UNIT 1 Fundamentals of Illumination

INTRODUCTION
Study of illumination engineering is necessary not only to understand the principles of light control
as applied to interior lighting design such as domestic and factory lighting but also to understand
outdoor applications such as highway lighting and flood lighting. Nowadays, the electrically
produced light is preferred to the other source of illumination because of an account of its
cleanliness, ease of control, steady light output, low cost, and reliability. The best illumination is
that it produces no strain on the eyes. Apart from its esthetic and decorative aspects, good lighting
has a strictly utilitarian value in reducing the fatigue of the workers, protecting their health,
increasing production, etc. The science of illumination engineering is therefore becoming of major
importance.
Nature of light
Light is a form of electromagnetic energy radiated from a body and human eye is capable of
receiving it. Light is a prime factor in the human life as all activities of human being ultimately
depend upon the light.
Various forms of incandescent bodies are the sources of light and the light emitted by such bodies
depends upon their temperature. A hot body about 500–800°C becomes a red hot and about 2,500–
3,000°C the body becomes white hot. While the body is red- hot, the wavelength of the radiated
energy will be sufficiently large and the energy available in the form of heat. Further, the
temperature increases, the body changes from red-hot to white-hot state, the wavelength of the
radiated energy becomes smaller and enters into the range of the wavelength of light. The
–10
wavelength of the light waves varying from 4,000-7,500 Å (1 Angstrom unit = 10 m).
The eye discriminates between different wavelengths in this range by the sensation of color.
ESSENTIALS OF GOOD LIGHTING SYSTEM
(i) Adequate illumination of suitable colour on working surfaces.
(ii) Good maintenance
(iii) Avoidance of hard shadows
(iv) Avoidance of glare

TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION

Light: It is defined as the radiant energy from a hot body that produces the visual sensation upon
the human eye.
Plane angle: A plane angle is the angle subtended at a point in a plane by two converging lines. It is
denoted by the Greek letter ‘θ’ (theta) and is usually measured in degrees or radians.

One radian is defined as the angle subtended by an arc of a circle whose length by an arc of a circle
whose length is equals to the radius of the circle.
The largest angle subtended at a point is 2 radians
Solid angle: Solid angle is the angle subtended at a point in space by an area, i.e., the angle
enclosed in the volume formed by numerous lines lying on the surface and meeting at the point It is
usually denoted by symbol ‘ω’ and is measured in steradian.

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The largest solid angle subtended at the center of a sphere:

Relationship between plane angle and solid angle

Let us consider a curved surface of a spherical segment ABC of height ‘h’ and radius of the sphere
‘r’ as shown in Figure.
The surface area of the curved surface of the spherical segment ABC = 2πrh.
From the Figure, BD = OB – OD

Luminous flux: It is defined as the energy in the form of light waves radiated per second from a
luminous body. It is represented by the symbol ‘φ’ or ‘F’ and measured in lumens.
Lumen: It is the unit of luminous flux. It is defined as amount of luminous flux given out in a space
represented by one unit solid angle by a source having an intensity of candle power in all directions.
Lumen = candle power of source × solid angle. Lumen = CP × ω
Total flux emitted by a source of one candle power is 4π lumens.
1 lumen = 0.0016 watt 1watt = 625 lumens
Luminous intensity: Luminous intensity in a given direction is defined as the luminous flux
emitted by the source per unit solid angle. It is denoted by the symbol ‘I’ and is usually measured in
‘candela’.

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Let ‘F’ be the luminous flux crossing a spherical segment of solid angle ‘ω’.
Then luminous intensity I = lumen/steradian or candela.
Candle power (CP): The Candle Power of a source is defined as the total luminous flux lines
emitted by a source in a unit solid angle.

Illumination: Illumination is defined as the luminous flux received by the surface per unit area.
2
It is usually denoted by the symbol ‘E’ and is measured in lux or lumen/m or meter candle or foot
candle.

Brightness (or luminance): Brightness of any surface is defined as the luminous intensity pen unit
surface area of the projected surface in the given direction. It is usually denoted by symbol ‘L’.
If the luminous intensity of source be ‘I’ candela on an area A, then the projected area is Acos θ.

2 2 2
The unit of brightness is candela/m or candela/cm or candela/(ft) .
Relation between I, E, and L
Let us consider a uniform diffuse sphere with radius r meters, at the center a source of 1 CP, and
luminous intensity I candela.

Mean horizontal candle power (MHCP): MHCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of
source in all directions in horizontal plane.
Mean spherical candle power (MSCP): MSCP is defined as the mean of the candle power of
source in all directions in all planes.

Mean hemi-spherical candle power (MHSCP): MHSCP is defined as the mean of all candle
power of source in all directions above or below the horizontal plane.
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Lux or meter candle: It is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere of radius 1 m and a
source of 1 CP is fitted at the center of sphere.
Foot candle: It is the unit of illumination and is defined as the illumination of the inside of a sphere
of radius 1 foot, and a source of 1 CP is fitted at the center of it.
2
We know that 1 lux = 1 foot candle = 1 lumen/ (ft)

Reduction factor: Reduction factor of the source of light is defined as the ratio of its mean
spherical candle power to its mean horizontal candle power.

Lamp efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the total luminous flux emitting from the source to its
electrical power input in watts. It is expressed in lumen per watt.

Specific consumption: It is defined as the ratio of electric power input to its average candle power.
It is expressed in watt per candle.
Space to height ratio: It is defined as ratio of horizontal distance between adjacent lamps to the
height of their mountings.

Coefficient of utilization or utilization factor: It is defined as the ratio of total number of lumens
reaching the working plane to the total number of lumens emitting from source.

Maintenance factor: It is defined as the ratio of illumination under normal working conditions to
the illumination when everything is clean.

Its value is always less than 1, and it will be around 0.8. This is due to the accumulation of dust, dirt,
and smoke on the lamps that emit less light than that they emit when they are so clean. Frequent
cleaning of lamp will improve the maintenance factor.
Depreciation factor: It is defined as the ratio of initial illumination to the ultimate maintained
illumination on the working plane.

Its value is always more than 1.

Waste light factor: When a surface is illuminated by number of sources of light, there is certain
amount of wastage due to overlapping of light waves; wastage of light is taken into account
depending upon type of area to be illuminated. This effect is considered by multiplying theoretical
value for rectangular area by 1.2 and for irregular area and objects such as statues, monuments, etc.
by 1.5.
Absorption factor: Normally, when the atmosphere is full of smoke and fumes such as foundries,
there is a possibility of absorption of light.
Hence, the total lumens available after absorption to the total lumens emitted by the lamp are known
as absorption factor. Its value varies from unity for clean atmosphere to 0.5 for foundries.

