EE6801 UNIT II ILLUMINATION

Introduction
1. The purpose of the study of illuminating engineering is to thoroughly understand the
principles of illumination as applied to lighting practices for interior lighting design,
which includes domestic lighting and factory lighting.
2. Further applications are highway lighting, airport lighting, sports arenas and flood
lighting.
3. Any lighting design is to make the visual environment in such a way, that the essential
task details are easy to see and adverse factors that may cause discomfort are excluded
or controlled suitably.
4. All the studies and research in lighting engineering try to achieve a good lighting
scheme to make the occupants feel happy in the case of interior design and factory
lighting and make the pedestrians and motorists and other road users comfortable in
the case of highway lighting.
5. Whatever the application, the tasks have to be carried out in such a way that all
concerned have no scope for frustration and discomfort.
6. But lighting is an essentially practical subject, in which theory lags years behind
practice, while the same is true of architecture and interior design.
7. An illumination level of 200-400 lux is considered sufficient for accurate perception
of the elements of an interior.
8. All present practices in lighting lay stress on the need for an adequate quantity of
light, suitable choice of reflectance of room surfaces, directional effects, suitable
colour rendering and the avoidance of disagreeable side effects, such as glare and
flicker.
9. Illuminance used should be sufficiently high to get all necessary details.
10. We may summarise the essentials of any utilitarian lighting system, thus:
a) Sufficient illumination of suitable colour on the working surfaces
b) Avoidance of glare
c) Avoidance of hard shadows
d) Good maintenance
Definition and meaning of terms used in illumination engineering
Solid angle:
1. A concept that is frequently used in lighting calculations is the solid angle, and is
explained in Fig. 1. (a).

Fig.1. (a) Solid Angle

2. Consider the relation between an arbitrary area A to the point P. Two points on the
boundary are directly joined to point P.
3. If all points on the boundary are connected to P in a similar way, the solid angle is
formed.
4. Let P be the centre of the sphere. There will be a boundary of intersection where the
solid angle subtended by area A passes through the sphere.
5. This area on the sphere surface and area a are regarded as subtending the solid angle
at P.

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 6. Now solid angle (ω) subtended by any area is given by
Ω = Area of intersection at sphere surface / (Radius of sphere) 2
It is measured in steradian.
7. The total energy radiated by a source of light in all directions in unit time is called the
total luminous flux from the source.
8. The luminous flux emitted per unit solid angle is called the luminous intensity of the
source.
9. The luminous flux falling on unit area of a given surface is called its illumination. It is
It is measured in lumens/m2 or lux.
10. The luminous intensity (I) of a source is measured by comparison with a standard
source. The unit is candela or new International candle.
11. It is taken as (1/60)th of the luminous intensity per square metre of a full radiator or
blackbody radiator operated at the temperature of the solidification of platinum.
Luminous efficiency: It is the ratio of energy radiated as light to the total energy radiated. It
is measured in lumens/watt.
Depreciation factor and maintenance factor: Depreciation factor is used, generally
because an installation gives only a fraction of the illumination it would give when perfectly
clean. It is taken as 1.25. Sometimes maintenance factor is used instead of depreciation
factor.
Maintenance factor: It is merely the inverse of the depreciation factor and for a depreciation
factor of 1.25, it is equal to 1/1.25 = 0.8.
Coefficient of utilisation: This is considered to account for the losses incurred by absorption
of light by walls, floor, ceiling, equipment, furniture, etc. Deep colours absorb more light
than pale colours. Further loss occurs in the light fitting, value of which may be very high.
Space-height ratio:
1. In working out the spacing of the lamps, it is assumed that the distance between lamp
centres in any row is approximately equal to the distance between adjacent rows.
2. Also the distance between the outside row and the wall, and between the end lamp
and the end wall, is half the spacing distance.
3. The space-height ratio should be taken up as 1.5, to get proper distribution of light
below the lamp on the working plane.
Reflection factor: It is the ratio of the reflected fight to the incident light.
Mean spherical candle power (MSCP): It is the average of the candle powers in all
directions in all planes, given by
MSCP = Total luminous flux in lumens/ 4π
Mean hemispherical candle power (MHSCP): It is the average of the candle powers in all
directions below the horizontal plane through the given source, given by
MHSCP = Total flux in lumens below the lower hemisphere/ 4π
Luminance: The luminous intensity /cm2 or m2 of the apparent area of source of light or of
an illuminated area is called luminance. Unit is Cd/cm2 or Cd/m2
Symbol is (L ). Here Cd is the symbol for candela.
Luminance of the book B is greater than that of the table T. [(Fig. 1. (b)].

