OiCNW PHASE 3 METEOROLOGY REVISED 09.

2009

Chapter 9-
Tropical Revolving Storms

A Tropical Revolving Storm is a small area of very low pressure around which
winds of gale force or higher blow, spirally inwards, anticlockwise in the northern
hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

Every year Tropical Revolving Storms cause considerable damage and loss of life
in communities throughout the world’s coastal regions. Even on the high seas
mariners have encountered these monsters and have to be prepared to deal with
them. Damage associated with these systems is as a result of the storm surge, the
intense rainfall and the exceptional strength of the winds.

The local names of Tropical Revolving Storms in some places and their likely
seasons are:

AREA (Ocean) NAME SEASON

North Atlantic (Western) Hurricane June - Nov
North Pacific (Western) Typhoon/Baguios All year
" (Eastern) Hurricane/Cordonazo June - Nov
South Pacific (Western) Hurricane Dec - April
South Indian (Western) Cyclone Dec - April
" (Eastern) Willy-Willy Dec - April
Arabian Sea Cyclone During the
change of the
Monsoon.
Bay of Bengal Cyclone May - Dec

Table 9.1: The local names of TRS in different areas & their likely seasons

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THE FORMATION, DEVELOPMENT AND CLASSIFICATION OF

TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS

Formation & Development of the TRS

The formation and development of Tropical Revolving Storms is clearly

understood by Meteorologists across the world. Their formation and development
is a continuous process that may span several days, rather than being a sudden
event. The system goes through a set of stages (tropical disturbance, tropical
depression and tropical storm) before developing into a hurricane.

The main factors influencing formation are high sea surface temperature (≥
26.5ºC), and a latitude of 5º N or S or greater. The high sea surface temperature is
important since it provides the energy required through the evaporation of vast
amounts of water vapour into the troposphere to aid the development and
maintenance of the large convective cumulonimbus clouds. The converging
surface wind into the low pressure region spins cyclonically in the Northern
hemisphere and anti-cyclonically in the Southern hemisphere. In order for this type
of rotation to be sustained the system is usually 5º or more away from the equator
since the Coriolis force near the equator tends to zero.

Other factors considered to have major influence on formation and development of

Tropical Revolving Storms are:

1. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

2. Stratospheric Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO)

3. Sea Level Pressure

4. West African Rainfall

5. Frontal Systems

6. Solar Activity

7. Relative humidity

**Note*** There have been problems in determining if these main factors are
working together or independent of each other, however, there has been
tremendous improvements in this area which has improved the understanding of
their interactions.

CLASSIFICATION OF TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS

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Tropical Revolving Storms are classified with respect to their wind speeds. The
classifications are as follows:

1. Less than 33 knots (force 7 or less) it is classified as a Tropical

Depression.

2. 34 to 47 knots (force 8 and 9) it is classified as a Moderate Tropical

Revolving Storm.

3. 48 to 63 knots (force 10 and 11 it is classified as a Severe Tropical

Revolving Storm.

4. 64 knots and greater (force 12 and greater) it is classified as a Violent

Tropical Revolving Storm. In the western hemisphere we call it a
Hurricane.

Once the TRS have attained hurricane status they were classified according to the
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Damage-Potential Scale (SSHS) outlined here:

Scale Central Maximum Sustained

Number Pressure (1 minute) wind speed Storm
(Category) (hPa) (kmh-1) surge (m) Damage
980 or Trees, shrubs and unanchored
1 Greater 119-153 1.5 - 2.0 mobile homes damaged
Some trees uprooted; exposed
mobile homes suffer major damage;
2 154-177 minor damage to roofs and
965 - 979 2.0 - 2.5 buildings
Leaves stripped from trees; large
trees uprooted; destruction of
3 178-210 mobile homes; small buildings
945 - 964 2.5 - 4.0 structurally damaged
Signs blown down; extensive
structural damage to most
4 920 - 944 211-250 4.0 - 5.5 buildings; flooding of < 10 km inland
Severe structural damage of all
types of buildings and flooding of up
5 < 920 > 250 > 5.5 to 4.5 m within 500 m of the shore
Table 9.2: The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane damage potential scale (Ahrens,
1999)