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Reflection factor or coefficient of reflection: When light rays impinge on a surface, it is reflected
from the surface at an angle of incidence shown in Figure. A portion of incident light is absorbed by
the surface.
The ratio of luminous flux leaving the surface to the luminous flux incident on it is known as
reflection factor. Its value will be always less than 1.

Beam factor: It is defined as the ratio of lumens in the beam of a projector to the lumens given out
by lamps. Its value is usually varies from 0.3 to 0.6. This factor is taken into account for the
absorption of light by reflector and front glass of the projector lamp.
Radiant efficiency: When an electric current is passed through a conductor, some heat is produced
2
to I R loss, which increases its temperature of the conductor. At low temperature, conductor radiates
energy in the form of heat waves, but at very high temperatures, radiated energy will be in the form
of light as well as heat waves.
Radiant efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy radiated in the form of light, produces sensation
of vision to the total energy radiated out by the luminous body.

Laws of Illumination or Luminance

The illumination (E) of a surface depends upon the following factors

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Note: From the above laws of illumination, it is to be noted that inverse square law is only
applicable for the surfaces if the surface is normal to the line of flux. And Lambert's cosine law is
applicable for the surfaces if the surface is inclined an angle ‘θ’ to the line of flux.

Example 6.1: A 200-V lamp takes a current of 1.2 A, it produces a total flux of 2,860 lumens.
Calculate:
1. the MSCP of the lamp and
2. the efficiency of the lamp.
Solution:
Given V = 200 V, I = 1.2 A, flux = 2,860 lumens.

(ii) Efficiency = = = 11.91 lumens per watt = 12 lumens per watt
.

Example 6.2: A room with an area of 6 × 9 m is illustrated by ten 80-W lamps. The luminous
efficiency of the lamp is 80 lumens/W and the coefficient of utilization is 0.65. Find the average
illumination.
2
Solution: Room area = 6 × 9 = 54 m . Total wattage = 80 × 10 = 800 W.
Total flux emitted by ten lamps = 80 × 800 = 64,000 lumens.
Flux reaching the working plane = 64,000 × 0.65 = 41,600 lumens.

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Example 6.3: The luminous intensity of a lamp is 600 CP. Find the flux given out. Also find the
flux in the hemisphere containing the source of light and zero above the horizontal.
Solution:
Flux emitted by source (lumen) = Intensity (I) × solid angle (ω) = 600 × 2 π = 3,769.911 lumens
∴ Flux emitted in the lower hemisphere = 3,769.911 lumens.
Example 6.4: The flux emitted by 100-W lamp is 1,400 lumens placed in a frosted globe of 40 cm
2
diameter and gives uniform brightness of 250 milli-lumens/m in all directions. Calculate the candle
power of the globe and the percentage of light absorbed by the globe.
Solution:
! &
Flux emitted by the globe = brightness × globe area = " x #4 % ' ( = 1,256.63 lumens
Flux absorbed by the globe = flux emitted by source – flux emitted by globe
= 1,400 – 1,256.63 = 143.36 lumens.

Example 6.5: A surface inclined at an angle 40° to the rays is kept 6 m away from 150 candle
power lamp. Find the average intensity of illumination on the surface.
Solution:
From the Fig, θ = (90° – 40°) = 50°.

Example 6.6: A lamp having a candle power of 300 in all directions is provided with a reflector that
directs 70% of total light uniformly on a circular area 40-m diameter. The lamp is hung at 15 m
above the area.
1. Calculate the illumination.
2. Also calculate the illumination at the center.
3. The illumination at the edge of the surface without reflector.
Solution: Given data: Candle power of the lamp = 300 CP. Circular area diameter (D) = 40 m.
Height of mounting = 15 m.

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Example 6.7: The candle power of a source is 200 candela in all directions below the lamp. The
mounting height of the lamp is 6 m. Find the illumination:
1. Just below the lamp.
2. 3 m horizontally away from the lamp on the ground.
3. The total luminous flux in an area of 1.5-m diameter around the lamp on the ground.
Solution:
The candle power of the source, I = 200 candela. Mounting height (h) = 6 m.

Example 6.8: Two sources of candle power or luminous intensity 200 candela and 250 candela are
mounted at 8 and 10 m, respectively. The horizontal distance between the lamp posts is 40 m,
calculate the illumination in the middle of the posts.
Solution:

Example 6.11: Two sources of having luminous intensity 400 candela are hung at a height of 10 m.
The distance between the two lamp posts is 20 m. Find the illumination
(i) beneath the lamp and (ii) in the middle of the posts.

Example 6.12: Four lamps 15 m apart are arranged to illuminate a corridor. Each lamp is suspended
at a height of 8 m above the floor level. Each lamp gives 450 CP in all directions below the
horizontal; find the illumination at the second and the third lamp.
Solution: Given data:
Luminous intensity = 450 CP. Mounting height = 8 m. Distance between the adjacent lamps = 15 m

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The illumination at ‘P’ = the illumination due to L1 + the illumination due to L2 + the illumination
due to L3 + the illumination due to L4.

Similarly, the illumination at ‘P’ due to lamp L3 ‘E3’ = the illumination at ‘P’ due to lamp ‘L2’, ‘E2’,
and the illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp L4, ‘E4’ = illumination at ‘P’ due to the lamp ‘L1’, ‘E1.'
∴ The total illumination at ‘P = E1+ E2 + E3+ E4 = 2El + 2E2 = 2(E1+ E2) = 2 (0.73 + 2.73) = 6.92 lux.
Example 6.13: Two similar lamps having luminous intensity 500 CP in all directions below
horizontal are mounted at a height of 8 m. What must be the spacing between the lamps so that the
illumination on the ground midway between the lamps shall be at least one-half of the illumination
directly below the lamp.
Solution:
Given data: The candle power of lamp, I = 600 CP,
The mounting height of lamps form the ground, H = 8 m.
Let, the maximum spacing between the lamps =x m.

The illumination at ‘C’ due to the lamp ‘L1’ is:

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The illumination ‘E2’ at ‘C’ due to the lamp ‘L2’ is same as to ‘E1’.
∴ The total illumination at ‘C' due to the lamps, L1 and L2 is:

The illumination just below the lamp, L2 is:

EB = the illumination due to lamp L1 + the illumination due to lamp L2:

Example 6.14: A lamp of 250 candela is placed 2 m below a plane mirror that reflects 60% of light
falling on it. The lamp is hung at 6 m above ground. Find the illumination at a point on the ground 8
m away from the point vertically below the lamp.
Solution:
Figure shows the lamp and the mirror arrangements. Here, the lamp ‘L’ produces an image ‘L’, then
the height of the image from the ground = 8 + 2 = 10 m.
1
And L acts as secondary sources of light whose candle power is equals to 0.85 × CP of lamp ‘L’.
i.e., 0.85 × 250 = 212.5 CP.
∴ The illumination at the point ‘B’ 8m away from the lamp = illumination at ‘B’ due to L + the
1
illumination at ‘B’ due to L :

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Example 6.15: A light source with an intensity uniform in all direction is mounted at a height of 20
ms above a horizontal surface. Two points 'A' and ‘B’ both lie on the surface with point A directly
beneath the source. How far is B from A if the illumination at ‘B’ is only 1/15th as great as A?

