BASICS OF DATA REPRESENTATION

Data are usually represented in a computer by using the numbers, alphabets-A to

Z symbols, graphs and images.
This form of representation is used to formulate problem and fed to the
computer. The processed output is required in the same form. This form
representation is called external data representation.
However the computer can understand data by strings of binary digits, or bits.
A bit is a smallest unit of data in a computer. It is represented by a 1 or a 0.
A unique combination of eight bits referred to as a byte, represents each character
in a computer.
Two most important characteristics of hardware in a computer are speed and size.
Computer processing time is measured in millions of a second; the instructions
processed per second is expressed in MIPS (million instruction per second). The
units of time and size used to describe a computer are as follows:

UNIT SIZE OF MEMORY

Byte 8 bits

Kilobyte (KB) 1000 (103) bytes

Megabyte (MB) 1000000(106) bytes

Gigabyte (GB) 1000000000(109) bytes

Terabyte 1000000000000(1012)
bytes

3.3. TYPES OF COMPUTERS

 Analog Computer
Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers
represent variables by physical quantities. Thus any computer which solve
problem by translating physical conditions such as flow, temperature, pressure,
 angular position or voltage into related mechanical or electrical related circuits
as an analog for the physical phenomenon being investigated in general it is a
computer which uses an analog quantity and produces analog values as output.
Thus an analog computer measures continuously. Analog computers are very
much speedy. They produce their results very fast. But their results are
approximately correct. All the analog computers are special purpose computers.
 Digital Computer.
Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or
numbers. These numbers are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also
make logical decision to reach a conclusion, depending on, the data they receive
from the user. Digital computer classified into 3 types. These are:
• Main Frame Computer
The most expensive, largest and the most quickest or speedy computer are
called mainframe computers. These computers are used in large companies,
factories, organizations etc. the mainframe computers are the most expensive
computers; they cost more than 20 million rupees. In these computers 150 users
are able to work on one C.P.U. The mainframes are able to process 1 to 8 bits
at a time. They have several hundreds of megabytes of primary storage and
operate at a speed measured in nano second.
• Mini Computer
Mini computers are smaller than mainframes, both in size and other facilities
such as speed, storage capacity and other services. They are versatile that they
can be fitted where ever they are needed. Their speeds are rated between one
and fifty million instructions per second (MIPS). They have primary storage in
hundred to three hundred megabytes range with direct access storage device.
• Micro Computer
These are the smallest range of computers. They were introduced in the early
70’s having less storing space and processing speed. Micro computers of today’s
are equivalent to the mini computers of yesterday in terms of performing and
processing. They are also called “computer of a chip” because its entire circuitry
is contained in one tiny chip. The micro computers have a wide range of
applications including uses as portable computer that can be plugged into any wall.
 Hybrid Computer
Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog
characteristics combining the advantages of analog and digital computers when
working as a system. Hybrid computers are being used extensively in process
control system where it is necessary to have a close representation with the
physical world. The hybrid system provides the good precision that can be attained
with analog computers and the greater control that is possible with digital
computers, plus the ability to accept the input data in either form
4.2. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
There are two types of programming languages 1. Procedural language.
2. Non-procedural language.
 Procedural Language:
A language, which explains stepwise sequential explanation to
accomplish a given task, is called as procedural language.
 Non-Procedural Language:
A non-procedural language focuses on what needs to be done, without
specifying exactly how it should be done.
Object oriented programming
 Object oriented programming also abbreviated as OOP is also a
programming language to enhance the productivity of programmers and
reduces software development time. In OOP systems are modelled using
chunks of programming a data called objects. Each object includes
programming code that specifies how it should behave how it should
manipulate data, respond to messages from other objects, and send
messages of its own.
 A significant benefit of OOP is code reusability, i.e., the same piece of
code can be use for different applications. Today code reusability has not
only become desirable but also essential in many software development
environments. It is estimated that half of the code required for most
applications already exists and that an estimated 40% and 60% of all new
code can come from software libraries of reusable components .Also OOP
reduces amount of testing required .OOP software is easier to update