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In 2009 however, the decision was made to change this scale to the Saffir-
Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, addressing more prominently, aspects of wind
impacts from various strength systems. It was felt that the use of the “Central
Pressure” developed during the 1970s and 1980s as a qualifier for predicting the
wind strength of systems was redundant given the increased accuracy of wind
speed intensity measurements from aircraft reconnaissance since 1990. Omitted
from the new scale as well is the “Storm Surge” aspect of the previous scale as it
was discovered that other factors (such as hurricane size, local bathymetry and
topographic forcing) played a role in determining the height of the storm surges.
Using the previous scale, the anomaly was observed where a lower Category
system (such as a Category 1) produced higher surges than higher Category
systems (such as Category 3). An example of this was seen in 2008 when
Hurricane Ike (Category 2) produced a peak surge of 15-20ft, while Hurricane
Charley in 2004 (a Category 4) produced a peak surge of 6-7ft. The new scale is
shown below.

Scale Max Sustained

Number (1min) wind Descriptor Damage
(Category) speed (kmh-1)
Damaging winds
1 are expected Trees, shrubs and unanchored
119-153 mobile homes damaged
Very strong winds Some trees uprooted; exposed
will produce mobile homes suffer major damage;
2 154-177 widespread damage minor damage to roofs and buildings

Leaves stripped from trees; large

Dangerous winds
trees uprooted; destruction of mobile
will cause extensive
3 178-210 homes; small buildings structurally
damage
damaged
Extremely Signs blown down; extensive
dangerous winds structural damage to most buildings;
4 211-250 causing devastating flooding of < 10 km inland
damage are
Expected

Catastrophic Severe structural damage of all

damage is expected types of buildings and flooding of up
5 > 250 to 4.5 m within 500 m of the shore
Table 9.3: New Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale

The hurricane season in the North Atlantic Ocean runs from 1 st June to 30th
November and sees on average, 10 named storms, 6 hurricanes and 2 to 3 major

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hurricanes (1944-1996). These figures have been increasing over the past decade
and 2005 was the most active season ever recorded in the North Atlantic, with 31
Tropical Revolving Storms forming (28 named Tropical Storms forming, 15
reached hurricane strength and 7 attaining the status of major hurricanes
(category 3 or higher on the (SSHS) (table 9.3)). Of interest as well 4 of the 7
hurricanes attaining major hurricanes were category 5 on the SSHS.

The National Hurricane Center (NHC) in Miami, Florida, one of the World
Meteorological Organisation’s (WMO’s) Regional Specialized Meteorological
Centres (RSMCs) is responsible for the monitoring of Tropical Revolving Storms in
the North Atlantic.

DANGERS TO SHIPPING FROM A TRS

Tropical Revolving Storms are a great danger to shipping, regardless of where

they are encountered.

Some conditions one can experience if a Tropical Storm is encountered:

(i) Visibility between 0 and 1 kilometre due to spray and torrential rain
(ii) Inability of the vessel to respond to rudder, due to force of wind
(iii) All deck structures and equipment such as masts, aerials, funnels,
davits, boats, ventilators, destroyed and carried away by wind and sea
(iv) The loss of all wireless communication facilities. Even verbal
communication between crew members onboard becomes almost
impossible due to roaring noise of the wind/sea and the hammering
noise of the rain
(v) The rolling of vessel by over 50°, resulting in the rushing in of water
through various openings. This will result in the flooding of different
components of the vessel, including the engine rooms resulting in short
circuits, fires, failure of electrical power and the total failure of the main
engines
(vi) Worst of all there may be irreparable damage to the vessel, the
capsizing and sinking of the vessel resulting to the total loss of cargo
and the loss of lives.

*** Some or all of these can happen within a few minutes with little time to
respond***

CONCLUSION:
Whenever a vessel is in an area where Tropical Revolving Storms are likely to
be encountered, she should keep a careful watch for the warning signs of an
approaching Tropical Revolving Storm and take evasive actions: These will be
discussed later.

