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SBE23-THESSALONIKI IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
An environmental quality assessment of office buildings: The
impact of glass façade on internal and external users
Iva Muraj, Stanka Ostojić, Zoran Veršić
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, Kačićeva 26, Zagreb, Croatia
iva.muraj@arhitekt.hr
Abstract. People are spending an increasing amount of time inside buildings. Working spaces
have a very strong influence on peoples’ activities and well-being. Therefore, the quality of
indoor environment is important for all occupants, as it can contribute to illness and lack of
productivity. An increasing number of office buildings with glass facades impact not only
internal occupants, but also external users who spend time around those buildings. This paper
aims to assess the interaction of internal and external users and the glass façades of office
buildings in Zagreb, Croatia. The focus of this research is not only physical parameters of glass
facade: materials, proportions, colours, thermal and acoustic characteristics, airtightness, and
its impact on occupants. Also, the relationship between inside and outside is essential for
spatial awareness. Having access to views of the outside and providing natural light are
important for occupants’ well-being. Solar shading system, anti-glare protection, the tint of the
glass, transparency and translucency of glass façade also significantly affect external users and
their perception of the building. The graduate course ‘Architecture and Technology 1’ at the
Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, aims to educate master students on assessing the
environmental performance of existing buildings. Analysing examples of built office buildings
with glass facades and the results of student survey of internal and external users of those
buildings, this paper discusses working conditions, indoor and outdoor atmosphere, technical
solutions, as well as architectural approaches in accordance with implementation of principles
of sustainable development. The results of this research should provide useful information on
users’ satisfaction, well-being, and requirements for future application in glass facade design
for office buildings.
1. Introduction
In Europe and North America people spend approximately 90% of their time indoors. [1] The
environment we are mostly spending time in has a large impact on our health, comfort, and well-
being. Architectural envelope encloses the interior space and protects it from external impacts. It is
composed of horizontal and vertical structures and openings. Architectural envelope strongly affects
how people feel inside buildings and its impact on people’s well-being should be of a great research
interest. [2] This impact is even more important in working spaces as it can contribute to the lack of
productivity or occurrence of the sick building syndrome1. [3] Transparent envelopes are often used in
1
A set of symptoms (such as headache, fatigue, and eye irritation) typically affecting workers in modern airtight
office buildings that is believed to be caused by indoor pollutants (such as formaldehyde fumes or
microorganisms).
Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence. Any further distribution
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SBE23-THESSALONIKI IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
business architecture and can have a positive effect on natural lighting and ventilation of interior
spaces. Generally, the office building façade design including large, glazed areas is a complex issue,
as it requires detailed analyses of many parameters that influence the overall building quality. Office
buildings with transparent façade often face problems such as challenging indoor climate and higher
energy use. In addition, shape, size, appearance, and arrangement of the components of glass façade
significantly affect the external appearance of the building and the rooms in it, as well as the comfort
of the users: thermal and sound protection, airtightness, safety, air humidity, visual comfort, sun
protection and exposure to daylight.
Working spaces have a very strong influence on peoples’ activities and well-being. The focus of
this research are not only physical parameters of glass façade such as: materials, colours, thermal and
acoustic characteristics, airtightness, and its impact on occupants. Human experience should also be
considered when designing architectural envelopes, especially in working spaces. [3] Having access to
views of the outside and providing natural light are important for occupants’ well-being. Solar shading
system, anti-glare protection, the tint of the glass, transparency and translucency of glass façade also
significantly affect external users and their perception of the building. If necessary, users regulate
individual elements of the envelope (e.g. sun protection) and therefore change the appearance and
physical properties of the building. All the above has a significant impact on the comfort of working
space and consequently on the health of people who spend time in buildings with transparent
envelopes.
The research was a part of the graduate course Architecture and Technology 1 (AT1_2021/2022) at
the Faculty of Architecture, University of Zagreb, intending to educate students on assessing the
environmental performance of existing buildings. [4] It is a relatively new compulsory course that
addresses the topics of building energy consumption and emissions, rational use of energy,
environmental impact, high performance efficiency, high-tech technology, and sustainable building. It
is one of the technical courses within the Master‘s degree programme at the Department of
Architectural Technology and Building Science available since the academic year 2018/2019. The
course was schemed after the process of re-accreditation of higher education institutions. The
flexibility is given to the teachers to choose the subjects of their expertise. [5] For the academic year
2021/2022 six general groups were set and it was left up to 139 students to choose a group and a
mentor(s) depending on their skills and interests. Topics were ranging from ‘Refurbishment,
adaptation and upgrade’ (4 mentors: 39 students), ‘AF polygon - nZEB’ (2 mentors: 12 students,
‘Interaction’ (2 mentors: 24 students), ‘Prefabricated construction’ (2 mentors: 23 students) to
‘Systems and structures’ (1 mentor: 18 students) and ‘Glazed facades’ (2 mentors: 24 students).
