Ch7 Corona: Syllabus Contents

Critical Disruptive Voltage,

Corona Loss,
Line Design based on Corona,
Disadvantages of Corona,
Radio Interference,

6
Inductive interference between Power and
Communication lines,
Examples.

Corona

INTRODUCTION

Corona phenomenon is the ionization of air surrounding the power conductor. Free electrons
are normally present in free space because of radioactivity and cosmic rays. As the potential
between the conductors is increased, the gradient around the surface of the conductor increases.
Assume that the spacing between the conductors is large as compared with the diameter of the
conductors. The free electrons will move with certain velocity depending upon the field strength.
These electrons will collide with the molecules of air and in case the speed is large, they will
dislodge electrons from these molecules, thereby the number of electrons will increase. The
process of ionization is thus cumulative and ultimately forms an electron avalanche. This
results in ionization of the air surrounding the conductor. In case the ratio of spacing between
conductors to the radius of the conductor is less than 15, flash over will occur between the
conductors before corona phenomenon occurs. Usually for overhead lines this ratio is far more
than this number and hence flash-over can be regarded as impossible.
Corona phenomenon is, therefore, defined as a self-sustained electric discharge in which
the field intensified ionization is localized only over a portion of the distance between the
electrodes.
When a voltage higher than the critical voltage is applied between two parallel polished
wires, the glow is quite even. After operation for a short time, reddish beads or tufts form
along the wire, while around the surface of the wire there is a bluish white glow. If the conductors
are examined through a stroboscope, so that one wire is always seen when at a given half of
the wave, it is noticed that the reddish tufts or beads are formed when the conductor is negative
and a smoother bluish white glow when the conductor is positive. The a.c. corona, viewed
through a stroboscope, has the same appearance as direct current corona. As corona phenomenon
is initiated, a hissing noise is heard and ozone gas is formed which can be detected by its
characteristic odour.

138

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Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines 181
2. Each line of a 3-phase system is suspended by a string of 3 similar insulators. If the voltage across the
line unit is 17·5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage and string efficiency. Assume that shunt capaci-
tance between each insulator and earthed metal work of tower to be 1/10th of the capacitance of the
insulator. [52 kV, 86·67%]
3. The three bus-bar conductors in an outdoor sub-station are supplied by units of post insulators. Each unit
consists of a stack of 3-pin insulators fixed one on the top of the other. The voltage across the lowest
insulator is 8·45 kV and that across the next is 7·25 kV. Find the bus-bar voltage of the station.
[38·8 kV]
4. A string of suspension insulators consists of three units. The capacitance between each link pin and earth
is one-sixth of the self-capacitance of each unit. If the maximum voltage per unit is not to exceed 35 kV,
determine the maximum voltage that the string can withstand. Also calculate the string efficiency.
[84·7 kV; 80·67%]
5. A string of 4 insulators has self-capacitance equal to 4 times the pin-to-earth capacitance. Calculate (i)
the voltage distribution across various units as a percentage of total voltage across the string and (ii)
string efficiency. [(i) 14·5%, 18·1%, 26·2% and 40·9% (ii) 61·2 %]
6. A string of four suspension insulators is connected across a 285 kV line. The self-capacitance of each
unit is equal to 5 times pin to earth capacitance. Calculate :
(i) the potential difference across each unit, (ii) the string efficiency.
[(i) 27·65 kV, 33·04 kV, 43·85 kV, 60 kV (ii) 68·5%]
7. Each of three insulators forming a string has self-capacitance of “C” farad. The shunt capacitance of
each cap of insulator is 0·25 C to earth and 0·15 C to line. Calculate the voltage distribution across each
insulator as a pecentage of line voltage to earth and the string efficiency.
[ 31·7%, 29·4%, 38·9%; 85·7%]
8. Each of the three insulators forming a string has a self capacitance of C farad. The shunt capacitance of
each insulator is 0·2 C to earth and 0·1 C to line. A guard-ring increases the capacitance of line of the
metal work of the lowest insulator to 0·3 C. Calculate the string efficiency of the arrangement :
(i) with the guard ring, (ii) without guard ring. [(i) 95% (ii) 86·13%]
9. A three-phase overhead transmission line is being supported by three-disc suspension insulators; the
potentials across the first and second insulator from the top are 8 kV and 11 kV respectively. Calcualte
(i) the line voltage (ii) the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to self capacitance of each unit (iii)
the string efficiency. [(i) 64·28 V (ii) 0·375 (iii) 68·28%]
10. A 3-phase overhead transmission line is supported on 4-disc suspension insulators. The voltage across
the second and third discs are 13·2 kV and 18 kV respectively. Calculate the line voltage and mention
the nearest standard voltage. [118·75 kV; 120 kV]

8.10 Corona
Corona
When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose spacing is large as
compared to their diameters, there is no apparent change in the condition of atmospheric air sur-
rounding the wires if the applied voltage is low. However, when the applied voltage exceeds a certain
value, called critical disruptive voltage, the conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow called
corona.
The phenomenon of corona is accompanied by a hissing sound, production of ozone, power loss
and radio interference. The higher the voltage is raised, the larger and higher the luminous envelope
becomes, and greater are the sound, the power loss and the radio noise. If the applied voltage is
increased to breakdown value, a flash-over will occur between the conductors due to the breakdown
of air insulation.
The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas in an overhead
transmission line is known as corona.
If the conductors are polished and smooth, the corona glow will be uniform throughout the
length of the conductors, otherwise the rough points will appear brighter. With d.c. voltage, there is