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IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS
1. Track: The route over which the storm centre has already passed
2. Path: The predicted route over which the storm centre is likely to travel
3. Trough: The line drawn through the centre of the storm, at right angles to
the track. Pressure falls ahead of the trough and rises behind the trough
4. Vertex or Cod: This is the westernmost longitude reached by the storm
centre when recurving takes place.
5. Right Hand Semi-Circle (RHSC): That half of the storm centre which lies
to the right of the observer who faces along the path of the storm.
6. Left Hand Semi-Circle (LHSC): That half of the storm centre which lies to
the left of the observer who faces along the path of the storm.
7. Dangerous Semi-Circle: That half of the storm centre which lies to the
right of the observer who faces along the path of the storm (ie.RHSC) in the
northern hemisphere and that half of the storm centre which lies to the left
of the observer who faces along the path of the storm (ie.LHSC) in the
southern hemisphere.
8. Navigable Semi-Circle: That half of the storm centre which lies to the left
of the observer who faces along the path of the storm (ie.LHSC) in the
northern hemisphere and that half of the storm centre which lies to the right
of the observer who faces along the path of the storm (ie.RHSC) in the
southern hemisphere.
9. Dangerous Quadrant: The advance quadrant of that half of the storm
centre which lies to the right of the observer who faces along the path of the
storm (ie RHSC) in the northern hemisphere and that half of the storm
centre which lies to the left of the observer who faces along the path of the
storm (ie.LHSC) in the southern hemisphere.

***When the existence of a Tropical Revolving Storm in the vicinity has been
established, evasive actions must be taken to keep the vessel out of this
quadrant***

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THE ORIGIN, MOVEMENT AND LIFESPAN OF THE TRS

Tropical Revolving Storms originate in latitudes between 5° and 20° of the equator
and travel between West and West northwest in the northern hemisphere, and
between West and West southwest in the southern hemisphere at a speed of
about 12 knots. Somewhere along their track they recurve away from the equator
to the North and then to the Northeast in the northern hemisphere and to the
South and then to the Southeast in the southern hemisphere. They recurve such
that the storm travels around the oceanic high pressure (which is situated at about
30° North and South in the middle of large oceans). After recurving, the speed of
travel increases to about 15 to 20 knots. They do not recurve all the time. These
systems dissipate when they move over land masses or when they move into
colder waters. The lifespan of a Tropical Revolving Storms varies between one (1)
to nineteen (19) days, with an average of about six (6) days.

Figure 9.1: The origin and movement of a typical Tropical Revolving Storm

THE STRUCTURE OF THE WELL DEVELOPED TRS

In its well developed phase, a Tropical Revolving Storm has a relatively symmetric
pattern and comprises three (3) distinct parts:
(a) The Eye or Vortex
(b) The Eye Wall
(c) The Outer Storm Area.

(a) The Eye or Vortex: This is a central area of the storm with lowest pressure
and is an area of subsidence. The winds in the eye are calm or light and the

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sky is cloud free or lightly clouded with little or no precipitation. The

diameter of the eye is between 4 and 30 miles with an average of 10 miles.

(b) The Eye Wall: The Eye Wall is an inner ring of hurricane force winds
having a width of between 4 and 30 miles, with an average of 10 miles. The
winds in the eye wall blow is a perfectly circular path with a speed as high
as 130 knots with occasional gusts up to 150 knots. The pressure gradient
in the eye wall is very, very steep, with the barograph trace showing a near
vertical trend. Before the passage of the eye of the TRS there is a sudden
fall in the atmospheric pressure and an equal sudden rise of the
atmospheric pressure after the passage of the eye.

(c) The Outer Storm Area: The Outer Storm Area is the area surrounding the
eye wall, with a diameter between 50 and 800 miles, and an average of 500
miles. The winds in this region are strong (between force 6 or 7) and the
pressure gradient is steep but not as steep as in the eye wall. Again there is
a fall in atmospheric pressure ahead of the eye and a rise behind.

