)

Wave Speed: Also known as wave velocity. It is a speed at which wave move forward.

Wave Period: It is the time taken for two successive crest (or trough) to pass a fixed point.
Or,
It is the time elapses (pass) between passing of two successive crest (or trough)

Wave Length: It is a horizontal distance between successive trough & crest.

Relation between them: Wave Speed (C) = Wavelength (λ)/Wave Period (T)
Where: C = Wave speed (in meters/second or knots)
λ = Wavelength (in meters)
T = Wave period (in seconds)

Factors Affecting Wave Height:

1. Wind Speed: Stronger winds means more energy transferred to water which causes higher waves.

2. Wind Duration: The longer the wind blows, the more energy it gives to the waves, increasing their height.

3. Fetch: Fetch is the uninterrupted distance over which the wind blows. So, Longer the fetch, larger the wave
height.

4. Water Depth: In shallow water, wave height increases and the wave becomes steep and unstable. Waves slow
down and rise as they approach shore (shoaling).

5. Current and Wind Interaction: When current opposes the wind, wave height increases and becomes choppier
(e.g., Agulhas Current).

6. Original Sea State: Existing waves (swell or sea) may combine (constructive interference) or cancel out
(destructive interference), affecting total wave height.

Factors Affecting Wave Direction:

1. Wind Direction: Waves generally travel in the same direction as the prevailing wind that generates them.

2. Coriolis Effect: Due to Earth’s rotation, wave direction can bend slightly to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.

3. Coastal Shape and Bathymetry: Waves bend when entering shallow water at an angle. Coastal headlands,
islands, and seabed slope can steer waves.

4. Ocean Currents: Strong currents can deflect or steer waves from their original path.

5. Swell Influence: Distant storms generate swell waves that can travel long distances and influence local wave
direction even when wind is calm.

3) Explain methods of estimating wave heights and wave periods. (3 times)

Method of estimating Wave Height/Wave Period

1. Visual Estimation (Shipboard Method): Mariners estimate wave height by comparing waves to the known height of
the ship’s parts, like Freeboard, Bulwark height, Height of deck from sea level. Used mostly at sea by officers on the
bridge.

2. Use of Wave Buoys: Moored buoys are equipped with sensors to measure: Vertical displacement of sea surface &
Significant wave height (average height of the highest one-third waves)
3. Radar or LIDAR Systems: It is mounted on ships or platforms to measure the wave profile using reflected signals. It
calculates wave height from wave crests and troughs.

4. Satellite Altimetry: Satellites like Jason or Sentinel use radar altimeters to measure sea surface variations. Global
wave height data can be obtained from this method.

4) Explain the shallow water effects on a wave when it is approaching a coast line.

Shallow water effect on a wave are as follows:

(i) Decrease in Wave Speed

 In deep water, wave speed depends on wavelength.
 In shallow water, speed is governed by water depth.

(ii) Reduction in Wavelength

 Since wave period remains constant, and speed decreases, wavelength also reduces.

(iii) Increase in Wave Height

 As the energy is compressed into a shorter wavelength, the wave height increases.
 This causes steepening of waves.

(iv) Wave Refraction

 When part of a wave enters shallow water before another part, it slows down earlier, causing the wave to
bend (refract).
 Waves tend to align more parallel to the shore.

(v) Wave Breaking

 When the wave becomes too steep (height-to-length ratio 1:7), it becomes unstable and breaks.
 This creates surf and releases energy on the coastline.

(vi) Wave Shoaling

 The entire process of wave height increase, wavelength decrease, and speed reduction in shallow water is
called shoaling.

5) Write short notes on: i) Storm surge ii) tsunami iii) freak waves iv) Refraction of Sea Waves

i) Storm surge: A storm surge is an abnormal rise in sea level generated by a storm, such as a hurricane or cyclone, that
is separate from the normal astronomical tide. It's essentially the ocean water being pushed inland by the storm's
powerful winds and low atmospheric pressure, causing coastal flooding.

ii) Tsunami: Tsunamis are giant waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the sea. Out in the depths of
the ocean, tsunami waves do not dramatically increase in height. But as the waves travel inland, they build up to
higher and higher heights as the depth of the ocean decreases.

iii) Freak waves: Rogue waves (also known as freak waves or killer waves) are large and unpredictable surface waves
that can be extremely dangerous to ships and isolated structures such as lighthouses. It is defined as waves whose
height is more than twice the significant wave height. They can be caused when currents or winds cause waves to
travel at different speeds, and the waves merge to create a single large wave.

iv) Refraction of Sea Waves: Refraction of sea waves refers to the change in direction of waves as they move from
deeper to shallower water. This happens because the speed of the wave changes as it enters shallower water, causing
the wave to bend and align itself with the coastline.
6) State the causes of Southwest Monsoon in the Arabian Sea. What effect does it have on the general surface current
circulation in the Arabian Sea? (2 times)

Causes of Southwest Monsoon in the Arabian Sea:

(i) Differential Heating of Land and Sea: During summer (May–June), the Indian subcontinent heats up faster than
the Arabian Sea. This creates a low-pressure area over land and a high-pressure area over the sea.

(ii) Shift of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ): The ITCZ moves northward over the Indian subcontinent.
This attracts moist southwest winds from the Indian Ocean.

(iii) Development of the Mascarene High: A semi-permanent high-pressure area develops over the southern Indian
Ocean near Madagascar. This high pushes strong south-easterly trade winds, which cross the equator and deflect due
to Coriolis force.

(iv) Coriolis Effect: When winds cross the equator, they get deflected to the right (in the Northern Hemisphere),
becoming southwesterly monsoon winds.

(v) Thermal Low Over Northwest India: A strong thermal low develops over Rajasthan and Pakistan, intensifying the
pressure gradient, pulling moist air from the sea.

Effect on Surface Current Circulation in the Arabian Sea:

The southwest monsoon winds (June to September) dramatically alter the surface current pattern in the Arabian Sea.
Key Effects are as follows:

(i) Reversal of Current Direction

 Normal (NE Monsoon or Winter): Surface currents flow clockwise (North Equatorial Current to West India
Coastal Current).
 During SW Monsoon: Surface circulation becomes anticlockwise.

(ii) Somali Current Formation

 Strong SW monsoon winds cause the Somali Current (off the Horn of Africa) to flow northward.
 This current resembles a Western Boundary Current, similar to the Gulf Stream.

(iii) Eastward Flowing Monsoon Current

 A strong eastward monsoon current develops near 10°N, crossing the Arabian Sea toward India and Sri Lanka.

(iv) Upwelling Along Arabian Coast

 Offshore winds cause upwelling along the coast of Oman and Somalia, bringing cold, nutrient-rich water to the
surface.
 This affects marine life and fishing activities.

(v) Strengthening of Surface Turbulence

 Strong winds lead to increased wave activity and surface mixing.
 Q.6 Weather Forecasting/ Weather Routeing
(Page No 124 to 140)

Notes by: Anupam Singh Rajput

For more notes visit the website
marineredition.com
: mailto:smart@marineredition.com
: SMART MARINER (Click to subscribe)