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182 Principles of Power System
difference in the appearance of the two wires. The positive wire has uniform glow about it, while the
negative conductor has spotty glow.
Theory of corona formation. Some ionisation is always present in air due to cosmic rays, ultra-
violet radiations and radioactivity. Therefore, under normal conditions, the air around the conductors
contains some ionised particles (i.e., free electrons and +ve ions) and neutral molecules. When p.d.
is applied between the conductors, potential gradient is set up in the air which will have maximum
value at the conductor surfaces. Under the influence of potential gradient, the existing free electrons
acquire greater velocities. The greater the applied voltage, the greater the potential gradient and
more is the velocity of free electrons.
When the potential gradient at the conductor surface reaches about 30 kV per cm (max. value),
the velocity acquired by the free electrons is sufficient to strike a neutral molecule with enough force
to dislodge one or more electrons from it. This produces another ion and one or more free electrons,
which is turn are accelerated until they collide with other neutral molecules, thus producing other
ions. Thus, the process of ionisation is cummulative. The result of this ionisation is that either corona
is formed or spark takes place between the conductors.
8.11 FFactor
actor
actorss Affecting Cor
Affecting ona
Corona
The phenomenon of corona is affected by the physical state of the atmosphere as well as by the
conditions of the line. The following are the factors upon which corona depends :
(i) Atmosphere. As corona is formed due to ionsiation of air surrounding the conductors, there-
fore, it is affected by the physical state of atmosphere. In the stormy weather, the number of
ions is more than normal and as such corona occurs at much less voltage as compared with
fair weather.
(ii) Conductor size. The corona effect depends upon the shape and conditions of the conduc-
tors. The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more corona because unevenness of
the surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage. Thus a stranded conductor has ir-
regular surface and hence gives rise to more corona that a solid conductor.
(iii) Spacing between conductors. If the spacing between the conductors is made very large as
compared to their diameters, there may not be any corona effect. It is because larger dis-
tance between conductors reduces the electro-static stresses at the conductor surface, thus
avoiding corona formation.
(iv) Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona. If it is low, there is no change in the
condition of air surrounding the conductors and hence no corona is formed. However, if the
line voltage has such a value that electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor surface
make the air around the conductor conducting, then corona is formed.
8.12 Impor tant Ter
Important ms
erms
The phenomenon of corona plays an important role in the design of an overhead transmission line.
Therefore, it is profitable to consider the following terms much used in the analysis of corona effects:
(i) Critical disruptive voltage. It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona
occurs.
Consider two conductors of radii r cm and spaced d cm apart. If V is the phase-neutral potential,
then potential gradient at the conductor surface is given by:
V
g = volts / cm
d
r log e
r
In order that corona is formed, the value of g must be made equal to the breakdown strength of
air. The breakdown strength of air at 76 cm pressure and temperature of 25ºC is 30 kV/cm (max) or

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Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines 183
21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.) and is denoted by go. If Vc is the phase-neutral potential required under these
conditions, then,
Vc
go =
r loge d
r
where go = breakdown strength of air at 76 cm of mercury and 25ºC
= 30 kV/cm (max) or 21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.)
d
∴ Critical disruptive voltage, Vc = go r loge
r
The above expression for disruptive voltage is under standard conditions i.e., at 76 cm of Hg and
25ºC. However, if these conditions vary, the air density also changes, thus altering the value of go.
The value of go is directly proportional to air density. Thus the breakdown strength of air at a baro-
metric pressure of b cm of mercury and temperature of tºC becomes δ go where
3 ⋅ 92b
δ = air density factor =
273 + t
Under standard conditions, the value of δ = 1.
d
∴ Critical disruptive voltage , Vc = go δ r loge
r
Correction must also be made for the surface condition of the conductor. This is accounted for
by multiplying the above expression by irregularity factor mo.
d
∴ Critical disruptive voltage, Vc = mo go δ r loge kV/phase
r
where mo = 1 for polished conductors
= 0·98 to 0·92 for dirty conductors
= 0·87 to 0·8 for stranded conductors
(ii) Visual critical voltage. It is the minimum phase-neutral voltage at which corona glow
appears all along the line conductors.
It has been seen that in case of parallel conductors, the corona glow does not begin at the disrup-
tive voltage Vc but at a higher voltage Vv, called visual critical voltage. The phase-neutral effective
value of visual critical voltage is given by the following empirical formula :
F
Vv = mv go δ r 1 + 0 ⋅ 3
I loge d kV/phase
GH δr
JK r
where mv is another irregularity factor having a value of 1·0 for polished conductors and 0·72 to 0·82
for rough conductors.
(iii) Power loss due to corona. Formation of corona is always accompanied by energy loss
which is dissipated in the form of light, heat, sound and chemical action. When disruptive voltage is
exceeded, the power loss due to corona is given by :