Outer storm area

Eye wall

Eye

Outer storm area

Y
Figure 9.2: Satellite Image of Hurricane Ivan September 9, 2004 showing the three
distinct parts

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Figure 9.3: Satellite image showing the structure of Hurricane Ivan

September 11, 2004

Figure 9.4: Vertical cross-sectional view of a mature Tropical Revolving

Storm showing the main features present

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Figure 9.5: Cross-sectional view of a mature Tropical Revolving Storm

showing the main features present

Figure 9. 6: Vertical Cross-sectional view of a mature Tropical Revolving Storm

showing the main features present

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Figure 9.7: Plan view of a mature Tropical Revolving Storm

showing the main features present

Figure 9.8: The barograph trace of a mature Tropical Revolving Storm

showing the main features present

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Figure 9.9: Radar image showing the internal structure of a mature Tropical
Revolving Storm

Figure 9.10: Radar image showing the structure of Hurricane Ivan September
10, 2004

CHANGES IN THE WEATHER PARAMETERS CAUSED BY A TRS

In this section we will look at some of the effects, which the passage of a well
developed Tropical Revolving Storm has on the different weather parameters such
as:
(a) Atmospheric Pressure
(b) Wind

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(c) Cloud and Precipitation

(d) Visibility
(e) Storm surge or tidal wave
(f) Atmospheric Temperature

1. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The barograph trace, typical of a well developed Tropical Revolving Storm whose
centre passes over a stationary observer, is shown in figure 9.8 above. Figure
9.11 also shows the barograph trace of Hurricane Gilbert (September 1988).

Some evident features of the atmospheric pressure during the passage of a well
developed Tropical Revolving Storm are as follows:
o In the outer storm area there is a slow fall in pressure ahead of the
trough line and a slow rise behind
o In the eye wall the fall in pressure ahead and rise behind the trough line
is very, very sharp, nearly vertical with pressure gradient in the order of
11mb in 15 miles
o In the eye the lowest pressure is reached, and this may be as much as
60mb below normal.
If the storm centre passes near the stationary observer but not over him, the
barograph trace would have similar characteristics but the pressure will not fall as
low as it does at the eye.

Figure 9.11: Barograph trace of Hurricane Gilbert (September 1988).

2. WIND

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If a stationary observer is in the Right Hand Semi-Circle, the wind will veer steadily
and if he is in the Left Hand Semi-Circle, it will back steadily. This holds true for
both the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere. If he is in the direct path
of the storm, the wind direction will remain fairly steady.

In all these cases, the wind force will increase as the atmospheric pressure falls
and after the trough has passed, the wind force will gradually decrease as the
atmospheric pressure increases.

Figure 9.12 shows the pattern of wind forces associated with hurricanes Gilbert
(September 1988). The wind force in the outer storm region is between forces 6 to
7 whereas in the eye wall of a Hurricane the wind force will be force 12 and over.
In the eye wall the strongest winds usually lie in the rear quadrant on the pole side
of the storm.

Figure 9.12: Wind data associated with the passage of Hurricane Gilbert

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Figure 9.13: Swath of wind associated with the passage of Hurricane Ivan
(September 2004)

3. CLOUD and PRECIPITATION

The Cloud and Precipitation pattern of a typical Tropical Revolving Storm will show
the following:
o In the outer fringes of the storm, cirrus in the form of strands or
filaments generally so aligned, that they tend to point towards the
storm centre
o Then cirrostratus followed by altostratus and rain
o Around the eye wall there is thick nimbostratus and continuous rain
and some cumulus and showers
o In the eye wall there is towering cumulus and cumulonimbus with
torrential rain, showers and thunderstorms
o Directly above the eye, blue sky may be seen with little or no
precipitation. These are all evident in most of the previous figures.

4. VISIBILITY

Visibility is usually excellent in the outer fringes of a Tropical Revolving Storm, and
is good in the middle of the outer storm area, except in showers.

Visibility is poor around the eye wall especially under the nimbostratus clouds in
rain and is almost nil in the eye wall due to driving rain and spray. Visibility is poor
in the eye due to fog or mist.