Solution:
Let the luminous intensity of the lamp ‘L’ be ‘I’ candela and the distance of the point of illumination
from the base of the lamp is ‘x’ m (Fig. P.6.19).

The illumination at the point 'A' due to the lamp ‘L’ is:

The illumination at the point 'B' due to the lamp ‘L’ is:

Example 6.16: A lamp with a reflector is mounted 10 m above the center of a circular area of 30-m
diameter. If the combination of lamp and reflector gives a uniform CP of 1,200 over circular area,
determine the maximum and minimum illumination produced.
Solution: The mounting height of the lamp h = 10 m

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The diameter of the circular area = 30 m. The candle power of the lamp I = 1,200 CP.
The maximum illumination occur just directly below the lamp, i.e., at point ‘C’ is:

Minimum Illumination will occur at the periphery of the circular area, i.e., at A (or) B.

Example 6.17: Two lamps hung at a height of 12 m from the floor level. The distance between the
lamps is 8 m. Lamp one is of 250 CP. If the illumination on the floor vertically below this lamp is
40 lux, find the CP of the second lamp.
Solution:
Given data: The candle power of the lamp, I = 250 CP.
The intensity of L1 illumination just below the lamp L1 = 40 lux. Let CP of L2 = ICP.
∴ The illumination at the point A = the illumination due to the lamp L1 +the illumination
due to the lamp L2:

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 UNIT 2 Lamps and Lighting Accesories
INTRODUCTION
Light plays major role in human life. Natural light restricted for some duration in a day, it is very
difficult to do any work by human being without light. So, it is necessary to have substitute for
natural light. Light from incandescent bodies produced electrically, which playing important role in
everyday life due to its controlled output, reliability, and cleanliness nowadays; various sources are
producing artificial light. Each source has its own characteristics and specific importance.

TYPES OF SOURCES OF ILLUMINATION

Usually in a broad sense, based upon the way of producing the light by electricity, the sources of
light are classified into following four types.
Electric arc lamps
The ionization of air present between the two electrodes produces an arc and provides intense light.
Incandescent lamps
When the filaments of these lamps are heated to high temperature, they emit light that falls in the
visible region of wavelength. Tungsten-filament lamps are operating on this principle.
Gaseous discharge lamps
When an electric current is made to pass through a gas or metal vapor, it produces visible radiation
by discharge takes place in the gas vapor. Sodium and mercury vapor lamps operate on this
principle.
Fluorescent lamps
Certain materials like phosphor powders exposed to ultraviolet rays emits the absorbed energy into
visible radiations fall in the visible range of wavelength. This principle is employed in fluorescent
lamps.

ARC LAMPS

In arc lamps, the electrodes are in contact with each other and are separated by some distance apart;
the electric current is made to flow through these two electrodes. The discharge is allowed to take
place in the atmosphere where there are the production of a very intense light and a considerable
amount of UV radiation, when an arc is struck between two electrodes.

The arcs maintain current and is very efficient source of light. They are used in search lights,
projection lamps, and other special purpose lamps such as those in flash cameras.

Generally, used arc lamps are:

1. carbon arc lamp,
2. flame arc lamp, and
3. magnetic arc lamp.

Carbon arc lamp

Carbon arc lamp consists of two hard rod-type electrodes made up of carbon. Two electrodes are
placed end to end and are connected to the DC supply. The positive electrode is of a large size than
that of the negative electrode. The carbon electrodes used with AC supply are of the same size as
that of the DC supply. The DC supply across the two electrodes must not be less than 45 V.

When electric current passes through the electrodes are in contact and then withdrawn apart about
2–3 mm an arc is established between the two rods.
The two edges of the rods becomes incandescence due to the high resistance offered by rods as
shown in Fig. 7.1 by transfer of carbon particles from one rod to the other. It is observed that carbon
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particles transfer from the positive rod to the negative one. So that the positive electrode gets
consumed earlier than the negative electrode. Hence, the positive electrode is of twice the diameter
than that of the negative electrode.

Fig Carbon arc lamp

In case of AC supply, the rate of consumption of the two electrodes is same; therefore, the cross-
section of the two electrodes is same. A resistance ‘R’ is connected in series with the electrode for
stabilizing the arc. As current increases, the vaporizing rate of carbon increases, which decreases the
resistance so much, then voltage drop across the arc decreases. So, to maintain the arc between the
two electrodes, series resistance should be necessarily connected.

For maintaining the arc, the necessary voltage required is: V = (39 + 2.8 l ) V,
where l is the length of the arc.

The voltage drop across the arc is 60 V, the temperature of the positive electrode is 3,500 – 4,200°C,
and the temperature of the negative electrode is 2,500°C. The luminous efficiency of such lamps is
9–12 lumens/W. This low luminous efficiency is due to the service resistance provided in DC
supply while in case of AC supply, an inductor is used in place of a resistor. In carbon arc lamps,
85% of the light is given out by the positive electrode, 10% of the light is given out by the negative
electrodes, and 5% of the light is given out by the air.

Flame arc lamp

The electrodes used in flame arc lamp are made up of 85% of carbon and 15% of fluoride. This
fluoride is also known as flame material; it has the efficient property that radiates light energy from
high heated arc stream. Generally, the core type electrodes are used and the cavities are filled with
fluoride. The principle of operation of the flame arc lamp is similar to the carbon arc lamp. When
the arc is established between the electrodes, both fluoride and carbon get vaporized and give out
very high luminous intensities. The color output of the flame arc lamps depends upon the flame
materials. The luminous efficiency of such lamp is 8 lumens/W. A simple flame arc lamp is shown
in Fig. 7.2. Resistance is connected in service with the electrodes to stabilize the arc.

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 Fig. 7.2 Flame arc lamp

Magnetic arc lamp

The principle of the operation of the magnetic arc lamp is similar to the carbon arc lamp. This lamp
consists of positive electrode that is made up of copper and negative electrode that is made up of
magnetic oxide of iron. Light energy radiated out when the arc is struck between the two electrodes.
These are rarely used lamps.