P = 242·2 F f + 25Ir V − V 2 × 10−5

c hkW / km / phase
H δ K d c

where f = supply frequency in Hz

V = phase-neutral voltage (r.m.s.)
Vc = disruptive voltage (r.m.s.) per phase

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184 Principles of Power System
8.13 Advantages and Disadv
Advantages antages of Cor
Disadvantages ona
Corona
Corona has many advantages and disadvantages. In the correct design of a high voltage overhead
line, a balance should be struck between the advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
(i) Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the conductor becomes conducting and hence
virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased diameter reduces the electro-
static stresses between the conductors.
(ii) Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by surges.
Disadvantages
(i) Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This affects the transmission efficiency of the
line.
(ii) Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due to chemical
action.
(iii) The current drawn by the line due to corona is non-sinusoidal and hence non-sinusoidal
voltage drop occurs in the line. This may cause inductive interference with neighbouring
communication lines.
8.14 Methods of Reducing Corona Ef
Corona fect
Effect
It has been seen that intense corona effects are observed at a working voltage of 33 kV or above.
Therefore, careful design should be made to avoid corona on the sub-stations or bus-bars rated for 33
kV and higher voltages otherwise highly ionised air may cause flash-over in the insulators or between
the phases, causing considerable damage to the equipment. The corona effects can be reduced by the
following methods :
(i) By increasing conductor size. By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona
occurs is raised and hence corona effects are considerably reduced. This is one of the
reasons that ACSR conductors which have a larger cross-sectional area are used in transmis-
sion lines.
(ii) By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the spacing between conductors, the volt-
age at which corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can be eliminated. However,
spacing cannot be increased too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure (e.g., big-
ger cross arms and supports) may increase to a considerable extent.
Example 8.13. A 3-phase line has conductors 2 cm in diameter spaced equilaterally 1 m apart.
If the dielectric strength of air is 30 kV (max) per cm, find the disruptive critical voltage for the line.
Take air density factor δ = 0·952 and irregularity factor mo = 0·9.
Solution.
Conductor radius, r = 2/2 = 1 cm
Conductor spacing, d = 1 m = 100 cm
Dielectric strength of air, go = 30 kV/cm (max.) = 21·2 kV (r.m.s.) per cm
Disruptive critical voltage, Vc = mo go δ r loge (d/r) kV*/phase (r.m.s. value)
= 0·9 × 21·2 × 0·952 × 1 × loge 100/1 = 83·64 kV/phase
∴ Line voltage (r.m.s.) = 3 × 83·64 = 144·8 kV
Example 8.14. A 132 kV line with 1·956 cm dia. conductors is built so that corona takes place
if the line voltage exceeds 210 kV (r.m.s.). If the value of potential gradient at which ionisation
occurs can be taken as 30 kV per cm, find the spacing between the conductors.

* As go is taken in kV/cm, therefore, Vc will be in kV.

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Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines 185
Solution.
Assume the line is 3-phase.
Conductor radius, r = 1·956/2 = 0·978 cm
Dielectric strength of air, go = 30 2 = 21·2 kV (r.m.s.) per cm
Disruptive voltage/phase, Vc= 210 3 = 121·25 kV
Assume smooth conductors (i.e., irregularity factor mo = 1) and standard pressure and tempera-
ture for which air density factor δ = 1. Let d cm be the spacing between the conductors.
∴ Disruptive voltage (r.m.s.) per phase is
Vc = mo go δ r loge (d/r) kV
= 1 × 21·2 × 1 × 0·978 × loge (d/r)
or 121·25 = 20·733 loge (d/r)
d 121 ⋅ 25
or log e = = 5·848
r 20 ⋅ 733
or 2·3 log10 d/r = 5·848
or log10 d/r = 5·848/2·3 = 2·5426
or d/r = Antilog 2·5426
or d/r = 348·8
∴ Conductor spacing, d = 348·8 × r = 348·8 × 0·978 = 341 cm
Example 8.15. A 3-phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1·5 cm radius conductor
spaced 2 metres apart in equilateral triangular formation. If the temperature is 40ºC and atmos-
pheric pressure is 76 cm, calculate the corona loss per km of the line. Take mo = 0·85.
Solution.
As seen from Art. 8.12, the corona loss is given by :
242 ⋅ 2 r
b g b V − Vc × 10 −5 kW/km/phase
g
2
P = f + 25
δ d
3 ⋅ 92 b 3 ⋅ 92 × 76
Now, δ = = = 0·952
273 + t 273 + 40
Assuming go = 21·2 kV/cm (r.m.s.)
∴ Critical disruptive voltage per phase is
Vc = mo go δ r loge d/r kV
= 0·85 × 21·2 × 0·952 × 1·5 × loge 200/1·5 = 125·9 kV
Supply voltage per phase, V = 220 3 = 127 kV
Substituting the above values, we have corona loss as:
242 ⋅ 2 1⋅ 5
b g × 127 − 125 ⋅ 9 × 10 −5 kW/phase/km
b g 2
P = 50 + 25 ×
0 ⋅ 952 200
242 ⋅ 2
= × 75 × 0 ⋅ 0866 × 1 ⋅ 21 × 10 −5 kW/km/phase
0 ⋅ 952
= 0·01999 kW/km/phase
∴ Total corona loss per km for three phases
= 3 × 0·01999 kW = 0·05998 kW
Example 8.16. A certain 3-phase equilateral transmission line has a total corona loss of 53 kW
at 106 kV and a loss of 98 kW at 110·9 kV. What is the disruptive critical voltage? What is the corona
loss at 113 kV?

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186 Principles of Power System
Solution.
The power loss due to corona for 3 phases is given by :

P = 3×
242 ⋅ 2 f + 25 b g r cV − V h 2
× 10 −5 kW/km
δ d c

As f, δ, r and d are the same for the two cases,

∴ P ∝ (V − Vc)2
For first case, P = 53 kW and V = 106 3 = 61·2 kV
For second case, P = 98 kW and V = 110 ⋅ 9 3 = 64 kV
∴ 53 ∝ (61·2 − Vc) 2
...(i)
98 ∝ (64 − Vc)
2
and ...(ii)
Dividing [(ii)/(i)], we get,

98
=
b64 − V gc
2

53 b61⋅ 2 − V g c
2

or Vc = 54 kV
Let W kilowatt be the power loss at 113 kV.