Fig.1.b Illustrating luminance

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Luminance is used in place of brightness and surface brightness. Apparent area means the
projection of a primary or secondary light source on to a flat area, which is perpendicular to
the direction of vision, thus not the whole area of the light source. With a spherical fitting, the
apparent area is equal to the area of the diametrical cross-section of the sphere.

Brightness: It is an important quantity in illumination, when the human eye receives a great
deal of light from an object, we say it is bright. It is the same whether the light is produced by
the object or merely reflected from it. It is given in candles/m2.
Glare:
1. The opening of the pupil in the human eye [Figs. 1. (c) and (d)] is controlled by the
iris.

Fig1 (c) and (d) Human Eye

2. If a bright object comes into view of the eye, large amount of light produces an
intense image on the retina and the iris automatically protects the eye by contracting
the pupil, thus reducing the intensity of the image.
3. When the eye is towards another object which is less bright as compared to the bright
object already in the field of view, the iris will contract reducing the amount of light
received on the retina from every object in the field of view and making it difficult to
see the object desired.
4. At the same time, the portion of the retina which received image of the bright object
remains fatigued. This phenomenon is called as GLARE and a good lighting design
should avoid it.
5. Hence naked incandescent lamps and naked arc lamps should not be installed when
they come in the field of view, but should be enclosed suitably in fittings of opaque
glass or of such material and design, that the brightness of the fitting is comparatively
low.

Design of illumination systems

Lighting schemes: Calculation of number of light points for interior-illumination
(indoor lighting schemes)

Various methods are available for calculating the wattage in a given installation. The
following methods are available:
(1) Point - by - point method
(2) Lumen method
Point-by-point method
1. This method is cumbersome, but is used for special problems like floodlighting, open
spaces such as streets, where illumination is received directly from the lamps, and for
interior of buildings, where illumination at any point is received partly by reflection
from walls and ceilings, yard lighting, etc.
2. It is possible to calculate the illumination on the basis of the polar distribution of the
light from the lamps and reflectors, using a point-to-point method and using cosine
law mentioned above.

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Lumen method
1. As per this method, we assume that in a room or workshop the lumen output of the
lamps is available to get a uniform illumination level at the working bench or desk.
The formula used is:

2. Maintenance factor: This is used to account for the loss of illumination level when the
installation becomes dirty. It is generally taken as 0.80.
Problem 1: An office room measuring 43 m x 18 m requires an illumination of 165 lux.
Calculate the number of lamps needed, assuming a coefficient of utilisation of 0.6 and
depreciation factor of 1.2. State the assumptions made.
Solution: Consider 80 watt fluorescent lamps, each lamp giving 40 lumens. Then the number
of lamps

Considering a twin-fluorescent lamp fixture, we can arrange the 40 twin luminous fixtures by
taking eight in a row arranged in five rows, along the breadth of the room. The space between
the lamps along the length of the room = 5.375 m and 4.5 m along the breadth of the room.
Now selecting a mounting height of 4 m above the working plane, the space-height ratio for
the spacing along the length of the room

The space-height ratio for spacing of lamps along the breadth of the room

These values are nearer to the permissible value of 1.5 and ensure proper distribution of light
[Fig.2.a) ].

Fig.2.a) Lighting Scheme with Tube Lights

Now consider tungsten filament lamps with a luminous efficiency of 12 lumen watt.
Considering200 watt lamps, we require

Now consider twin-lamp fixtures we can select 12 lamps in a row arranged in 5 rows. The
space between adjoining lamps along the length of the hall = 3.5833 m and3.6m along the
breadth of the hall.
Now for a mounting height of 3 above the working plane, the space-height ratio along
the length of the haIl = 3.5833 / 3 = 1.194
and along the breadth of the hall = 3.6 / 3 = 1.2.

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 These values are between 1 and 1.5 times the permissible limits and ensure good
distribution of light [Fig. 2 (b)]

Fig.2.b) Lighting Scheme with Filament Lamps

Hints for planning a lighting installation
1. Good illumination
2. Spatial distribution of light, which includes combination of diffuse and directional
light adjustment of the direction of incidence, distribution of luminosity and
avoidance of glare
3. Suitable colour of light
4. Proper choice of lighting source and fittings
Problem 2: Design a lighting scheme for a drawing office with dimensions 12 m x 6 m x 4
m, with ceiling white in colour and walls painted light-cream and without beams on the
ceiling, windows down each long side, and horizontal drawing boards arranged with natural
lighting from left hand.
Solution: As detailed drawings are made in the drawing office, the fittings are kept out of the
field of view as far as possible, and they are mounted directly on the ceiling. The fittings are
of general diffusing type and fitted with a form of brightness control to decrease direct glare.
A glass or perspex sided type with a cross louvred bottom, giving a longitudinal and lateral
cut-off angle of 30° to the horizontal is used [Fig.3(a)].

