Limits of functions
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Limits
Definition of limit (informal)
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing the number a,
except possibly at a itself. We say that the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a is equal to L, and we write
lim f (x) = L,
x→a
if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x
sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.
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Limits
Formal definition of limit (optional)
lim f (x) = L,
x→a
if for every number > 0 there exists a number δ > such that
if 0 < |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − L| < .
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Definition of limit
y
y = f (x)
L+ǫ
L
L−ǫ
a−δ a a+δ x
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Definition of limit
y
y = f (x)
L+ǫ
L
L−ǫ
a−δ a a+δ x
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Definition of limit
y
y = f (x)
L+ǫ
L
L−ǫ
a−δ a a+δ x
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Examples
The value of f (a) has nothing to do with limx→a f (x).
Let f (x) = x 2 .
lim f (x) = 0.
x→0
x 2 , if x =
6 0,
Let g (x) =
1, if x = 0.
lim g (x) = 0.
x→0
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One-sided limits
Definition of left-hand limit
Let f be a function defined for x < a. We say that the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a from the left is equal to L, and we write
lim f (x) = L,
x→a−
if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x
sufficiently close to a and x < a.
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One-sided limits
Definition of right-hand limit
Let f be a function defined for x > a. We say that the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a from the right is equal to L, and we write
lim f (x) = L,
x→a+
if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L by taking x
sufficiently close to a and x > a.
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Example
Heaviside function
0, if t < 0,
Consider H(t) =
1, if t ≥ 0.
lim H(t) = 0.
t→0−
lim H(t) = 1.
t→0+
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Infinite limits
Definition
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing the number a,
except possibly at a itself. We say that the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a is infinity, and we write
lim f (x) = ∞,
x→a
if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily large by taking x sufficiently
close to a, but not equal to a.
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Infinite limits: lim f (x) = ∞.
x→a
y = f (x)
a x
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Infinite limits
Definition
Let f be a function defined on an open interval containing the number a,
except possibly at a itself. We say that the limit of f (x) as x
approaches a is negative infinity, and we write
lim f (x) = −∞,
x→a
if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily large negative by taking x
sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
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Infinite limits
One-sided infinite limits are defined in a similar fashion.
We will just show the corresponding pictures.
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Infinite limits: lim− f (x) = ∞.
x→a
y = f (x)
a x
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Infinite limits: lim+ f (x) = ∞.
x→a
y = f (x)
a x
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Infinite limits: lim− f (x) = −∞.
x→a
a x
y = f (x)
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Infinite limits: lim+ f (x) = −∞.
x→a
a x
y = f (x)
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Examples
Examples
1
lim = ∞.
x→0 x 2
1
lim+ = −∞.
x→1 1−x
1
lim = ∞.
x→1− 1−x
lim ln x = −∞.
x→0+
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Vertical asymptotes
Definition
The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote for the graph of y = f (x) if
at least one of the following holds:
lim f (x) = ∞, lim+ f (x) = ∞, lim f (x) = −∞, lim+ f (x) = −∞.
x→a− x→a x→a− x→a
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Vertical asymptotes
y = f (x)
a x
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Vertical asymptotes
y = f (x)
a x
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Vertical asymptotes
y = f (x)
a x
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Limit laws
Limit laws for functions are similar to those for sequences.
Theorem
Suppose that c is a real number, and the limits lim f (x) and lim g (x)
x→a x→a
exist (and are finite numbers).
Then
1 lim c = c
x→a
2 lim (f (x) + g (x)) = lim f (x) + lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
3 lim (f (x) − g (x)) = lim f (x) − lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
4 lim (cf (x)) = c lim f (x)
x→a x→a
5 lim (f (x) · g (x)) = lim f (x) · lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
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Limit Laws
f (x) limx→a f (x)
6 lim = if lim g (x) 6= 0.
x→a g (x) limx→a g (x) x→a
c
7 lim (f (x))c = lim f (x) , whenever both sides are defined.
x→a x→a
Remark.
These laws also hold for one-sided limits.
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Direct Substitution Rule
From these laws we can obtain the following:
Direct Substitution Rule
Suppose that f is a polynomial or a rational function, or more generally a
function that can be obtained from a polynomial using a finite number of
the following operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
and raising to a fractional power.
If a is in the domain of f , then
lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a
Remark.
In the next section we will see that this is true for a much larger class of
functions, called continuous functions.
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Example
Example
Let
x 2 − 3x + 2
f (x) = .
x −1
Find
lim f (x).
x→3
Solution
Since f is a rational function and 3 ∈ Df , we can use the Direct
Substitution Rule.
32 − 3 · 3 + 2
lim f (x) = f (3) = = 1.
x→3 3−1
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Example
Example
Let
x 2 − 3x + 2
f (x) = .
x −1
Find
lim f (x).
x→1
Solution
Since 1 ∈
/ Df , we cannot use the Direct Substitution Rule.
However, we can do the following:
x 2 − 3x + 2 (x − 1)(x − 2)
lim = lim = lim (x − 2) = 1 − 2 = −1.
x→1 x −1 x→1 x −1 x→1
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Example
Example
Let
x2 + x − 1
f (x) = .
x −1
Find
lim f (x).
x→1−
Solution
Since 1 ∈
/ Df , we cannot use the Direct Substitution Rule.
Observe that the numerator approaches 1 and the denominator approaches
0 from the left (x − 1 < 0). Thus, when x → 1− the function f is negative
and the denominator gets closer and closer to zero. So
x2 + x − 1
lim = −∞.
x→1− x −1
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Theorem
lim f (x) = L
x→a
if and only if
lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L.
x→a− x→a+
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Example
Heaviside function
0, if t < 0,
Recall H(t) =
1, if t ≥ 0.
Since lim H(t) = 0 and lim+ H(t) = 1, we see that
t→0− t→0
lim H(t) 6= lim+ H(t).
t→0− t→0
Therefore lim H(t) DNE.
t→0
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Squeeze Theorem
Suppose that
f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x)
for all x in some open interval containing a (except possibly at a)
If
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L,
x→a x→a
then
lim g (x) = L.
x→a
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