∴ W
F 113 − V IJ
∝ G
2

H 3 K c

∝ (65·2 − 54)2 ...(iii)

Dividing [(iii)/(i)], we get,
W
=
b65 ⋅ 2 − 54g 2

53 b61⋅ 2 − 54g 2

∴ W = (11·2/7·2) × 53 = 128 kW
2

TUTORIAL PROBLEMS
1. Estimate the corona loss for a three-phase, 110 kV, 50 Hz, 150 km long transmission line consisting of
three conductors each of 10 mm diameter and spaced 2·5 m apart in an equilateral triangle formation.
The temperature of air is 30ºC and the atmospheric pressure is 750 mm of mercury. Take irregularity
factor as 0·85. Ionisation of air may be assumed to take place at a maximum voltage gradient of 30 kV/
cm. [316·8 kW]
2. Taking the dielectric strength of air to be 30 kV/cm, calculate the disruptive critical voltage for a 3-phase
line with conductors of 1 cm radius and spaced symmetrically 4 m apart. [220 kV line voltage]
3. A 3-phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 1·2 cm radius conductors spaced 2 m at the
corners of an equilateral triangle. Calculate the corona loss per km of the line. The condition of the wire
is smoothly weathered and the weather is fair with temperature of 20ºC and barometric pressure of 72·2
cm of Hg. [2·148 kW]

8.15 Sag in Overhead Lines

While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are under safe tension. If the
conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to save conductor material, the stress in
the conductor may reach unsafe value and in certain cases the conductor may break due to excessive
tension. In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they are not fully stretched but are allowed
to have a dip or sag.
The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point on the conductor is
called sag.

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 CORONA 139

6.1 CRITICAL DISRUPTIVE VOLTAGE

Consider a single-phase transmission line (Fig. 6.1).

N
Let r be the radius of each conductor and d the A B
distance of separation such that d >> r. Since it is a q r p –q
single-phase transmission line, let q be the charge
x
per unit length on one of the conductors and hence
–q on the other. If the operating voltage is V, the d

potential of conductor A with respect to neutral plane

N will be V/2 and that of B will be – V/2. Consider a Fig. 6.1 1-φ transmission line.
point P at a distance x where we want to find the
electric field intensity. Bring a unit positive charge
at P.
The field due to A will be repulsive and that due to B will be attractive; thereby the
electric field intensity at P due to both the line charges will be additive and it will be

Ex =
q
+
q
=
q 1
+
1 LM OP
2πε 0 x 2πε 0 (d − x) 2πε 0 x d − x N Q
The potential difference between the conductors

V=–
z r

d− r
Ex dx = z
r
d−r q 1
+
1
2πε 0 x d − x
LM
dx
N
OP
Q
=
q LM
ln x − ln ( d − x)
OP d− r

2πε 0 N Q r
q d−r q d−r
= . 2 ln = ln (6.1)
2πε 0 r πε 0 r
Since r is very small as compared to d, d – r ~− d.
q d
∴ V= ln (6.2)
πε 0 r
Now gradient at any point x from the centre of the conductor A is given by

Ex =
q LM 1 + 1 OP
2πε 0 Nx d − xQ
q d
= .
2πε 0 x(d − x)
Substituting for q from the above equation,
πε 0 V
q=
d
ln
r
πε 0 V 1 d
Ex = . .
d 2πε 0 x(d − x)
ln
r

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 140 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

V d
= .
d x( d − x)
2 ln
r
V′ d
= (6.3)
d
x( d − x) ln
r
Here V′ is the line to neutral voltage of the system. In case of 3-phase system
VL
V′ =
3
where VL is the line to line voltage.
From the expression for the gradient it is clear that for a given transmission system the
gradient increases as x decreases i.e., the gradient is maximum when x = r, the surface of the
conductor, and this value is given by
V′d
gmax = Er = Emax =
d
r ( d − r) ln
r
~ V′
−
d
r ln
r
d
or V′ = rgmax ln (6.4)
r
Critical disruptive voltage is defined as the voltage at which complete disruption of
dielectric occurs. This voltage corresponds to the gradient at the surface equal to the breakdown
strength of air. This dielectric strength is normally denoted by g0 and is equal to 30 kV/cm
peak at NTP i.e., 25°C and 76 cm of Hg.
At any other temperature and pressure
g′ = g . δ
0 0 (6.5)
where δ is the air density correction factor and is given by
3.92b
δ= (6.6)
273 + t
where b is the barometric pressure in cm of Hg and t the temperature in °C.
Therefore, the critical disruptive voltage is given by
d
V′ = rg0 δ ln kV (6.7)
r
In deriving the above expression, an assumption is made that the conductor is solid and
the surface is smooth. For higher voltages ACSR conductors are used. The cross-section of
such a conductor is a series of arcs of circles each of much smaller diameter than the conductor
as a whole. The potential gradient for such a conductor will, in consequence, be greater than
for the equivalent smooth conductor, so that the breakdown voltage for a stranded conductor
will be somewhat less than for a smooth conductor. The irregularities on the surface of such a
conductor are increased further because of the deposition of dust and dirt on its surface and

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 CORONA 141

the breakdown voltage is further reduced. An average value for the ratio of breakdown voltage
for such a conductor and a smooth conductor lies between 0.85 to unity and is denoted by m0.
Suitable values of m0 are given below:
Polished wires 1.0
Roughened or weathered wires 0.98 to 0.93
Seven strand cable 0.87 to 0.83
Large cables with more than seven strands 0.90 approx.
The final expression for the critical disruptive voltage after taking into account the
atmospheric conditions and the surface of the conductor is given by
d
V′ = rg0δm0 ln
kV (6.8)
r
When the voltage applied corresponds to the critical disruptive voltage, corona
phenomenon starts but it is not visible because the charged ions in the air must receive some
finite energy to cause further ionization by collisions. For a radial field, it must reach a gradient
gv at the surface of the conductor to cause a gradient g0, a finite distance away from the surface
of the conductor. The distance between gv and g0 is called the energy distance. According to
Peek this distance is equal to (r + 0.301 r ) for two parallel conductors and (r + 0.308 r ) for
co-axial conductors. From this it is clear that gv is not constant as g0 is, and is a function of the
size of the conductor.
FG 0.3 IJ kV/cm for two wires in parallel.
gv = g0δ 1 +
H rδ K
(6.9)