Fig. 3.a Side View of Tube Fitting

Main natural light comes from left hand side. Two rows of fluorescent fittings are
suggested about 1 metre from each sidewall. A coefficient of utilisation of 0.5 is used.
Illumination level required is 400 lux and using a maintenance factor of 0.8, we are able to
get the total flux. Thus we have total lumens

Assume 80 watt fluorescent lamps giving 3200 lumen, the number of lamps required =
180X400/3200 = 22.5 (say) = 24 lamps.
Hence 12 twin-tube fixtures are used.

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 Fig. 3.b Arrangement of Tube Lights
These twin-tube fixtures are arranged in two rows, the spacing between the fixtures being 2
along the length of the drawing office, while the spacing between the rows is 3 m. Now if the
mounting height of the lamps over the working table is 2 m, this will give a space-height ratio
2 / 2.0 = 1 along the length of the room and a value of 3 / 2 = 1.5 along the breath of the
room. These values ensure a good distribution of light in the hall Fig. 3.b.
Construction, Principle of Operation and Application of Various Lamps
Electric discharge lamps
1. When a voltage is applied between two electrodes in a tube containing gas, then
ionisation occurs when the critical voltage is exceeded.
2. The current is limited by connecting an external resistor or inductor in series.
3. The ionised gas results in radiations, which may fall in the visible range, ultraviolet or
infrared region of the spectrum.
4. The essential features of a discharge lamp are:
a) An envelope containing gas which can be ionised by the voltage available and
which is capable of emitting visible radiation directly or indirectly.
b) An inductor or a resistor to be connected externally for limiting the current.
c) A means for starting the discharge.
Sodium vapour lamp

Fig.4 Sodium vapour lamp

1. This consists of a U-tube (Fig 4) containing sodium with neon at a pressure of 1N/m 2
and 1%argon to bring down the ionising voltage.
2. The U-tube is surrounded by a double walled jacket which is evacuated.
3. As hot sodium is active, the U-tube is made of ply-glass, the inner layer being sodium
and outer layer of soda glass.
4. To have the sodium deposited uniformly and not concentrated at one end, we should
use the lamp horizontally.
5. The oxide coated tungsten electrodes are connected to a step-up auto transformer with
a large leakage reactance.
6. On open circuit, the transformer gives 500V, which is sufficient to start a discharge
through the gas.

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 7. Due to the presence of neon, we get a reddish discharge, but as the temperature rises
and sodium gets vaporised, the colour of the discharge becomes yellow.
8. To have a good efficiency, the current density of the lamp has to be low. This requires
a large surface area compared with the power consumed.
9. Low pressure sodium lamps have a luminous efficiency of about 120-160 lumen/watt.
10. As the lamp power factor p.f 0.3, which is low, a capacitor (c) is used to raise the p.f.
to 0.8.
11. The efficiency is approximately 75 lumen/watt.
12. This is used for street-lighting and for flood lighting of docks and railway yards.
Mercury lamps
1. It consists of an inner bulb (Fig. 5) generally of silicon, to withstand high
temperatures.

Fig. 5 Mercury vapour Lamp

2. The bulb contains a small quantity of mercury and argon, and is protected by an outer
glass bulb. This may be cylindrical or elliptical.
3. The space between the two bulbs is filled with nitrogen at a pressure of half
atmosphere.
4. The discharge tube has three electrodes, namely two main electrodes A and B and one
starting electrode.
5. The starting electrodes are connected through a resistance of about 10-30 kΩ to the
main electrode, located at the far end.
6. The electrodes are of tungsten wire helise filled with electron emissive materials,
usually barium and strontium carbonates mixed with thoria.
7. When electric supply is switched on the high voltage between elec-trodes ionises the
argon and enables an arc to strike the electrodes.
8. The potential difference increases from 20 to about 120 V, and during this time the
colour changes and intensity increases.
9. To limit the current, the inductor XL is used, but this lowers the p.f. and so a capacitor
C is used to improve the p.f. up to 0.8 and above.
10. Once the lamp is switched off, it cannot be immediately started, as the lamp takes
time to sufficiently cool down for the vapour pressure to fall, at which the ionisation
between A and S can take place.
11. At low pressure, most of the light will be in the ultraviolet range and is below the
visible range. However, when the vapour pressure is increased, surrounding mercury
vapour absorbs most of the ultraviolet vapour and is reradiated at wavelengths in the
visible part of the spectrum.
12. Now-a-days the quality of the light emitted from the high pressure vapour lamp is
improved by adding a mixture of' metallic iodides inside the discharge tube, to give
multi-line spectrum in the visible range, and by having the inner surface of the outer
glass bulb coated with fluorescent phosphors, such as yttriurm vanadate.
13. These phosphors radiate energy in the red region of the spectrum.