because some aspects of an object have been often to be modified.
Visual Programming:
 Visual programming facilitates users to visualize their code and its
impact on the system. The program allows a user to download competitors
 advertised prices from an external database. It then compares the
competitor’s prices with those of the user organisation and graphically
displays comparisons of the prices.
 Microsoft Company has developed visual BASIC, designed to allow
users to integrate Microsoft Windows application. This feature can reduce
the development time for many applications. Visual BASIC serves as a
common macro language for Access, Power point, Word and Excel.
4.3. CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE:
There are two types of computer software are available:
àSystem software àApplication software
4.3.1. System Software
There are three basic types of system
software:  System control
software  System
support software  System
development software.
 System control software: System control software helps to
monitor, control, coordinate, and manage the resources and functions of a
computer system. System control software can be classified into two categories:-
§ Operating system and its functions § Operating system environments.
 Operating system and its functions: The operating system manages
the computers processes, functioning as an interface between the user the
software that processes the firm’s data and the hardware. Major functions
of an operating system include:
Helping a CPU to manage or control internal computer operations
Facilitating communications between an user and a CPU
Enabling a CPU to communicate with other peripheral devices
Automating certain program functions to increase the operating efficiency of a
computer system as a whole.
Other six basic functions that an operating system can perform are:
• Schedule jobs
• Manage hardware and software resources
• Maintain system security
• Enable multiple user resource sharing
• Handle interrupts
 • Maintain usage records
 Operating system environment: There are two types of operating
system environments:
Multiprogramming: It is a computing environment in which multiple users can
run multiple programs on a single CPU computer at the same time. The CPU
switches between programs, however at any given time is executing only one
program.
Multiprocessing: it is system has a number of processors that process data and
instructions, unlike systems that have only one CPU. It is ideally suited for complex
and computationally intensive operations that require extensive processing.
ðSystem support software: Programs which support the smooth execution of
various programs and operations of a computer are called system support
software. System support software includes utility programs, programming
services software, database management systems, and security software and
system documentation.
 Utility programs
These are among the most popular types of system support software. The
perform tasks such as formatting disks, locating free space on a disk, retrieving
lost or damaged files ,sorting and merging data, converting files from one format
to another ,backing up important files and providing online help.
 Programming services software
It includes
Language translators
System loaders Link editors, System librarians.
 Database management system
It is a set of computer programs that enables a user to define, create access,
manipulate, and output the information in records stored on a database.
 Security software
It protects a computer system and its files from unauthorized access. Examples of
security software includes
Password programs
File protect programs Encryption software.
 System documentation
It includes manual, flowcharts, reference, guides, and other operating
instructions. ðSystem development software:
It helps design and built better system, e.g. a collection of programs that assist
developers in developing an information system also called as computer aided
software engineering (CASE).
4.3.2. Application Software:
Application software assists in managing the organisation’s physical and
conceptual resources.
There are two types of application software:
 General purpose software
 Dedicated software
 General purpose software: it is designed for general applications
such as payroll, inventory management, and accounting. Dedicated
software is designed for specific application such as space shuttle.
 Dedicated software: it includes specialised or customised
applications designed for specific purposes. For example, logistic
software helps firms handle the flow of goods and services from one
location to another in order to cut costs, minimize inventory, and
reduce the time it takes for goods, services, or information to reach
their destination.
TELECOMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
Telecommunications system has five components. These are 1. Sender: - input
devices.
2. Channel & Media:-channel characteristics.
• Transmission Speed.
• Transmission Mode.
• Transmission direction Media
• Bounded.
• Unbounded.
3. Hardware: -
• Host Computer,
• Front end Processor,
• Modem,
• Multiplexer, • Switch.
• Bridge
• Gateway • Bus.
 4. Software:-
• Access Control.
• Transmission control.
• Network control & Management.
• Error detection & Correction.
• Network Security.
5. Receiver:-Output Devices.
. Telecommunications Media