Also if Vv is the critical visual disruptive voltage, then

d
Vv = gvr ln
r
Vv FG 0.3 IJ
or gv =
r ln
d H rδ K
= g0 δ 1 +

or Vv
L 0.3 OP ln d kV
= rg δ M1 + (6.10)
0
N rδ Q r
In case the irregularity factor is taken into account,

Vv = g0mv δr 1 +
LM OP ln d
0.3
N rδ Q r

= 21.1mv
L 0.3 OP ln d kV r.m.s.
δr M1 + (6.11)
N rδ Q r
where r is the radius in cms. The irregularity factor mv has the following values:
mv = 1.0 for polished wires
= 0.98 to 0.93 for rough conductor exposed to atmospheric severities
= 0.72 for local corona on stranded conductors.

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 142 ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS

Since the surface of the conductor is irregular, the corona does not start simultaneously
on the whole surface but it takes place at different points of the conductor which are pointed
and this is known as local corona. For this mv = 0.72 and for decided corona or general corona
mv = 0.82.
Example 6.1: Find the critical disruptive voltage and the critical voltages for local and
general corona on a 3-phase overhead transmission line, consisting of three stranded copper
conductors spaced 2.5 m apart at the corners of an equilateral triangle. Air temperature and
pressure are 21°C and 73.6 cm Hg respectively. The conductor dia, irregularity factor and
surface factors are 10.4 mm, 0.85, 0.7 and 0.8 respectively.
Solution: The critical disruptive voltage is given by
d
Vd = 21.1 m δr ln
r
3.92b 3.92 × 73.6 3.92 × 73.6
where δ = = = = 0.9813
273 + t 273 + 21 294
250
Vd = 21.1 × 0.85 × 0.9813 × 0.52 ln = 56.5 kV
0.52
or the critical disruptive line to line voltage = 56.5 × 3 = 97.89 kV Ans.
The visual critical voltage is given by
FG 0.3 IJ ln d
Vv = 21.1 m δr 1 +
H rδ K r
Here m = 0.7 for local corona
= 0.8 for decided corona or general corona
Now rδ = 0.52 × 0.9813 = 0.71433
d
∴ Vv for local corona = 21.1 × 0.7 × 0.9813 × 0.52(1 + 0.42) ln
r
= 10.7 × 6.175
= 66.07 kV

The line to line voltage will be 66.0725. 3 = 114.44 kV.

The visual critical voltage for general corona will be
0.8
114.44 × = 130.78 kV Ans.
0.7
Example 6.2: A conductor with 2.5 cm dia is passed centrally through a porcelain bushing
εr = 4 having internal and external diameters of 3 cm and 9 cm respectively. The voltage
between the conductor and an earthed clamp surrounding the porcelain is 20 kV r.m.s.
Determine whether corona will be present in the air space round the conductor.
Solution: Let g1 max be the maximum gradient on the surface of the conductor and g2 max
the maximum gradient on the inner side of the porcelain
q
g1 max =
2πε 0 r

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 CORONA 143

q
g2 max =
2πε 0 ε r r1
∴ g1 max r = g2 max εrr1
g1 max × 1.25 = g2 max × 4 × 1.5
∴ g1 max = 4.8g2 max
g1max
or g2 max = = 0.208g1 max
4.8
1.5 4.5
Now 20 = g1 max r ln + g2 max × 1.5 ln
1.25 1.5
1.5 4.5
= 1.25g1 max ln + 0.208g1 max × 1.5 ln
1.25 1.5
= 0.228g1 max + 0.3427g1 max
= 0.570g1 max
20
∴ g1 max = = 35 kV/cm.
0.570
Since the gradient exceeds 21.1 kV/cm, corona will be present.
Example 6.3: Determine the critical disruptive voltage and corona loss for a 3-phase
line operating at 110 kV which has conductor of 1.25 cm dia arranged in a 3.05 metre delta.
Assume air density factor of 1.07 and the dielectric strength of air to be 21 kV/cm.
Solution: The disruptive critical voltage
d
V = 21 m δr ln
r
305
= 21 × 1.07 × 0.625 ln
0.625
= 21 × 1.07 × 0.625 × 6.19 = 87 kV Ans.
The line to line voltage is 87 3 = 150.6 kV.
Since the operating voltage is 110 kV, the corona loss will be absent.
Corona loss zero. Ans.
Example 6.4: A single phase overhead line has two conductors of dia 1 cm with a spacing
of 1 metre between centres. If the dielectric strength of air is 21 kV/cm, determine the line
voltage for which corona will commence on the line.
Solution: The disruptive critical voltage (phase)
d 100
Vd = 21δr ln = 21.1 × 0.5 ln
r 0.5
= 21 × 0.5 × 5.2983 = 55.6 kV. Ans.

6.2 CORONA LOSS

The ions produced by the electric field result in space charges which move round the conductor.
The energy required for the charges to remain in motion is derived from the supply system.