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 14. The lamp with yttrium vanadate gives an efficiency of 50 lumen/watt and mercury
iodide lamp gives 85 lumen/watt.
15. These are used for street lighting, stage lighting and in factories when the ceiling is
high.
Neon lamps
1. These have become popular, ever since they were used in advertising for signs or for
decoration. It is generally made of a long glass tube of about 10 m, bent in any shape.
2. It contains two electrodes, which are generally in cylindrical shape and of steel or
copper. The neon tube contains neon gas giving red light, helium (white) or argon
(blue). The diameters vary from 10 to 30 mm, with current ranges from 25 to 150 mA.
3. As per Indian electricity rules, tubes that are accessible to unauthorised persons,
should be mechanically screened and danger notices affixed.
4. The transformer used should be double wound, with the secondary earthed Fig 6a.

Fig 6a. Neon Lamp

5. Normally the centre tap of the secondary is earthed.
6. The minimum voltage to ground is about 5000 V.
7. Switches used for controlling discharge lighting circuit should have double the
steady-state current they are expected to carry.
8. In the case of external installations, Fireman's switch painted red and marked as such
should be installed outside the building at a height not exceeding 275 m above the
ground, with the OFF position at the top. This is connected in the primary.
9. For installations inside a building, a similar switch should be provided.
10. High voltage cables should be armoured or metal covered, and if any short
connections (usually bare) exist between tube sections, they should be enclosed in
glass or similar tubing of specified size.
11. High voltage cables should be distinguished by labels.
12. Capacitors used for p.f. correction should be provided with automatic discharge on
disconnection, e.g. a high resistance leak.
13. In these tubes, flickering occurs due to the following reasons:
a) Transformer secondary voltage may be low, which can be adjusted by the proper
tap selection.
b) Pressure of the gas may be low, which can be made up [Fig.6 (b)].

Fig.6 (b) Schematic Sketch Showing the Use of Neon Lamp

14. Locking switch disconnects supply while maintenance work is done.
15. Time switch functions at a particular time to disconnect the sign during the night.
16. In the flash-type, signs are made on and off in rapid sequence.

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 Fluorescent lamp
Lamps of this type are coated with certain powders and when excited by ultraviolet
rays give light.
Low pressure mercury vapour lamps
1. In this type of lamps, fluorescent powders are used to coat the inside of the bulb.
2. The electrodes are oxide coated filaments, which get heated during starting period
only and remain in this state due to the discharge.
3. When a supply is given, initially no discharge occurs. But when starter switch S 1 is
closed, the electrodes will heat up as they arc in series with the iron cored choke across
the mains.
4. If S1 is opened, current through the choke coil suddenly breaks and induces a
momentary
high voltage very much greater than the applied voltage, which is sufficient to start a
discharge that maintains the electrode temperature.
5. The choke due to its impedances limits the current.
6. Thus the function of the choke is to work as a current limiter or ballast impedance
[Fig.7].

Fig.7 Wiring Diagram of a Tube Light

7. The starter switch SI is of two types. Both function automatically. One is a glow-type
starter and the other is a thermal starter.
8. The glow-type starter consists of a small helium filled discharge lamp, with electrodes
of bimetallic strip.
9. When the main switch is closed, the potential difference across the electrodes causes a
small glow discharge at a small current not sufficient to heat up the tube filaments.
However, it is sufficient to heat the strips, thereby bending them and make contact.
10. A high current then passes through the filaments, which heat up to red heat.
11. When contacts touch the starting switch, discharge is stopped with the strips cooling
down and resulting in the opening of contacts, thus providing the starting surge in the
main tube.
12. In the thermal type switch provided with a heater coil, heat causes a bimetallic strip to
open the contact, thus providing a momentary high voltage, which starts the discharge.
13. The switch is normally closed and is kept open, while the lamp is working.
14. The thermal switch has now become obsolete as it is of more complicated construction
and results in power loss.
Fluorescent lamps on DC supply
1. For making a fluorescent tube to work on DC supply, a resistance is connected in the
addition to the usual choke.
2. When the tube works for some time, the positive end of the tube gets blackened due to
migration of ionised mercury vapour to the negative end.
3. To decrease this effect, a change-over switch is used.