INCANDESCENT LAMP

These lamps are temperature-dependent sources. When electric current is made to flow through a
fine metallic wire, which is known as filament, its temperature increases. At low temperatures, it
emits only heat energy, but at very high temperature, the metallic wire emits both heat and light
energy. These incandescent lamps are also known as temperature radiators.
Choice of material for filament
The materials commonly used as filament for incandescent lamps are carbon, tantalum, tungsten,
and osmium.
The materials used for the filament of the incandescent lamp have the following properties.
o The melting point of the filament material should be high.
o The temperature coefficient of the material should be low.
o It should be high resistive material.
o The material should possess good mechanical strength to withstand vibrations.
o The material should be ductile.
Comparisons of carbon, osmium, tantalum, and tungsten used for making the filament

Carbon
o Carbon has high melting point of 3,500°C; even though, its melting point is high, carbon starts
disintegration at very fast rate beyond its working temperature of 1,800°C.
o Its resistance decreases with increase in temperature, i.e., its temperature coefficient of
resistivity is negative, so that it draws more current from the supply. The temperature coefficient
(α) is –0.0002 to– 0.0008.
o The efficiency of carbon filament lamp is low; because of its low operating tem perature, large
electrical input is required. The commercial efficiency of carbon lamp is 3 – 4.5 lumens/W
approximately.
o Carbon has high resistivity (ρ), which is about 1,000–7,000 µΩ-cm and its density is 1.7–3.5.

Osmium
o The melting point of osmium is 2,600°C.
o It is very rare and expensive metal.
o The average efficiency of osmium lamp is 5 lumens/W.
Tantalum
o The melting point of tantalum is 3,000°C.
o Resistivity (ρ) is 12.5 µΩ-cm.
o The main drawback of the negative temperature coefficient of carbon is overcome in tantalum. It
has positive temperature coefficient (α) and its value is 0.0036.
o The density of tantalum is 16.6.
o The efficiency of tantalum lamp is 2 lumens/W.
Tungsten
o The working temperature of tungsten is 2,500–3,000°C.

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o Its resistance at working temperature is about 12–15 times the cold resistance.
o It has positive temperature coefficient of resistance of 0.0045.
o Its resistivity is 5.6 12.5 µΩ-cm.
o The density of tungsten is 19.3.
o The efficiency of tantalum when working at 2,000°C is 18 lumens/W.
o Its vapor pressure is low when compared to carbon.
In fact, the carbon lamp is the first lamp introduced by Thomas Alva Edison in 1879, owing to two
drawbacks, tungsten radiates more energy in visible spectrum and somewhat less in infrared
spectrum so that there was a switch over in infrared spectrum so that there was a switch over from
carbon filament to tungsten filament. Nowadays, tungsten filament lamps are widely used
incandescent lamps.
The chemically pure tungsten is very strong and fragile. In order to make it into ductile, tungsten
oxide is first reduced in the form of gray power in the atmosphere of hydrogen and this powder is
pressed in steel mold for small bars; the mechanical strength of these bars can be improved by
heating them to their melting point and then hammered at red-hot position and re- rolled into wires.

Construction
Figure 7.3 shows the construction of the pure tungsten filament incandescent lamp. It consists of an
evacuated glass bulb and an aluminum or brass cap is provided with two pins to insert the bulb into
the socket. The inner side of the bulb consists of a tungsten filament and the support wires are made
of molybdenum to hold the filament in proper position. A glass button is provided in which the
support wires are inserted. A stem tube forms an air-tight seal around the filament whenever the
glass is melted.
Operation
When electric current is made to flow through the fine metallic tungsten filament, its temperature
increases. At very high temperature, the filament emits both heat and light radiations, which fall in
the visible region. The maximum temperature at which the filament can be worked without
oxidization is 2,000°C, i.e., beyond this temperature, the tungsten filament blackens the inside of the
bulb. The tungsten filament lamps can be operated efficiently beyond 2,000°C, it can be attained by
inserting a small quantity of inert gas nitrogen with small quantity of organ. But if gas is inserted
instead of vacuum in the inner side of the bulb, the heat of the lamp is conducted away and it
reduces the efficiency of the lamp. To reduce this loss of heat by conduction and convection, as far
as possible, the filament should be so wound that it takes very little space. This is achieved by using
a single-coil filament instead of a straight wire filament as shown in Fig. 7.4(a). This single-coil
filament is used in vacuum bulbs up to 25 W and gas filled bulbs from 300 to 1,000 W.

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 Fig. 7.3 Incandescent lamp Fig. 7.4 Various filaments used in incandescent
lamps

On further development of the incandescent lamps, the shortening of the length of the filament
was achieved by adopting a coiled coil or a double coil filament as shown in Fig. 7.4(b). The use of
coiled coil filament not only improves the efficiency of the lamp but also reduces the number of
filament supports and thus simplified interior construction because the double coil reduces the
filament mounting length in the ratio of 1:25 as compared to the straight wire filaments.

Usually, the tungsten filament lamp suffers from ‘aging effect’, the output of the light an
incandescent lamp decreases as the lamp ages. The output of the light of the lamp decreases due to
two reasons.
o At very high temperature, the vaporization of filament decreases the coil diameter so that
resistance of the filament increases and hence its draws less current from the supply, so the
temperature of the filament and the light output of the bulb decrease.
o The current drawn from the mains and the power consumed by the filament decrease, which
decrease the efficiency of the lamp with the passage of time. In addition, the evaporation of the
filament at high temperature blackens the inside of the bulb.

The effects of voltage variations

The variations in normal supply voltages will affect the operating characteristics of incandescent
lamps. The performance characteristic of an incandescent lamp, when it is subjected to voltage other
than normal voltage, is shown in Fig. .

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Fig Performance characteristics of incandescent lamp

With an increase in the voltage owing to the increase in the temperature, the luminous output of the
incandescent lamps, and the efficiency and power consumption, but its life span decreases.

The depreciation in the light output is around 15% over the useful life of the lamp. The above- stated
factors are related to the variations of voltage are given as:
o Lumens output ∝ (voltage) .
3.55

o Power consumption ∝ (voltage) .

1.55

o Luminous efficiency ∝ (voltage) .

2

o Life ∝ (voltage)
–13
(for vacuum lamps).
o Life ∝ (voltage)
–14
(for gas filled lamps).
The advantages of the incandescent lamps
o These lamps are available in various shapes and sizes.
o These are operating at unity power factor.
o These lamps are not affected by surrounding air temperature.
o Different colored light output can be obtained by using different colored glasses.
Filament dimensions
Let us consider a lamp, which is connected to the mains, is given the steady light output, i.e., whatever
the heat produced, it is dissipated and the filament temperature is not going to be increase further. It is
found to be the existence of a definite relation between the diameter of a given filament and the current
through it.
The input wattage to the lamp is expressed as:

where I is current taken by lamp A, a is filament cross-section, sq. m, ρ is resistivity of filament at

working temperature Ω-m, l is length of filament m, and d is diameter of filament.