There are two types of media over with data is transmitted.
• Bounded media-The signals are confined to the medium. Ex-Twisted
pair cable, fibre-optic cables, coaxial cable.
• Unbounded media-The signal are not restricted to the medium.
ExMicrowaves.
DATA COMMUNICATIONS HARDWARE
 Host Computer:-The host performs the data processing for the
network. The incoming messages are handled in the same manner as
data received from any other type of input unit .After the processing,
messages can be transmitted back to the front –end processor for
routing.
 Front-end processor:-The front-end processor is a minicomputer that
acts as a buffer between the client device and the host computer. It
increases the operating efficiency of the network by taking care of
routine tasks such as coordinating peripherals and ensuring errorfree
transmission.
 Modem:-It stands for modulator-demodulator. It is used for Digital
signals are converted into analog signals and vice-versa.
 Multiplexer:-It is a device that permits the simultaneous sending and
receiving of multiple messages over a signal channel. A multiplexer
collects signals from several terminals and transmits them over a
single channel.
 Switch:-It is a device which is determines the data transmission path.
Switches can control the transmission path across national or local
networks.
  Bridge and gateway:-
• A bridge is a device that separates two or more network segments
with in one logical network (e.g. a single IP-subnet). A bridge is usually
placed between two separate groups
of computers that talk with each other, but not that much with the computers in
the other group.
• A gateway is a node (a router) on a TCP/IP network that serves as an
access point to another network. A default gateway is the node on the
computer network that the network software uses when an IP address
does not match any other routes in the routing table.
 Bus: - A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from
one part of a computer to another.
. Local Area Networks (LANS)
 A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated
devices that share a common communications line or wireless link.
 It is connected devices share the resources of a single processor or
server within a small geographic area (for example, within an office
building).
 The server has applications and data storage that are shared in
common by multiple computer users.
 A local area network may serve as few as two or three users (for
example, in a home network) or as many as thousands of users (for
example, in an FDDI network).
 Major local area network technologies are: Ethernet, Token Ring, and
FDDI.
 Ethernet is the most commonly used LAN technology.
 A number of corporations use the Token Ring technology.
 FDDI is sometimes used as a backbone LAN interconnecting Ethernet
or Token Ring LANs.
 Another LAN technology, ARCNET, once the most commonly installed
LAN technology, is still used in the industrial automation industry.
 A suite of application programs can be kept on the LAN server.
 Users who need an application frequently can download it once and
then run it from their local hard disk.
 Users can order printing and other services as needed through
applications run on the LAN server.
  A user can share files with others at the LAN server; read and write
access is maintained by a LAN administrator.
 A LAN server may also be used as a Web server if safeguards are
taken to secure internal applications and data from outside access.
5.5.4. Wide Area Networks (WANS)
 It is a collection of computers and network resources connected via a
network over a geographic area.
 Wide-Area Networks are commonly connected either through the
Internet or special arrangements made with phone companies or other
service providers.  A WAN is different from a MAN because of the
distance between each of the networks. In a WAN, one network may be
anywhere from several hundred miles away, to across the globe in a
different country.
 There are different types of set up a WAN are:-direct distance dialling
(DDD), Wide area telephone service lines (WATS), leased lines and satellites.
Example:-banking networks, airline reservation systems and railway reservation
systems
Value Added Networks (VANS)
 The public data networks that add value to the basic communication
services provided by common carriers by offering specialised services are
termed as value added networks.
 The specialized services include access to commercial databases and
software, correction of transmission errors, providing compatibility
between incompatible computers and terminals, Email, and video
conferencing.
A subscriber to a VAN service pays monthly fee depending on its level of use
. DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS
 When small computers became popular, organizations changed their
strategy and began distributing the minis and micros throughout the
organisation. When these systems are interconnected, the technique is
known as distributed systems.
  There are a number of variations of distributed systems depending on
the distribution of hardware and data:
• Separate computer system in each
location
Each system has its own data
Systems share data
Systems share data managed by designed by a designated computer
• Central computer with Devices in
other locations connected to central computer
Data preparation and data entry equipment at other locations.