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5. STORM SURGE OR TIDAL WAVE

The violent winds of the eye wall produce mountainous waves, sometimes as high
as 20 metres and since the Tropical Revolving Storm moves comparatively slowly,
the winds act for a long time on the same area. This sets up strong currents of
water as deep as 25 metres below the surface. The water level rises well above
normal level as these strong currents approaches and floods coastal areas. This
may cause the vessel to be pushed well inland and after the storm has abated, the
vessel may be left many miles inland.

Figure 9.14: Effects of storm surge associated with the

passage of Hurricane Ivan (September 2004)

6. ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE

No drastic changes in the Atmospheric Temperature are experienced on the

passage of a Tropical Revolving Storm, due to the fact that it exists in one air
mass only. However, atmospheric temperature would decrease during rain. Slight
increase may be experienced in the eye due to adiabatic heating of subsiding air.

***NB... A vessel in the eye of a Tropical Revolving Storm is in a most dangerous

situation since the swells are confused and mountainous.***

After a short time, as the vessel passes from the eye into the eye wall the wind
force will suddenly increase to hurricane force from the opposite direction and
strike the vessel and would cause her to heel over by as much as 80° or more and
would hold her like that, leaving practically no margin for any further rolling.
Extensive wind damage, many openings may go below water during heeling over,
and progressive flooding would cause the vessel to capsize.

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WARNING SIGNS OF AN APPROACHING TROPICAL REVOLVING STORM

The following parameters provide valuable warning signs of the approach of a

Tropical Revolving Storm and are sometimes one or a combination of these signs
is the only sign warning of the approach of the TRS. These are as follows:
1 Atmospheric pressure
2. Swell
3. Weather
4. Storm Warnings

1. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Atmospheric pressure falls steadily. If the barometric pressure, which is corrected

for index error, temperature, height above sea level latitude and semi-diurnal
variation is more than 3mb below normal, the approach of a Tropical Revolving
Storm should be suspected. If the fall is more than 5mb below normal, the
approach/existence of a Tropical Revolving Storm is confirmed. According to Buys
Ballot’s Law, if the barometric pressure, (corrected as above) has fallen 10mb
below normal, allow 12 points as it means that the vessel is in the outer fringes of
a Tropical Revolving Storm.

If the barometric pressure, (corrected as above) has fallen 20mb or more below
normal, allow 8 points as it means that the vessel is near the eye of a well
developed Tropical Revolving Storm.

*** NB... Buys Ballot’s Law may be applied with confidence only after the
pressure has fallen by 10mb or more below normal***

Again, Buys Ballot’s Law states that:

“If you face the true wind then the Low pressure area (L) will be 8-
12 points or 90 to 135 degrees on your right in the Northern
hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere.”

2. SWELLS

Swell are usually the first indication of an approaching Tropical Revolving Storm.
The very violent winds of the eye- wall send swell out in a radial direction. Swell
can be experienced as much as a thousand miles away. Swell travel much faster
than the speed of travel of the storm and therefore, approaches from the direction
of the storm centre.

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3. INCLEMENT WEATHER SIGNS

1. The following are the weather warning signs:

2. Cirrus clouds will appear in the form of bands or filaments aligned towards
the direction of the storm centre
3. Usually good visibility may be experienced way ahead of a Tropical
Revolving Storm
4. Sometimes dark red/copper colour clouds may be seen at sunset ahead
of a Tropical Revolving Storm
5. There will be an increase in the wind speed and a steady fall in pressure
as a Tropical Revolving Storm approaches
6. The appearance of threatening, dense, dark, heavy clouds on the horizon
7. Frequent lightning and the onset of squalls with or even without rain.

4. STORM WARNINGS

Storm warnings may be contained in weather reports (Bulletins) based on satellite

pictures, radar imagery and observations from other vessels. These weather
reports (Bulletins) give the position, strength, movement and central pressure of
the system and also the path.