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 4. Generally a rotary switch if placed ensures the polarity reversal, every time the tube is
switched on.
5. The use of a resistance results in increased power consumption and lesser lamp
efficiency.
6. But there is no stroboscopic effect. Initial investment is high, as we have to insert a
reversing switch (Fig. 8).
7. Nowadays with d.c supplies inverters using solid state circuitry are used for use in
buses, aircraft etc.

Fig.8. Connections of a Tube Light with DC mains

Incandescent lamps
Filament materials
1. These are of carbon and tungsten, when the temperature increases wave-length
decreases, till it reaches 7 x 10-5 cm and falls in the visible range.
2. The light emitted is proportional to the 12 th power of absolute temperature and this is
the reason why lamps are run at a high temperature as far as possible.
Filament design
1. It has been already established that the current through the lamp is proportional to d3/2.
2. We can find the resistance of the filament by using the rated voltage.
3. Thus V / I =R = 4pl/ πd2
4. Thus for a selected diameter of the filament, we can find the length of the filament.
Construction of lamp
1. If the space in the lamp is replaced with an inert gas, tungsten filament can reach a
temperature of 2400 K without evaporation.
2. Due to higher temperatures, loss of heat due to higher temperatures occurs.
3. So the heat is reduced by gases like nitrogen or argon.
4. The convection loss is minimised by coiled coil filament.
5. Spiral filaments are used now to prevent heat losses Fig. 9(a), (b).

Fig. 9a. Filament of an Incandescent Lamp

b. Special Filament of an Incandescent Lamp

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 6. In the case of tungsten filament, light output α E n where m = 4 or 5 and power input α
En where n = 1.8 and E is the voltage.
7. During manufacture, all air is pumped out of glass envelope to prevent filament
burning up when operating.
8. Lamps larger than 40 watts are filled with inert gas (argon and nitrogen) to retard
evaporation of tungsten.
9. However, gradual evaporation causes a dark deposit on the inner side of the bulb
blocking light.
10. Now-a-days luminous efficiency of 10-30 lumen/watt is achieved [Fig.9.c].

Fig.9.c Incandescent Lamp with Filament

Effect of voltage variation on the life or the lamp
1. The filament lamps are under operation under constant supply voltages. But a
variation of ±6% voltage at consumers terminals is permitted under the Indian
Electricity Rules.
2. Further drop of voltage in the electrical wiring may occur. Thus a voltage variation
from + 6% to -8.5% may result.
3. Hence the operating voltage varies from 212 to 224 V on a 230 V supply mains.
4. A study of the behaviour of a 100 W filament gives the characteristic curves shown
[Fig.9(d)] for its life, lumen output and power absorbed.

Fig.9.d: Graph of Lumen Output, power absorbed and life of a Filament Lamp with
the variation of voltage
Comparison with gas discharge lamps
1. The filament lamp is simple in construction and easy to install and maintain.
2. The initial cost is less and it starts instantaneously.
3. The lamp is free from stroboscopic effect.
4. It has a low efficiency and a short life.
5. Vibration very much shortens the life of the lamp and care is needed in mounting.
6. It has a good colour equality with some tendency towards yellow.
7. Frequency of stops and starts has no effect on the life of the lamp.

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Requirement of good lighting
1. Good lighting is one which provides visual comfort.
2. Visual comfort increases the efficiency of a workman.
3. Actually good lighting is often confused with high illumination levels.
4. The factors which are to be considered are minimum glare and brightness-contrast.
5. Light sources should be properly shielded by luminaires and mounted above the
normal line of sight.
6. Reflected glare is to be avoided, by mounting luminaires with respect to equipment,
so that the reflected glare is directed away from the observer.
7. Use of diffusion absorbing fixers reduce glare. So, while keeping these points in mind
in designing light installations, proper illumination levels for the various occasions are
to be strictly adhered to, as far as possible.
8. A good lighting scheme results in an attractive and commanding presence of objects
and enhances the architectural style of the interior of a building.
9. Due to the comfortable illumination, people would be in a position to do their work
quickly, accurately and easily.

Design of lighting schemes

Design of factory lighting
1. In factory premises, good lighting is required for illuminating shop floor, storage spaces
and packing sheds, etc.
2. In workshops, the bins containing tools should be illuminated to read the labels for
identifying the contents quickly.
3. Wherever processes work is done, individual workers are provided additionally with
separate lighting.
4. While designing the lighting scheme, care is taken to see that the average illumination
matches with the natural broad daylight.
5. An illumination of 200 lux is considered good for production [Fig. 10].
6. Adequate lighting results in saving of expenditure and also prevents accidents due to
errors.