Let the emissivity of the material be ‘e’. Total heat dissipated will depend upon the surface area and

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the emissivity of the material

∴ Heat dissipated ∝ surface area × emissivity:

At the steady state condition, the power input should be equal to the heat dissipated. From Equations
(7.1) and (7.2), we can write that:

If two filaments are made up of same material, working at same temperature and efficiency but with
different diameters, then from Equation (7.3):

If two filaments are working at the same temperature, then their luminous output must be same even
though their lengths are different.

Limitations
The incandescent lamp suffers from the following drawbacks:
o Low efficiency.
o Colored light can be obtained by using different colored glass enclosures only.

DISCHARGE LAMPS
Discharge lamps have been developed to overcome the drawbacks of the incandescent lamp. The main
principle of the operation of light in a gaseous discharge lamp is illustrated as below.
In all discharge lamps, an electric current is made to pass through a gas or vapor, which produces its
illuminance. Normally, at high pressures and atmospheric conditions, all the gases are poor conductors
of electricity. But on application of sufficient voltage across the two electrodes, these ionized gases
produce electromagnetic radiation. In the process of producing light by gaseous conduction, the most
commonly used elements are neon, sodium, and mercury. The wavelength of the electromagnetic
radiation depends upon the nature of gas and the gaseous pressure used inside the lamp. A simple
discharge lamp is shown in Fig. 7.6.

Fig. Discharge lamps

The production of light in the gaseous discharge lamps is based on the phenomenon of excitation and
ionization of gas or metal vapor present between the two electrodes of a discharge tube.
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 When the potential between the two electrodes is equals to ionizing potential, gas or metal vapor
starts ionizing and an arc is established between the two electrodes. Volt–ampere characteristics of the
arc is negative, i.e., gaseous discharge lamp possess a negative resistance characteristics. A choke or
ballast is provided to limit high currents to a safe value. Here, the choke serves two functions.
o It provides ignition voltage initially.
o Limits high currents.
The use of choke will reduce the power factor (0.3–0.4) of all the gaseous lamps so that all the
discharge lamps should be provided with a condenser to improve the power factor. The nature of the
gas and vapor used in the lamp will affect the color affected of light.

Types of discharge lamps

Generally used discharge lamps are of two types. They are:
1. The lamps that emit light of the color produced by discharge takes place through the gas or vapor
present in the discharge tube such as neon gas, sodium vapor, mercury vapor, etc.
Ex: Neon gas, sodium vapor lamp, and mercury vapor lamp.
2. The lamp that emits light of color depends upon the type of phosphor material coated inside the
walls of the discharge tube. Initially, the discharge takes place through the vapor produces UV
radiation, thenthe invisible UV rays absorbed by the phosphors and radiates light energy falls in the
visible region. This UV light causes fluorescence in certain phosphor materials, such lamps are
known as fluorescent lamps.
Ex: Fluorescent mercury vapor tube.
In general, the gaseous discharge lamps are superior to the tungsten filament lamps.
Drawbacks
The discharge lamps suffer from the following drawbacks.
1. The starting of the discharge lamps requires starters and transformers; therefore, the lamp circuitry is
complex.
2. High initial cost.
3. Poor power factor; therefore, the lamps make use of the capacitor.
4. Time required to give its full output brilliancy is more.
5. These lamps must be placed in particular position.
6. These lamps require stabilizing choke to limit current since the lamps have negativeresistance
characteristics.

NEON DISCHARGE LAMP

This is a cold cathode lamp, in which no filament is used to heat the electrode for starting.
Neon lamp consists of two electrodes placed at two ends of a long discharge tube is shown

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 Fig. Neon lamps
The discharge tube is filled with neon gas. A low voltage of 150 V on DC or 110 V on AC is
impressed across the two electrodes; the discharge takes place through the neon gas that emits light or
electro magnetic radiation reddish in color. The sizes of electrodes used are equal for both AC and DC
supplies. On DC, neon glow appear nearer to the negative electrode; therefore, the negative electrode is
made larger in size. Neon lamp electric circuit consists of a transformer with high leakage reactance in
order to stabilize the arc. Capacitor is used to improve the power factor. Neon lamp efficiency is
approximately 15–40 lumens/W. The power consumption of the neon lamp is 5 W.

If the helium gas is used instead of neon, pinkish white light is obtained. These lamps are used as
night lamps and as indicator lamps and used for the determination of the polarity of DC mains and for
advertising purpose.

SODIUM VAPOR LAMP

A sodium vapor lamp is a cold cathode and low-pressure lamp. A sodium vapor discharge lamp
consists of a U-shaped tube enclosed in a double-walled vacuum flask, to keep the temperature of the
tube within the working region. The inner U-tube consists of two oxide-coated electrodes, which are
sealed with the ends. These electrodes are connected to a pin type base construction of sodium vapor
lamp is shown

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Fig. Sodium vapor lamp

This sodium vapor lamp is low luminosity lamp, so that the length of the lamp should be more. In
order to get the desired length, it is made in the form of a U-shaped tube. This longU- tube consists of a
small amount of neon gas and metallic sodium. At the time of start, the neon gas vaporizes and
develops sufficient heat to vaporize metallic sodium in the U-shaped tube.

Working
Initially, the sodium is in the form of a solid, deposited on the walls of inner tube. When sufficient
voltage is impressed across the electrodes, the discharge starts in the inert gas, i.e., neon; it operates as a
low-pressure neon lamp with pink color. The temperature of the lamp increases gradually and the
metallic sodium vaporizes and then ionizes thereby producing the monochromatic yellow light. This
lamp takes 10–15 min to give its full light output. The yellowish output of the lamp makes the object
appears gray.

In order to start the lamp, 380 – 450 V of striking voltage required for 40- and 100-W lamps. These
voltages can be obtained from a high reactance transformer or an auto transformer. The operating
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power factor of the lamp is very poor, so that a capacitor is placed to improve the power factor to above
0.8. More care should be taken while replacing the inner tube, if it is broken, then sodium comes in
contact with the moisture; therefore, fire will result. The lamp must be operated horizontally or nearly
so, to spread out the sodium well along the tube.

The efficiency of sodium vapor lamp is lies between 40 and 50 lumens/W. Normally, these lamps are
manufactured in 45-, 60-, 85- and 140-W ratings. The normal operating temperatures of these lamps are
300°C. In general, the average life of the sodium vapor lamp is 3,000 hr and such bulbs are not affected
by voltage variations.