***NB.The need for frequent and reliable ship report/observations are very
important as this may very well be the first indication of a Storm in the
vicinity.***

ACTIONS TO TAKE WHEN THE APPROACH OF A TROPICAL REVOLVING

STORM IS CONFIRMED

If the atmospheric pressure has fallen by more than 5mb below normal (after it has
been corrected for index error, temperature, height above sea level latitude and
semi-diurnal variation), the approach/existence of a Tropical Revolving Storm is
confirmed and actions must be taken to ensure that lives and property is
protected. The Actions to be taken are:

1. Obtain the bearing of the Storm Centre.

2. Ascertain in which semi-circle the vessel lies.
3. Take avoiding action.

1. OBTAIN THE BEARING OF THE STORM CENTRE:

This is necessary since it will dictate what other precautionary measures are to
be taken.

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To obtain the bearing of the Storm Centre:

o Heave to face the true wind, and according to Buys Ballot’s Law, the
storm centre will be 8-12 points or 90° to 135° on your right in the
Northern hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere.
o If the barometric pressure, (corrected for errors) has fallen 10mb
below normal, allow 12 points as it means that either the vessel is in
the outer fringes of a well developed Tropical Revolving Storm, or
that a new Tropical Revolving Storm is forming in the vicinity.
o If the barometric pressure, (corrected as above) has fallen 20mb or
more below normal, allow 8 points as it means that the vessel is near
the eye of a well developed Tropical Revolving Storm.

2. ASCERTAIN IN WHICH SEMI-CIRCLE THE VESSEL LIES:

This is necessary so that you will know which semicircle to navigate. To ascertain
in which semi-circle the vessel lies:
A continuous observation of the wind direction and speed is necessary:
o If the wind veers, the vessel is in the Right Hand Semi-Circle
o If it backs, the vessel is in the Left Hand Semi-Circle
This is true for a stationary observer in both the Northern and Southern
hemisphere.

While determining which semi-circle the vessel is in the following points

should be noted:
i. Wind observations are to be taken and logged every hour. These
should be compared with that taken 2 hours earlier to see if there are
any changes. This is to give time for significant veering or backing
and hence remove errors that may be caused as a result of irregular
gusting of the wind

ii. The veering or backing, once detected should be continuous while

the observer remains stationary. (i.e.: if the wind has been veering, it
should continue to veer or if the wind is backing, it should continue to
back)
NB: If the wind veers at first and then backs or if it backs at first and then veers,
this is an indication that the vessel must have passed from one semi-circle into
another, due to the storm changing its path.

iii. The vessel should remain hove to (i.e. the observer must be
stationary) during the two hour intervals between observations when
the observer is in the process of determining if the wind is backing or
veering. This is necessary to ensure that the correct conclusion
regarding in which semi-circle the vessel is in, is reached. Failure to
correctly determine if the vessel is in the Right Hand Semi-circle or
the Left Hand Semi-circle may lead to disastrous consequences. For
example: If a vessel was overtaking a Tropical Revolving Storm or if

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it was approaching a stationary Tropical Revolving Storm from its

rear, the following would be observed:
o The wind would veer in the Left Hand Semi-circle and
o The wind would back in the Right Hand Semi-circle

If a navigator is not well trained and alert, this would lead to the wrong
conclusion regarding the semi-circle the vessel is in and would lead to the
actions being taken, which instead of taking the vessel away from the storm
centre, would lead to the vessel going into its centre.

3. TAKE AVOIDING ACTION:

Any avoiding action that is taken, must at all times aim to keep the vessel well out
of the storm centre. The following actions should be taken if the vessel is:
(A) In Port
(B) Out in open Sea:
(i) If the vessel is in the dangerous quadrant or
(ii) If the vessel is in the path of the Storm or
(iii) If the vessel is in the navigable semi-circle.

(A) If the vessel is in port when a storm warning is received,

recommendations are that:

o You proceed well out to sea so that the vessel will have plenty of sea
room and sufficient depth of water to prevent the vessel from
pounding on the seabed during pitching and heaving

If it is not possible to proceed out to sea:

o Then it would be advisable to anchor the vessel outside of the port in
whatever shelter one can find. Drop both anchors with several
shackles of cable out on each. The engines should be on standby
and bursts of engine movements are recommended to prevent the
vessel from dragging anchors.