Fig.10 Effect of Illumination on Production

Design of outdoor lighting
There are two applications of outdoor lighting schemes: (1) flood lighting, (2) street lighting.
(1) Flood lighting
This involves lighting by projection of whole of the scene or object, to an illumination
which is more than the surroundings.
There are various applications of flood-lighting:
(a) For increasing the beauty of ancient buildings and monuments during night
(b) For advertisement as for example by sign boards
(c) Illumination of airports, dockyards, railway yards, sports areas, etc.

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 The calculations needed are to be carried out by knowing whether the flood lights
have a linear source type of distribution or a symmetrical distribution.
1. In order to have a good flood-lighting, it is necessary to direct the light from a lamp
into a narrow beam; the reflector and the housing used with the lamp is called the
flood-lighting projector.
2. It should be robust and weather proof, as it has to be installed outside.
3. To have the maximum amount of light falling on an object, the projector is provided
with a silvered glass, stainless steel or chromium plate surface for the reflector, with
an efficiency of about 80-90%.
4. Sometimes vitreous enamel is also used. Another term connected with the flood-
lighting is the beam spread which denotes the divergence of beam.
5. It is defined as the angle within which the minimum illumination of a surface normal
to the axis of beam is one-tenth of the maximum.
6. Any flood-lighting scheme is intended for displaying prominently important buildings
during dark periods of night In the case of taller buldings a lower illumination level
and in case of smaller buildings a higher illumination level is recommended.
7. Whenever the colour of light is selected for flood lighting, the colour of object is to be
noted to get a good effect.
8. Reddish coloured objects are to be floodlit with incandescent lamps, yellowish ones
with incandescent lamps or sodium vapour lamps, greenish and bluish ones with high
pressure mercury vapour lamp.
9. After detecting the illumination level, the area to be illuminated is multiplied with
average illumnation level, to get the lumens required on the surface to be floodlit.
10. But in actual practice there will be some losses.
11. Hence the following factors are therefore to be considered for providing with the
required lumens from the projectors.
Coefficient of utilisation
Due to absorption of light by front glass, loss in reflecting surface and in the beam which may
deviate, the utilization factor or beam factor which is defined as beam lumens/ lamp lumens
(taken as 0.3 to 0.5) is used for lighting calculation.
There are two methods of arranging the beam. They are illustrated in Fig 11 a and 11 b.

Fig.11 a. Flood lighting with an Fig.11 a. Flood lighting with Parabolic Reflector
Asymmetric Reflector for short Range
Casing:
1. The housing should be mounted in such a way that the beam can be regulated in
vertical and horizontal directions. This is because, always adjustment on site is
required whatever be the design.
2. The front of the projector is generally of clear glass projecting onwards, to keep it
away from the heat of the lamp.
3. For diffusion a diffusion beam is used.
4. The housing should be of steel or aluminium or other, suitable material, and should be
treated with a protected material against rust and corrosion.

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 5. The floodlight shall be such that when properly mounted, no water shall enter the
interior and damage any part of the interior.
6. The sealing compound shall be of weather-proof materials.
Projector lamps:
Generally these are of tungsten filament and manufactured fottages of 250, 500 or 1000 watt
and are gas-filled. In the case of narrow angle beams, bunched filament type projects are
used.
Mounting: This can be done by installing the projectors for long range or for short range,
with the projectors placed on adjoining buildings or at ground level at15-40 m away. A
typical flood-lighting luminaire for tungsten halogen lamp is illustrated in Fig.l1(c). This is
useful for lighting of stadia, outdoor sports courts, monuments and for other general outdoor
flood-lighting.

Fig.l1(c) Tungsten Iodide Lamp

Waste light factor: This is used to account for overlapping of light due to several
projectorsand light falling away from the area to be flood-lighted. The factor is generally
takenas 1.2for rectangular areas and 1.5 for irregular objccts like statues, etc.

Depreciation factor:
1. Due to direct and dust collecting on projectors in course of time, 50 to 100% more
light is to be provided.
2. The total lumens to be provided are now calaulated as follows:
The total lumens required

Earthing:
1. All exposed noncurrent carrying metal parts of the flood-light shall be in good
electrical contact with each other for earthing purposes, except in the case of an
enamelled reflector, which does not form a part of the enclosure for wiring and live
parts, a metallic bond with the main body of flood-light is not required.
2. The earth terminal should be clearly marked as "Earth" or "E" or "┴" adjacent to the
terminal.
Flood-lightlng vertical surfaces:
1. While setting the flood lighting for vertical surface, the manufacturers' data are to be
followed.
2. The factors to be considered are the beam spread and beam lumens.
3. As for an example, consider that building in Fig. 12 (a) is to be illuminated.