Following are the causes of failure to operate the lamp, when:

o The cathode fails to emit the electrons.
o The filament breaks or burns out.
o All the particles of sodium are concentrated on one side of the inner tube.
o The life of the lamp increases due to aging.
The average light output of the lamp is reduced by 15% due to aging. These lamps are mainly used
for highway and street lighting, parks, railway yards, general outdoor lighting, etc.

HIGH-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP

The working of the mercury vapor discharge lamp mainly depends upon the pressure, voltage,
temperature, and other characteristics that influence the spectral quality and the efficiency of the lamp.
Generally used high-pressure mercury vapor lamps are of three types. They are:
1. MA type: Preferred for 250- and 400-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
2. MAT type: Preferred for 300- and 500-W rating bulbs on 200–250-V AC supply.
3. MB type: Preferred for 80- and 125-W rating bulbs and they are working at very high pressures.

MA type lamp
It is a high-pressure mercury vapor discharge lamp that is similar to the construction of sodium vapor
lamp. The construction of MA type lamp is shown in Fig. 7.9
MA type lamp consists of a long discharge tube in ‘U’ shape and is made up of hard glass or quartz.
This discharge tube is enclosed in an outer tube of ordinary glass. To prevent the heat loss from the
inner bulb, by convection, the gap between the two tubes is completely evacuated. The inner tube
contains two main electrodes and an auxiliary starting electrode, which is connected through a high
resistance of about 50 kΩ. It also contains a small quantity of argon gas and mercury. The two main
electrodes are tungsten coils coated with electron emitting material (such as thorium metal).
Working
Initially, the tube is cold and hence the mercury is in condensed form. Initially, when supply is given to
the lamp, argon gas present between the main and the auxiliary electrodes gets ionized, and an arc is
established, and then discharge takes place through argon for few minutes between the main and the
auxiliary electrodes. As a result, discharge takes place through argon for few minutes in between the
main and the auxiliary electrodes. The discharge can be controlled by using high resistance that is
inserted in-series with the auxiliary electrode. After few minutes, the argon gas, as a whole, gets ionized
between the two main electrodes. Hence, the discharge shifts from the auxiliary electrode to the two
main electrodes. During the discharge process, heat is produced and this heat is sufficient to vaporize
the mercury. As a result, the pressure inside the discharge tube becomes high and the voltage drop
across the two main electrodes will increases from 20 to 150 V. After 5–7 min, the lamp starts and
gives its full output.

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 Fig. MA type lamp
Initially, the discharge through the argon is pale blue glow and the discharge through the mercury
vapors is greenish blue light; here, choke is provided to limit high currents and capacitor is to improve
the power factor of the lamp.

If the supply is interrupted, the lamp must cool down and the vapor pressure be reduced before it will
start. It takes approximately 3 – 4 min. The operating temperature of the inner discharge tube is about
600°C. The efficiency of this type of lamp is 30–40 lumens/W. These lamps are manufactured in 250
and 400 W ratings for use on 200–250 V on AC supply.

Generally, the MA type lamps are used for general industrial lighting, ports, shopping centers,
railway yards, etc.

MAT type lamp

This is another type of mercury vapor lamp that is manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for use on AC
as well as DC supplies. The construction of the MAT type lamp is similar to the MA type lamp except
the outer tube being empty; it consists of tungsten filament so that at the time of starting, it works as a
tungsten filament lamp. Here, the filament itself acts as a choke or ballast to limit the high currents to
safer value.

When the supply is switched on, it works as a tungsten filament lamp, its full output is given by the
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outer tube. At this time, the temperature of the inner discharge tube increases gradually, the argon gas
present in it starts ionizing in the discharge tube at any particular temperature is attained then thermal
switch gets opened, and the part of the filament is detached and voltage across the discharge tube
increases. Now, the discharge takes place through the mercury vapor. Useful color effect can be
obtained by this lamp. This is because of the combination of light emitted form the filament and blue
radiations from the discharge tube. In this type of lamp, capacitor is not required since the overall
power factor of the lamp is 0.95; this is because the filament itself acts as resistance. Fig. 7.10 shows
the construction of MAT type lamp.

Fig. MAT type lamp

MB type lamp
Fig. MB type lamp

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 The MB type lamp is also similar to the MA type lamp. The inner discharge tube for the MB type
lamp is about 5 -cm long and is made up of quartz material. It has three electrodes; two main and one
auxiliary electrodes. There are three electrodes present in the MB type lamp, namely two main
electrodes and one auxiliary electrode. Relatively, very high pressure is maintained inside the discharge
tube and it is about 5–10 times greater than atmospheric pressure. The outer tube is made with pearl
glass material so as to withstand high temperatures. We can use these tubes in any position, because
they are made up of special glass material.

The working principle of the MB type lamp is similar to the MA type lamp. These lamps are
manufactured in 300 and 500 W rating for use in AC as well as DC supplies. An MB type lamp consists
a bayonet cap with three pins, so it may not be used in an ordinary sense. A choke coil and a capacitor
are necessary for working with these types of lamps.

FLUORESCENT LAMP (LOW-PRESSURE MERCURY VAPOR LAMP)

Fluorescent lamp is a hot cathode low-pressure mercury vapor lamp; the construction and working of
the fluorescent lamp are explained as follows.
Construction
It consists of a long horizontal tube, due to low pressure maintained inside of the bulb; it is made in the
form of a long tube.
The tube consists of two spiral tungsten electrode coated with electron emissive material and are
placed at the two edges of long tube. The tube contains small quantity of argon gas and certain amount
of mercury, at a pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury. The construction of fluorescent lamp is shown in Fig.
7.12. Normally, low-pressure mercury vapor lamps suffer from low efficiency and they produce an
objectionable colored light. Such drawback is overcome by coating the inside of the tube with
fluorescent powders. They are in the form of solids, which are usually knows as phosphors.
A glow starter switch contains small quantity of argon gas, having a small cathode glow lamp with
bimetallic strip is connected in series with the electrodes, which puts the electrodes directly across the
supply at the time of starting. A choke is connected in series that acts as ballast when the lamp is
running, and it provides a voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor of 4µF is connected across the
starter in order to improve the power factor.