(B) If the vessel is out in the open sea when a storm warning is received:
The following actions are recommended to keep the vessel out of the storm
centre:
(i) If the vessel is in the dangerous quadrant in the N/H:
o Proceed as fast as practicable with the wind 1 to 4 points on the
starboard bow – 1 point for slow vessels (those which travel at less
than 12 knots) and 4 points for fast vessels (those which travel at
more than 12 knots), altering course as the wind veers. This action
should be kept up until the atmospheric pressure rises back to
normal (i.e. until the vessel is outside the outer storm area).
If there is not sufficient sea room, the vessel should heave to with the wind
on the starboard bow until the storm passes over.

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(ii) If the vessel is in the dangerous quadrant in the S/H:

o Proceed as fast as practicable with the wind 1 to 4 points on the port
bow – 1 point for slow vessels (those which travel at less than 12
knots) and 4 points for fast vessels (those which travel at more than
12 knots), altering course as the wind backs. This action should be
kept up until the atmospheric pressure rises back to normal (i.e. until
the vessel is outside the outer storm area)
If there is not sufficient sea room, the vessel should heave to with the
wind on the port bow until the storm passes over

(i) If the vessel is in the path of the Storm in the N/H:

o Proceed as fast as practicable with the wind about 4 points on the
starboard quarter, altering course as the wind backs. This action
should be kept up until the atmospheric pressure rises back to
normal (i.e. until the vessel is outside the outer storm area).

(ii) If the vessel is in the path of the Storm in the S/H:

o Proceed as fast as practicable with the wind about 4 points on the
port quarter, altering course as the wind veers. This action should be
kept up until the atmospheric pressure rises back to normal (i.e. until
the vessel is outside the outer storm area).

(i) If the vessel is in the navigable semi-circle in the N/H:

o Proceed as fast as practicable with the wind about 4 points on the
starboard quarter, altering course as the wind backs. This action
should be kept up until the atmospheric pressure rises back to
normal (i.e. until the vessel is outside the outer storm area).

(ii) If the vessel is in the navigable semi-circle in the S/H:

o Proceed as fast as practicable with the wind about 4 points on the
port quarter, altering course as the wind veers. This action should be
kept up until the atmospheric pressure rises back to normal (i.e. until
the vessel is outside the outer storm area).

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OiCNW PHASE 3 METEOROLOGY REVISED 09.2009

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

1. Define the following terms as they relate to a Tropical Revolving Storm.

(i) Tropical Revolving Storm
(ii) Vertex or Cod
(iii) Dangerous Quadrant
(iv) Trough
(v) Path
(vi) Right Hand Semi-Circle (RHSC)
(vii) Dangerous Semi-Circle

2. With the aid of a clearly labeled diagram, describe the structure of a

well-developed Tropical Revolving Storm.

3. Give a brief account of the origin, movement and lifespan of a Tropical

Revolving Storm.

4. Discuss with the aid of clearly labeled diagrams where possible how the
following parameters are affected when the centre of a well-developed
Tropical Revolving Storm passes over a stationary observer in the
Northern Hemisphere:
(i) Wind Speed
(ii) Atmospheric Pressure
(iii) Visibility
(iv) Cloud and precipitation

6. What are the two main factors influencing the formation of Tropical
Revolving Storms and how these factors influence TRS formation. List
four other factors which also influence the formation and development of
TRS.

7. What are the categories into which Tropical Revolving Storms are
classified and what are the wind speeds for these categories?

8. List five of the conditions and their reasons that one can experience if
and when a mature TRS is encountered.

9. When an approaching Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS) is confirmed,

avoiding action must be to keep the vessel well out of the storm centre.
What actions must be taken if:
1. It is impossible to proceed out to sea.
2. The vessel is in the Dangerous Quadrant.

End of Chapter 9

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