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 Fig. 12 a) & b) Flood Light a Vertical Surface

4. It is at a distance of 56 m from the flood lights and is to be illuminatedto 100 lux

using 1000 W incandescent lamps.
5. The beam spread as per the manufacture is 30° horizontal and vertical, with a beam
efficiency of 0.45.
6. We know that the beam lumens means the number of lumens in the projected beam,
and is confined to the cone of light.
7. A vertical line OA is drawn to scale for 16 m [Fig. 1.2 (b)].
8. From 0 an angle of 30° is laid out by marking 15° left and 15° to the right.
9. From A, a horizontal line BC is drawn, cutting the sides at B and C.
10. Now BC is measured to be approximatey 8 m.
11. The vertical and horizontal beam spread is 30°.
12. For different values the triangle (as OBC) should be drawn for each one separately.
13. The result is now to be verified against the vertical height of the surface to be lighted.
14. The beam spread is equal to 8 m and vertical height of the tangent surface is 8 m,
which agrees with the calculation.
15. The number of flood-lights are now calculated by the formula:

Also the distance between flood-lights should be no more than half the beam spread
(horizontal), i.e. 4m. Hence if the length of the hall is divided into 12 equal spaces, the
distance between the adjacent flood lights will be 4 m and hence the arrangement will be
good enough. This ensures overlapping of light from the projectors to avoid bright sports.
Now the lights are placed in 12equal spaces, and so we will use 13 lamps instead of 12 and
light from the end lamps will be wasted, although their effect is equivalent to that of 12 lamps
only.

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Sports ground:
1. Large stadia illumination is very expensive and requires several calculations. But
small sports grounds such as those used for sports and training are easy to plan.
2. On any sports ground, players must be recognizable and whole field should be visible.
3. For example, in a football field, the course of the ball should be followed in air and
ground also.Hence a fairly large illumination density must be spread over the field, to
see the whole area without glare by the players and spectators.
4. To achieve this, quality lighting should be provided.
5. A height of 16 m for mounting is found to be alright for training.
6. Flood-lights are inclined not more than 60° to the vertical.High average illumination
at low glare can be thus got (Fig. 13).

Fig.13 Sports Ground Lighting

Problem: 3
Calculate the number of 1000 W flood-light projectors needed to illuminate the upper 75 m
of one face of lOOm tower, of width 12 m, if the approximate initial brightness is to 20 metre
candle. The projectors are based at ground level, 50 m from the base of the tower. The
utilisation factor is 0.3, reflection factor of the walls is 0.2 and lamp efficiency is 20
lumen/watt.

Fig 14

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Street lighting
1. Unlike other types of lighting, street lighting provides illumination of the roadways,
such that drivers of vehicles can view the obstructions on the road, apart from
illuminating the shopping centres.
2. The lighting provided should be adequate for pedestrians, for law and order
maintenance and other users.
3. In order that it is economical, the illumination should be low and objects are silhouted
against a bright background instead of illuminating directly.
4. Also glare is avoided.
Road lighting by sllhoutte
1. At an important and busy junction, four lamps as shown in Fig. 15 are placed.
2. By this arrangement, the bright patch on the ground due to reflected light is made to
form the background, upon which the traffic will be displayed as silhoutte.
3. In urban roads having traffic in single will-spaced units, another arrangement as
shown in Fig. 16 is adopted.
4. For a driver going from East to West 1,2 and 3 lamps provide silhoutte, and from East
to South 3,1,2 and 7 form the silhoutte.

Fig. 16 & 17: Two Schemes of Street Lighting Placement

Two methods of Street lighting design are used.
(1) Diffusion principle:
1. This method makes use of light being directed from lamps to provide more or less
illumination on the road surface.
2. Specially made reflectors are used to avoid glare.
3. The illumination is calculated by using the inverse square law over a certain area of
the road surface, the total illumination is the sum of the illumination from two lamps
provided as in Fig.18.