Working
At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold, the mercury is in the form of
globules. When supply is switched on, the glow starter terminals are open circuited and full supply
voltage appeared across these terminals, due to low resistance of electrodes and choke coil. The small
quantity of argon gas gets ionized, which establishes an arc with a starting glow. This glow warms up
the bimetallic strip thus glow starts gets short circuited. Hence, the two electrodes come in series and
are connected across the supply voltage. Now, the two electrodes get heated and start emitting electrons
due to the flow of current through them. These electrons collide with the argon atoms present in the
long tube discharge that takes place through the argon gas. So, in the beginning, the lamp starts
conduction with argon gas as the temperature increases, the mercury changes into vapor form and takes
over the conduction of current.
In the mean time, the starter potential reaches to zero and the bimetallic strip gets cooling down. As a
result, the starter terminals will open. This results breaking of the series circuit. A very high voltage
around 1,000 V is induced, because of the sudden opening of starter terminals in the series circuit. But
in the long tube, electrons are already present; this induced voltage is quite sufficient to break down the

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long gap. Thus, more number of electrons collide with argon and mercury vapor atoms. The excited
atom of mercury gives UV radiation, which will not fall in the visible region.
Meanwhile, these UV rays are made to strike phosphor material; it causes the re-emission of light of
different wavelengths producing illumination. The phenomenon of the emission is called as
luminescence.

Fig. Fluorescent lamp

This luminescence is classified into two ways. They are:
1. Fluorescence: In this case, the excitation presents for the excited periods only.
2. Phosphorescence: In this case, even after the exciting source is removed, the excitation will
present.
In a lamp, the re-emission of light causes fluorescence, then such lamp is known asfluorescent lamp.
Depending upon the type of phosphor material used, we get light of different colors as given in
Table. .
Table Colors of light

Phosphor material Color effect

1. Zinc silicate Green

2. Calcium tungstate Green

3. Magnesium tungstate Bluish while

4. Cadmium silicate Yellowish pink

5. Zinc beryllium silicate Yellowish while

6. Cadmium borate Pink

Advantages of fluorescent lamp

The fluorescent lamp has the following advantages:
o High efficiency.
o The life of the lamp is three times of the ordinary filament lamp.

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o The quality of the light obtained is much superior.
o Less chances of glare.
o These lamps can be mounted on low ceiling, where other light sources would be unsatisfactory.
Although the fluorescent lamp has the above advantages, it sufferers form the following disadvantages:
o The initial cost is high because of choke and starter.
o The starting time as well as the light output of the lamp will increases because of lowambient
temperature.
o Because of the presence of choke, these lamps suffer from magnetic humming and may cause
disturbance.
o The stroboscopic effect of this lamp is objectionable.
Stroboscopic effect
We all know that because of ‘the alternating nature of supply, it crosses zero two times in a cycle’. For
50-Hz frequency supply of the alternating current, a discharge lamp will be extinguished twice in a
cycle and 100 times per second (for 50-Hz supply). A human eye cannot identify this extinguish
phenomenon, because of the persistence of vision. If this light falls upon a moving object, the object
appearing like slow moving or fast moving or moving in reverse direction, sometimes stationary. This
effect is due to the extinguishing nature of the light of the lamp. This effect is called as ‘stroboscopic
effect’.
This effect can be avoided by employing any of the two techniques listed below.
1. If we have three-phase supply, then the fluorescent lamps that are adjacent should be fed from
different phases. Then, no two lamps will not be in same phase at zero instant of AC supply, so light is
present at any instant.
2. If the available supply is single phase, then twin tube circuitry as shown in Fig. 7.13, we can eliminate
stroboscopic effect.
Twin tube circuit is also known as lead–lag circuit. Here two tubes are connected in parallel. One of
the two tubes provided with a capacitor in series with the choke coil. The current through the lamps is
almost 90° out of phase and under these conditions, the light output of one of the lamps is at maximum.
Moreover, the overall power factor of lamps is unity. In this lead–lag arrangement, one of the lamps is
operating at 0.5 lagging, the other, provided with capacitor, is operating at 0.5 leading.
In general, the life of a fluorescent lamp is about 7,500 hr. Based on the operating conditions, the
lamp's actual life can be varied from 5,000 to 10,000 hr. It is recommended to replace a lamp after
4,000–5,000 of its working hours

.
Fig. Lead–lag circuit

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31 | P a g e
COMPARISON BETWEEN TUNGSTEN FILAMENT LAMPS AND FLUORESCENT LAMPS
Incandescent lamp Fluorescent lamp

1. Initial cost is less. 1. Initial cost is more.

2. Fluctuation in supply voltage has less effect on light output, 2. Fluctuations in supply voltage has comparatively more
as the variations in voltage are absorbed in choke. effect on the light output.

3. It radiates the light; the color of which resembles the natural 3. It does not give light close to the natural light.
light.
4. It works on AC as well as DC. 4. Change of supply needs additional equipment.

5. The luminous efficiency of the lamp is high that is about 8 – 5. The luminous efficiency is poor, which is about 8– 10
40 lumens/W. lumen/W.
6. Different color lights can be obtained by using different 6. Different color lights can be obtained by using different
colored glasses. composition of fluorescent powder.

7. Brightness of the lamp is more. 7. Brightness of the lamp is less.

8. The reduction in light output of the lamp is comparatively 8. The reduction in light output of the lamp is
high, with the time. comparatively low, with the lamp.
9. The working temperature is about 2,000°C. 9. The working temperature is about 50°C.

10. The normal working life is 1,000 hr. 10. The normal working life is 5,000–7,500 hr.

11. No stroboscopic effect. 11. Stroboscopic effect is present.

12. These lamps are widely used for domestic, industrial, and 12. They find wide application in domestic, industrial, and
street lighting. floodlighting.
13. The luminous efficiency increases with the increase in the 13. The luminous efficiency increase with the increase in
voltage of the lamp. voltage and the increase in the length of tube.

TYPES OF LIGHTING SCHEMES

Usually, with the reflector and some special diffusing screens, it is possible to control the distribution of
light emitted from lamps up to some extent. A good lighting scheme results in an attractive and
commanding presence of objects and enhances the architectural style of the interior of a building.
Depending upon the requirements and the way of light reaching the surface, lighting schemes are
classified as follows:

1. direct lighting,
2. semidirect lighting,
3. indirect lighting,
4. semi-indirect lighting, and
5. general lighting.

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Direct lighting schemes
Direct lighting scheme is most widely used for interior lighting scheme. In this scheme, by using deep
reflectors, it is possible to make 90% of light falls just below the lamp. This scheme is more efficient
but it suffers from hard shadows and glare. Hence, while designing such schemes, all the possibilities
that will cause glare on the eye have to be eliminated. It is mainly used for industrial and general
outdoor lighting.

Semidirect lighting schemes

In semidirect lighting scheme, about 60–90% of lamps luminous flux is made to fall downward directly
by using some reflectors and the rest of the light is used to illuminate the walls and ceiling. This type of
light scheme is employed in rooms with high ceiling. Glare can be avoided by employing diffusing
globes. This scheme will improve not only the brightness but also the efficiency.

Indirect lighting schemes

In this lighting scheme, 90% of total light is thrown upwards to the ceiling. In such scheme, the ceiling
acts as the lighting source and glare is reduced to minimum.
This system provides shadowless illumination, which is very useful for drawing offices and in
workshops where large machines and other difficulties would cause trouble some shadows if direct
lighting schemes were used.