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The space surrounding the conductor is lossy. In order to maintain the flow of energy over the
conductor in the field wherein this additional energy would have been otherwise absent, it is
necessary to supply this additional loss from the supply system. This additional power is referred
to as corona loss.
An experimental set up (Fig. 6.2) can be arranged to measure corona loss in case of d.c.
in a concentric cylinder case.

+
dc
source mA Metal
– cylinder

Fig. 6.2 Corona loss measurement with d.c. source.

Since the phenomenon is resistive, the loss will be VI watt. Peek made a number of
experiments to study the effect of various parameters on the corona loss and he deduced an
empirical relation.
( f + 25) r
P = 241 × 10–5 (Vp – V0)2 kW/km/phase (6.12)
δ d
where f is the frequency of supply, δ the air density correction factor, Vp the operating voltage
in kV and V0 the critical disruptive voltage. The equation derived is for a fair weather condition.
The approximate loss under foul weather condition is obtained by taking V0 as 0.8 times the
fair weather value. As a matter of fact, with perfectly smooth and cylindrical conductors no
corona loss occurs until visual critical voltage is reached when the loss suddenly takes a definite
value as calculated by the above formula. It then follows the quadratic law for higher voltages.
The empirical relation as derived by Peek has certain limitations and gives correct results only
if the supply frequency lies between 25 to 120 Hz, the conductor radius is greater than 0.25 cm
Vp
and the ratio > 1.8. Also a small error in m0, the irregularity factor, will lead to wrong
V0
results when using this formula.
Factors Affecting Corona Loss
The following are the factors that affect corona loss on overhead transmission lines:
(i) Electrical factors,
(ii) Atmospheric factors, and
(iii) Factors connected with the conductors.
The factors are discussed one by one in the sequence.
Electrical Factors: Frequency and waveform of supply: Referring to the expression (6.12)
for corona loss it is seen that corona loss is a function of frequency. Thus higher the frequency
of supply the higher are corona losses. This shows that d.c. corona loss is less as compared with
a.c. corona. Actually because of corona phenomenon in case of a.c. third harmonics are always

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 CORONA 145

present and hence the frequency is not only 50 Hz but it contains 3rd harmonic component
also. Hence the corona loss is still large as compared with 50 Hz alone.
Field Around the Conductor: The field around the conductor in addition to being a function
of the voltage, depends upon the configuration of the conductors, i.e., whether they are placed
in vertical configuration, delta formation etc. Say if the formation is horizontal the field near
the middle conductor is large as compared to the outer conductors i.e., the critical disruptive
voltage is lower for the middle conductors and hence the corona loss on the middle conductor is
more as compared with the two outer conductors. The height of the conductors from the ground
has its effect on corona loss. The smaller the height, the greater the corona loss.
When lines are irregularly spaced, the surface gradients of the conductors and hence
the corona losses if any are unequal.
Atmospheric Factors: Pressure and temperature effect: From the expression for loss
(6.12) it is clear that it is a function of air density correction factor δ which appears directly in
the denominator of the expression and indirectly in the value of critical disruptive voltage.
d
V0 = 21.1m0 δr ln kV
r
The lower the value of δ the higher the loss; because loss is α(V – V0)2, the lower the
value of δ, the lower the value of V0 and hence higher the value of (V – V0)2, where V is the
operating voltage in kV. This shows that the effect of δ on corona loss is very serious. For lower
values the pressure should be low and temperature higher. It is for this reason that the corona
loss is more on hilly areas than on plain areas.
Dust, Rain, Snow and Hail Effect: The particles of dust clog to the conductor; thereby
the critical voltage for local corona reduces which increases corona loss. Similarly, the bad
atmospheric conditions such as rains, snow and hailstorm reduce the critical disruptive voltage
and hence increase the corona loss.
Factors Connected with the Conductor: Diameter of the Conductor: From the expression
(6.12) for corona loss it can be seen that the conductor size appears at two places and if other
things are assumed constant,
r
loss ∝
d
and loss ∝ (V – V0)2
It appears from the first relation that loss is proportional to the square root of the size of
the conductor, i.e., larger the dia of the conductor larger will be the loss. But from the second
expression as V0 is approximately directly proportional to the size of the conductor, hence
larger the size of the conductor larger will be the critical disruptive voltage and hence smaller
will be the factor (V – V0)2. It is found in practice that the effect of the second proportionality is
much more than the first on the corona losses, and hence larger the size of the conductor lower
is the corona loss.
Number of Conductors/Phases: For operating voltage 380 kV and above it is found that
one conductor per phase gives large corona loss and hence large radio interference (RI) level
which interferes with the communication lines which normally run parallel to the power lines.
This problem of large corona loss is solved by using two or more than two conductors per phase