Fig.18: Diffusion Principle for Street Lighting

(2) Specular reflection principle:
1. In street lighting, a pedestrian expects the adjoining areas to be seen properly by
sufficient illumination, while a motorist expects objects ahead up to 30-40 m to be
seen clearly.
2. This requirement is met by using specular reflection principle.
3. Let P be an observer seeing at an obstruction at Q.
4. The light from X will fall on the roadway Fig.19

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 Fig.19
5. At a small angle of incidence, and from Y and Z at a large angle of incidence on the
road behind the obstruction and reflect light, making the obstruction to be clearly seen
by contrast.
6. Thus Y and Z are responsible for making the obstruction clearly visible, and so the
reflector used with them should have a smaller angle of incidence. This method is
suitable for straight section road.
7. This method helps in visibility of the roadway by smaller expenditure of energy than
by diffusion principle.
Types of street lighting arrangements:

Fig.20 a Fig.20 b Fig.20 c

Fig.20 d Fig.20 e
1. Figures 20 illustrate the various types of street lighting arrangements.
2. The illumination obtained depends on the height (h ) of the lamp above the ground
level, distance between the lamps (a), width (W) of the road, angle of tilt of the lamp
fitting and the overhangs.
3. Each lantern produces a light patch of light on the road and objects are seen in
silhoutte against the pattern of bright patches of light.
4. The spacing (a) oflamps is such that the light patches combine to give a sufficiently
high level of luminance to make the objects seen anywhere on the road surface.
5. However, many objects have sufficient height and are revealed against the patch of
light on the road for it to be distributed properly.
6. The following three requirements are to be fulfilled:
a) The lantern shared give peak intensity at high angle, to make use of reflecting
properties of the road surface.
b) Intensity below peak should become smaller gradually, so that road surface
nearer the lamp post should not have patchy appearance.
c) Reduction in intensity greater than peak should be made to minimize glare.

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Problem 4: A lamp rated 230 V gives an illumination of 6000 lux and takes 1.5A from the
mains. Find the efficiency of the lamp and the mscp.

Problem 5: A lamp giving 400 candle power in all directions below the horizontal, is
suspended 3m above the centre of a square table of1.5m side. Calculate the maximum and
minimum illumination on the table.
Solution:
C.P. of the lamp = 400 Fig.21

Fig.21

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Problem: 6 An incandescent lamp rated 230 V takes 2.2 A and emits 8000 lumen. Calculate
the efficiency in (a) mscp per watt, (b) lumen/watt.

Problem : 7
a) Find the solid angle, subtended by an area of 2500 cm ... on the surface of a sphere of
radius 1 m.
b) Find the total number of lumen emitted by a lamp of mscp 50.
c) For a lamp having an intensity of 80 c.p. in a given direction, find the illumination in
lux 50 cm vertically below the lamp.

Problem :8 A 100 c.p. lamp is hung 2m above the centre of a circular area of 3 diameter.
Determine the illumination at: (1) the centre of the area, (ii) a point on the circumference of
the area, (iii) average illumination. Find also the average illumination, if a reflector of 50%
efficiency is used.

Solution:
(i) Illumination at A Fig. 22

Fig. 22

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Problem :9
An incandescent lamp hangs from the ceiling of a room. The illumination below the lamp
vertically downwards is 80 lux. when the illumination is measured at a distance of 2 m from
the vertical from the ceiling, its value is 40 lux.
Find the candle power of the lamp and its vertical distance from the floor.
Solution:
Now illumination below the lamp [Fig. 23].

Fig. 23

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Problem 10: A lamp of 300 c.p. is placed 1.5m below a reflecting plane mirror surface,
which reflects 70 % of the light falling on it. Find the illumination at a point 4m away from
the foot of the lamp hung 6m above the ground.
Solution:
Illumination at B due to the lamp Fig 24

22
 Fig 24

Problem 11: Twostreetlampsare20m apart and are fitted witha500c.p.lamp at a height of 8m

above the ground each. Find the illumination at a point (i) under the lamps each, (ii) midway
between the lamps.
(i) Illumination at Q or R [Fig25]

Energy saving considerations for fluorescent lighting system:

Due to the onset of energy crunch energy saving studies involving fluorescent lamps
has attracted the attention of lighting engineers. The following are the guide lines for energy
saving in fluorescent lamp system.
(1) Reduced wattage fluorescent lamps using Krypton-fill gas are used where ever possible but
there is a limit to reduce wattage of the lamps without compromising reliability.
(2) Turning off lights: Turning off lights for tea and lunch will save electricity but frequent
starting affects the life of the lamp; the shorter the burning/hr per start the shorter the life.
Hence the decision depends on whether the money saved by reduced power bill will offset
the cost of shorter life.

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(3) Luminaire cleaning in conjunction with periodic group relamping can maintain the same
specified illumination level with fewer luminaires resulting in reduction of both initial and
operating cost.
(4) In commercial and merchandising applications three component phosphor lamps which give
high efficacy as well as high colour rendering capability are to be used.
(5) Lamps in which electronic components are added to increase the impedence of the lamp
circuit and thereby reduce current and wattage are to be used where the ambient temperature
does not fall below 15°C.

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