Semi-indirect lighting schemes

In semi-indirect lighting scheme, about 60–90% of light from the lamp is thrown upwards to the ceiling
and the remaining luminous flux reaches the working surface. Glare will be completely
eliminated with such type of lighting scheme. This scheme is widely preferred for indoor lighting
decoration purpose.

General lighting scheme

This scheme of lighting use diffusing glasses to produce the equal illumination in all directions.
Mounting height of the source should be much above eye level to avoid glare.

METHODS OF LIGHTING CALCULATIONS

There are so many methods have been employed for lighting calculation, some of those methods are as
follows.
1. Watts-per-square-meter method.
2. Lumen or light flux method
3. Point-to-point method

Example 7.1: A room 20 × 10 m is illuminated by 60 W incandescent lamps of lumen output of 1,600

lumens. The average illumination required at the workplace is 300 lux. Calculate the number of lamps
required to be fitted in the room. Assume utilization and depreciation factors as
0.5 and 1, respectively.
Solution:
The area of the room (A) = 20 × 10 m = 200 m2.
Total illumination required (E) = 300 lux. The wattage of each lamp = 60 W
The luminous output of the lamp (φ) = 1,600 lumens UF = 0.5, DF = 1.

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∴ Maintenance factor,
∴ The number of lamps required:

Example 7.2: The front of a building 35 × 18 m is illuminated by 15 lamps; the wattage of each lamp is
80 W. The lamps are arranged so that uniform illumination on the surface is obtained.
Assuming a luminous efficiency of 20 lumens/W, the coefficient of utilization is 0.8, the waste light
factor is 1.25, DF = 0.9. Determine the illumination on the surface.
Solution:
Area = (A) = 35 × 18 = 630 m2.
The number of lamps, N = 15. Luminous efficiency, η = 20 lumens/W. UF = 0.8, DF = 0.9.
Waste light factor = 1.25, E = ?

Example 7.3: A room of size 10 × 4 m is to be illuminated by ten 150-W lamps. The MSCP of each
lamp is 300. Assuming a depreciation factor of 0.8 and a utilization factor of 0.5. Find the average
illumination produced on the floor.
Solution:
The area of the room (A) = 10 × 4 = 40 m2.
The total luminous flux emitted by ten lamps (φ) = 10 × 150 × 4π = 18, 849.5 lumens.
The total luminous flux reaching the working plane

The illumination on the working plane

Example 7.4: The front of a building 25 × 12 m is illuminated by 20 1,200-W lamps arranged so that
uniform illumination on the surface is obtained. Assuming a luminous efficiency of 30 lumens/W and a
coefficient of utilization of 0.75. Determine the illumination on the surface. Assume DF = 1.3 and
waste light factor 1.2.
Solution:
Area to be illuminated = 25 × 12 = 300 m2. The total lumens given out by 20 lamps is:
φ = number of lamps × wattage of each lamp × efficiency of each lamp
= 20 × 30 × 1,200 = 720,000 lumens.
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 The total lumens reaching the surface to be illuminated

The illumination on the surface:

Example 7.5: An illumination of 40 lux is to be produced on the floor of a room 16 × 12 m. 15 lamps

are required to produce this illumination in the room; 40% of the emitted light falls on the floor.
Determine the power of the lamp in candela. Assume maintenance factor as unity.
Solution: Given data E = 40 lux A = 16 × 12 = 192 m2 Number of lamps, N = 15 UF = 0.4, MF = 1

Example 7.6: A drawing, with an area of 18 × 12 m, is to be illuminated with an average illumination

of about 150 lux. The lamps are to be fitted at 6 m height. Find out the number and size of incandescent
lamps required for an efficiency of 20 lumens/W. UF = 0.6, MF = 0.75.
Solution:
Given data: η = 120 lumens/W, E = 150 lux, A = 18 × 12 = 216 m2 UF = 0.6 MF = 0.75

Let, if 24 lamps are arranged to illuminate the desired area. For space to height ratio unity, i.e., 6 lamps
are taken along the length with a space of 18/6 = 3m, and 4 lamps are along the width giving a space of
12/4 = 3 m.

The arrangement of 24 lamps in a hall of 18 × 12 m is shown in Fig. P.7.1

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 Fig. P.7.1 Lamp arrangement

Example 7.7: A hall of 30 × 20 m area with a ceiling height of 6 m is to be provided with a general
illumination of 200 lumens/m2, taking a coefficient of utilization of 0.6 and depreciation factor of 1.6.
Determine the number of fluorescent tubes required, their spacing, mounting height, and total wattage.
Take luminous efficiency of fluorescent tube as 25 lumens/W for 300- W tube.
Solution:
Given data: Area of hall (A) = 30 × 20 m = 600 m2 E = 200 lumens/m2 CU = 0.6 DF = 1.6
The wattage of fluorescent tube = 300 W Efficiency η = 25 lumens/W

Let us arrange 44 lamps in a 30 × 30 m hall, by taking 11 lamps along the length with spacing 30/11 = 2.727 m
and 4 lamps along the width with spacing 20/4 = 5m. Here the space to height ratio with this arrangement is,
2.727/5 = 0.545. Disposition of lamps is shown in Fig. P.7.2.

Fig. P.7.2 Lamp arrangement

Example 7.8: A hall 40-m long and 16-m wide is to be illuminated and illumination required is 70-m
candles. Five types of lamps having lumen outputs, as given below are available.

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Taking a depreciation factor of 1.5 and a utilization coefficient of 0.7, calculate the number of lamps
required in each case to produce required illumination. Out of above five types of lamps, select most
suitable type and design, a suitable scheme, and make a sketch showing location of lamps. Assume a
suitable mounting height and calculate space to height ratio of lamps.
Solution:
Given data: Area (A) = 30 × 12 = 360 m2 DF = 1.5 CU = 0.7 E = 50-m candle
Total gross lumens required:

1. If 50-W lamps are used, the number of lamps required

2. If 100-W lamps are used, the number of lamps required

3. If 150-W lamps are used, the number of lamps required

4. If 200-W lamps are used, the number of lamps required

5. If 250-W lamps are used, the number of lamps required

Suitable type of lamp fitting will be 250-W lamps for a hall of 40 × 16 m.
Here, 10 lamps are arranged in two rows, each row having 5 lamps. By taking 5 lamps along the
length with spacing 4058=m and 2 lamps along width side with spacing 16/2 = 8m, i.e., space to height
ratio = 8/8 = 1.
The disposition of lamps is shown in Fig. P.7.3.

Fig. Lamp arrangement

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