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which is known as bundling of conductors. By bundling the conductors the self GMD of the
conductors is increased thereby; the critical disruptive voltage is increased and hence corona
loss is reduced.
Profile of the Conductor: By this is meant the shape of the conductor whether cylindrical,
flat, oval etc. Because of field uniformity in case of cylindrical conductor the corona loss is less
in this as compared to any other shape.
Surface Conditions of the Conductors: The conductors are exposed to atmospheric
conditions. The surface would have dirt etc. deposited on it which will lower the disruptive
voltage and increase corona loss.
Heating of the Conductor by Load Current: The heating of the conductor by the load
current has an indirect reducing effect on the corona loss. Without such heating the conductor
would tend to have a slightly lower temperature than the surrounding air. In the absence of
heating, dew in the form of tiny water drops would form on the conductor in foggy weather or
at times of high humidity, which induces additional corona. The heating effect of the load
current is, however, large enough to prevent such condensation.
During rains, the heating of the conductor has no influence on the corona loss but, after
the rain it accelerates the drying of the conductor surface. The time during which the water
drops remain on the surface is reduced and the loss is also reduced.
For long transmission lines which pass through routes of varying altitudes, the average
value of corona loss is obtained by finding out the corona loss per km at a number of points and
then an average is taken out.
Methods of Reducing Corona Loss
These losses can be reduced by using
(i) large dia conductors,
(ii) hollow conductors, and
(iii) bundled conductors.
It has already been discussed how large dia and bundled conductors reduce the corona
losses. The idea of using the hollow conductors is again the same i.e., to have a large diameter
without materially adding to its weight. In one of the designs one or more layers of copper
wires are stranded over a twisted I-beam core. Another design consists of tongued and grooved
copper segments spiralled together to form a self-supporting hollow tube. This conductor has a
smooth surface. Expanded steel cored aluminium conductors which incorporate plastic or fibrous
spacing material have also been proposed. Lines using the above types of conductors are more
expensive than those using the conventional type and the economic limit to the conductor
diameter appears to be somewhat between 3.75 and 5 cms. These special conductors are more
effective in reducing corona. Losses during fair weather conditions and there may not be the
same degree of improvement during bad weather conditions.
Example 6.5: Determine the corona characteristics of a 3-phase line 160 km long,
conductor diameter 1.036 cm, 2.44 m delta spacing, air temperature 26.67°, altitude 2440 m,
corresponding to an approximate barometric pressure of 73.15 cm, operating voltage 110 kV at
50 Hz.

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 CORONA 147

1.036
Solution: Radius of conductor = = 0.518 cm
2
d 2.44
The ratio = × 100 = 471
r 0.518
r 1
and = = 0.046075
d 471
3.92b 3.92 × 73.15
δ= = = 0.957
273 + t 273 + 26.67
Assuming a surface irregularity factor 0.85, the critical disruptive voltage
d
Vd = 21.1 × 0.85δr ln
r
= 21.1 × 0.85 × 0.957 × 0.518 ln 471
= 54.72 kV line to neutral
FG 0.3 IJ ln d
The visual critical voltage Vv = 21.1mvδr 1 +
H rδ K r
Assuming a value of mv = 0.72,
F 0.3 I ln 471 = 66 kV
GH
Vv = 21.1 × 0.72 × 0.957 × 0.518 1 + J
0.518 × 0.957 K
f + 25 r
The power loss = 241 × 10–5 (V – Vd)2 kW/phase/km
δ d
75
= 241 × 10–5 × × 0.046075(63.5 – 54.72)2
0.957
= 0.671 kW/phase/km
or = 107.36 kW/phase
or = 322 kW for three phases.
The corona loss under foul weather condition will be when the disruptive voltage is
taken as 0.8 × fair weather value, i.e.,
Vd = 0.8 × 54.72 = 43.77 kV
∴ Loss per phase/km will be
75
241 × 10–5 0.046075(63.5 – 43.77)2 = 3.3875 kW/km/phase
0.957
or 542 kW/phase
or Total loss = 1626 kW for all the three phases. Ans.

6.3 LINE DESIGN BASED ON CORONA

It is desirable to avoid corona loss on power lines under fair weather conditions. Bad weather
conditions such as rain sleet greatly increase the corona loss and also lower the critical voltage
of the line. On account of the latter effect, it is not practical to design high voltage lines which

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will be corona-free at all times. If the lines are designed without corona even during bad weather
conditions, the size of the towers and the conductors will be uneconomical. Since the bad weather
conditions in a particular region prevail only for a very short duration of the year, the average
corona loss throughout the year will be very small. A typical transmission line may have a fair
weather loss of 1 kW per 3-phase mile and foul weather loss of 20 kW per three phase mile.
6.3.1 Disadvantages of Corona
(i) There is a definite loss of power even though it is not much during fair weather condition.
(ii) When corona is present the effective capacitance of the conductors is increased because the
effective dia of the conductor is increased. This effect increases the flow of charging current.
Because of corona triple frequency currents flow through the ground in case of a grounded
system and they give rise to a voltage of triple frequency in an ungrounded system. These
triple frequency currents and voltages interfere with the communication circuits due to
electromagnetic and electrostatic induction effects.
6.3.2 Advantages of Corona
It reduces the magnitude of high voltage steep fronted waves due to lighting or switching by
partially dissipating as a corona loss. In this way it acts as a safety valve to some extent.

6.4 RADIO INTERFERENCE

Radio interference is the adverse effect introduced by corona on wireless broadcasting. The
corona discharges emit radiation which may introduce noise signals in the communication
lines, radio and television receivers. It is mainly due to the brush discharges on the surface
irregularities of the conductor during positive half cycles. This leads to corona loss at voltages
lower than the critical voltages. The negative discharges are less troublesome for radio reception.
Radio interference is considered as a field measured in microvolts per metre at any distance
from the transmission line and is significant only at voltages greater than 200 kV. There is
gradual increase in RI level till the voltage is such that measurable corona loss takes place.
Above this voltage there is rapid increase in RI level. The rate of increase is more for smooth
and large diameter conductors. The amplitude of RI level varies inversely as the frequency at
which the interference is measured. Thus the services in the higher frequency band e.g.,
television, frequency modulated broadcasting, microwave relay, radar etc. are less affected.
Radio interference is one of the very important factors while designing a transmission line.