 When physically separated computers are interconnected through

communications facilities the configuration is called distributed computing.
 Alternatively there may be a ring structure of minicomputers of equal
 power and no large central processor. Each minicomputer does local
processing and access data from the other locations as required.
 The way a distributed processing system is configured usually
depends on the needs of the application.
 Advantages of distributed computing over a centralized computer.
Since the bulk of computing is performed at the local site, communication
costs can be considerably reduced.
 Also if one processor does function its processing can be shifted to
other processors and there is minimal disturbance to the entire system.

TOPOLOGY OF COMPUTER NETWORK

 Topology is a usually schematic description of the arrangement of a
network, including its nodes and connecting lines.
 There are two ways of defining network geometry: the physical
topology and the logical (or signal) topology.
 The physical topology of a network is the actual geometric layout of
workstations. Ø There are several common physical topologies are: ▪ Bus
Topology:
In the bus network topology, every workstation is connected to a main cable
called the bus. Therefore, in effect, each workstation is directly connected to every
other workstation in the network.

▪ Star Topology:
In the star network topology, there is a central computer or server to which all the
workstations are directly connected. Every workstation is indirectly connected to
every other through the central computer called hub
▪ Ring Topology: In the ring network topology, the workstations are
connected in a closed loop configuration. Adjacent pairs of workstations are
directly connected. Other pairs of workstations are indirectly connected,
the data passing through one or more intermediate nodes. If a Token Ring
protocol is used in a star or ring topology, the signal travels in only one
direction.

▪ Mesh Topology: The mesh network topology employs either of two

schemes, called full mesh and partial mesh. In the full mesh topology, each
workstation is connected directly to each of the others. In the partial mesh
topology, some workstations are connected to all the others, and some are
connected only to those other nodes with which they exchange the most
data.
 ▪ Tree Topology: The tree network topology uses two or more star networks
connected together. The central computers of the star networks are
connected to a main bus. Thus, a tree network is a bus network of star
networks.

OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION (OSI)

 The problem on incompatibility between data communication
products affected users on a worldwide basis, and the international
standards organisation in 1978, developed a system of network
protocols and named it the OSI model.
 It is a model that allows any two different computers can
communicate with each other without paging attention on their
architecture.
 The purpose of this model is to open the communication between
un-related systems. It means the OSI model allows communication
between two different computers without requiring changes to the
logic of the underline hardware and software used in the computers.
 The OSI model is not a protocol it is model for understanding and
designing network architecture i.e. flexible or robust.
 The seven layers of the OSI model are:- § Physical layer
▪ Data link layer
▪ Network layer
▪ Transport layer
▪ Session layer
▪ Presentation layer
 ▪ Application layer
Physical layer: Transmits the data from one node to another node.
Data link layer: Formats the data into a record called a frame and performs error
detection.
Network layer: It causes the physical layer to transfer the frames from node to
node.
Transport layer: It enables the user and host nodes to communicate with each
other. It also synchronises fast and slow-speed equipment as well as
overburdened and idle units.
Session layer: It initiates, maintains, and terminates each session. A session
consists of all the frames that compose a particular activity, plus signals that
identify the beginning and end. A session is like a telephone call that begins with
“hello” and ends with “good bye”. Standard log on and user identification routines
are used to initiate data communication sessions.
Presentation layer: Formats the data for presentation to the user or the host.
Application layer: It controls user input from the terminals and executes the
users application program in the host.
 The bottom three layers appear in all nodes, but the upper four layers
appear in only the host and user nodes.
 Layer 1 is the only layer that physically exists.
 The other layers use the physical layer use the physical layer for
transmission of their signals.

ROLE OF SOFTWARE IN PROBLEM SOLVING

 Software can play either a direct or an indirect role in problem
solving.
System software always plays in indirect role.
 On the other hand, application software can play either a direct or an
indirect role.
 Most general business and industry specific packages are designed to
play an indirect role by creating and maintaining the database that
provides the basis for the information oriented subsystems.
 Some industry specific packages go beyond data processing,
providing components that directly contribute to problem solving.
 Some organizational and personal productivity software only
indirectly affects problem solving by simplifying the creation and
transmission of data.
 Other productivity software such as electronic spreadsheet, project
management, forecasting, and statistical analysis packages provides
direct support.