6.5 INDUCTIVE INTERFERENCE BETWEEN POWER AND

COMMUNICATION LINES

It is a common practice to run communication lines along the same route as the power lines
since the user of electrical energy is also the user of electrical communication system. The
transmission lines transmit bulk power at relatively higher voltages. These lines give rise to
electromagnetic and electrostatic fields of sufficient magnitude which induce currents and
voltages respectively in the neighbouring communication lines. The effects of extraneous

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 CORONA 149

currents and voltages on communication systems include a

interference with communication service e.g., superposition of
extraneous currents on the true speech currents in the
communication wires, hazard to person and damage to apparatus b c

due to extraneous voltages. In extreme cases the effect of these

fields may make it impossible to transmit any message faithfully
d e
and may raise the potential of the apparatus above the ground
to such an extent as to render the handling of the telephone
receiver extremely dangerous.
Electromagnetic Effects: Consider Fig. 6.3. a, b and c are
the power conductors of a 3-phase single circuit line on a
transmission tower and d and e are the conductors of a neigh- d¢ e¢

bouring communication line running on the same transmission

towers as the power conductors or a neighbouring separate line.
c¢
Let the distances between power conductors and communication b¢

conductors be Dad, Dae, Dbd, Dbe, Dcd and Dce respectively and the
currents through power conductors be Ia, Ib and Ic respectively
a¢
such that Ia + Ib + Ic = 0. The flux linkage to conductor d due to
∞ Fig. 6.3 3-phase single circuit
current Ia in conductor a will be ψad = 2 × 10–7Ia ln . Similarly,
Dad power line, communication
the flux linkage to conductor e due to current Ia in conductor a line and their images.
∞
ψae = 2 × 10–7Ia ln
Dae
∴ Mutual flux linkage between conductor d and e due to current Ia will be
Dae
ψad – ψae = 2 × 10–7Ia ln
Dad
ψ ad − ψ ae D
or mutual inductance Ma = = 2 × 10–7 ln ae H/metre
Ia Dad
Similarly Mb and Mc the mutual inductances between conductor b and the loop de and
between conductor c and the loop de respectively are given as
Dbe
Mb = 2 × 10–7 ln H/metre
Dbd
Dce
Mc = 2 × 10–7 ln H/metre
Dcd
These mutual inductances are due to fluxes which have a phase displacement of 120°;
therefore, the net effect of the magnetic field will be
M = Ma + Mb + Mc
where M is the net mutual inductance which is the phasor sum of the three inductances.
If I is the current in the power conductors and f is the supply frequency, the voltage
induced in the communication conductors d and e will be V = 2πf MI volts per m.

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It is to be noted that larger the distance between the power conductors and the
communication conductors, smaller is the value of mutual inductance and since the current
through the power conductors is displaced by 120°, there is appreciable amount of cancellation
of the power frequency voltages. But the presence of harmonics and multiples of third harmonics
will not cancel as they are in phase in all the power conductors and, therefore, are dangerous
for the communication circuits. Also, since these harmonics come within audio frequency range,
they are dangerous for the communication circuits.
Electrostatic Effects: Consider again Fig. 6.3. Let q be the charge per unit length of the
power line. The voltage of conductor d due to charge on conductor can be obtained by considering
the charge on conductor a and its image on the ground. Let conductor a be at a height ha from
the ground. Therefore, the voltage of conductor d will approximately be

Vad =
q
2πε 0 z
ha
LM 1 + 1 OP dx
Dad

N x (2h − x) Q
a

q LMln 2h − x OP = q LMln 2h − D OP
a
ha
a ad
=
2πε 0 N x Q 2πε N D Q Dad 0 ad

q 2ha
Now from the geometry the voltage of conductor a is Va = ln , where r is the
2πε 0 r
radius of conductor a.
∴ Substituting for q in the expression for Vad above, we get
2πε 0 Va 1 2h − Dad
Vad = . ln a
2 ha 2πε 0 Dad
ln
r
2ha − Dad
ln
Dad
= Va .
2ha
ln
r
Similarly, we can obtain the potential of conductor d due to conductors b and c and
hence the potential of conductor d due to conductors a, b and c will be
Vd = Vad + Vbd + Vcd
Similarly, the potential of conductor e due to conductors a, b and c can be obtained.

PROBLEMS

6.1. Determine the corona characteristics of a 3-phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV transmission line 100 km long
running through terrain at an altitude of 600 metres, temp. of 30°C and barometric pressure
74 cm. The conductors are 1.5 cm diameter and spaced with equilateral spacing of 2.75 metres.
Assume surface irregularity factor of 0.9 and mv = 0.75.
6.2. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV transmission line consists of conductors of 1.17 cm dia and spaced
equilaterally at a distance of 3 metres. The line conductors have smooth surface with value for
m = 0.96. The barometric pressure is 72 cm of Hg and temperature of 20°C. Determine the fair
and foul weather corona loss per km per phase.

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CORONA 151
6.3. A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 138 kV transmission line has conductors in equilateral formation spaced 2.5
metres apart. The conductor diameter is 1.04 cm and the surface factor is 0.85. The air pressure
and temperature are 74 cm of Hg and 21°C respectively. Determine the critical visual voltage for
corona and the corona loss per km per phase of the line, mv = 0.72.
6.4. A single phase transmission line has conductors of diameter 1.25 cm and spaced 2.5 metres
apart. Derive an expression for the potential gradient at any point on a line joining the centres of
the conductors if the operating voltage of line is 60 kV. Calculate the voltage at which corona will
start.

REFERENCES

1. C. Adamson and N.G. Hingorani, High Voltage Direct Current Power Transmission, Garraway
Ltd., 1960.
2. High Voltage Direct Current Converters and Systems, McDonald, London, 1965.
3. E.W. Kimbark, Direct Current Transmission, Vol. I, Wiley-Interscience, 1971.
4. T.S.M. Rao, Principles and Practice of Electric Power Transfer Systems, Khanna Publishers,
1974.

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