In the scope of this conference thematic area ‘Energy and environmental performance assessment
of buildings and built area’, as mentors of one AT1 group, the short overview of the work of the
seminar group named ‘Interaction’ is presented. The name ‘Interaction’ was chosen because it sums
up our unit work in one word. Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an
effect upon one another. The idea of a two-way effect is essential in the concept of interaction. The
relationship between inside and outside is crucial for spatial awareness. An increasing number of
office buildings with glass facades impact not only internal occupants, but also external users who
spend time around those buildings. This paper aims to assess the interaction of internal and external
users and the physical environment of the space in which they work: the envelope that separates the
interior from the exterior space.
The course unit included two main parts. The first part was carried out in the field: by designing a
survey questionnaire, visiting chosen office buildings, and collecting data on the comfort of users. The
second part was related to analysing collected data and forming suggestions for improving the comfort
by applying adequate technical and technological solutions. There were 24 students in the group
‘Interaction’. The course was scheduled as the teamwork, so students formed 7 subgroups on their
own (of 3 to 5 students). Each subgroup independently chose a different ‘piece’ of the assigned
research topic. Student groups evaluated different environmental case studies. They compared and
assessed the environmental quality of particular urban areas. They also had to come up
2
SBE23-THESSALONIKI IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
with ways to measure environmental quality. The focus was put on built office buildings with glass
facades and assessing working conditions, indoor and outdoor atmosphere, technical solutions, as well
as architectural approaches in accordance with implementation of principles of sustainable
development. Buildings have extensive direct and indirect impacts on the environment. Indoor and
outdoor environmental quality can influence many things. Positive and negative effects on
environments and their users are important. The information obtained through various measurement
techniques makes it possible to manage threats and shortcomings of environmental quality. For the
purpose of this paper, the Green Gold Centre, an office building located in Zagreb is presented later as
a case study. The research study and the analysis of the questionnaire findings was undertaken by
students Fran Gamulin, Paula Pavleković, Ana Periša and Ema Perović. [6]
2. Methods and Materials
An important part of the research process is a structure of techniques and methods to be applied. The
major component of the research was a subjective assessment method. Subjective assessment methods
were implemented in parallel from October to November 2021. Questionnaires were circulated among
the users of an area to obtain data on how they perceive the area in question. Three different data
collection methods were used - the observation method, the examination method, and the survey
method. The observation method was carried out in the case of large groups that are constantly
moving. These are external occasional users of the Green Gold Centre, i.e., passers-by in Vukovarska
Street and Radnička Street (pedestrians, drivers, and cyclists). The examination method – an interview
was conducted with each type of users for better overall insight into the research topic and more
credible research results. Interviews were conducted one-on-one with the respondent in different
settings and different relationships between interviewers and interviewees (acquaintances, strangers,
family etc). Questionnaires were similarly developed to obtain data relative to the user’s satisfaction
with the visual, thermal, and psychological comfort, and health-related symptoms experienced in the
workspaces and in the area around.
2.1. Case Study Building
The research is focused on the relationship of internal and external users and the glass façade of the
Green Gold Centre situated in Zagreb, Croatia. Green Gold Centre is a business and commercial
complex situated in Kanal area of Zagreb. The location is defined by two streets: busy Vukovarska on
the south and Radnička Street on the north. This part of the city is a relatively new business area.
Vladimir Prelog High school, residential area of Sigečica and other business, commercial, and office
buildings surround Green Gold Centre (figure 1).
Figure 1. Green Gold Centre:
site plan.
1 Green Gold Tower
2 Green Gold Centre
3 Vladimir Prelog High school
4 business/office buildings
5 Sigečica residential area
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SBE23-THESSALONIKI IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
This complex was designed and built by architects Boris Fiolić and Zoran Boševski (Studio BiF)
from 2006 to 2012. [7] Total floor area of approximately 125 000 m2 comprises tower building
(situated at the southwest part of the complex) and five lower volumes (situated at the northeast part of
the complex) connected with a cross volume in lower levels (figure 2). Green Gold Centre includes
hotel, kindergarten, gym, restaurants, cafes, office spaces, shops, and underground garage (figure 3).
The hotel is located at the southwest tower and is connected to the rest of the complex only via
underground spaces.
Figure 2. Green Gold Centre: west facade.
Figure 3. Green Gold Centre: layout of contents.
Buildings’ glass facades were designed by the ALU-KON d.o.o. [8] Two new façade profiles
systems were specifically designed for Green Gold Centre: unit system façade profile AK E65 and
post-and-beam profile system AK 50. Point-fixed (spider) façade system has also been used on Green
Gold architectural envelope. The three applied types of glass facades all attain high standards of
thermal and acoustic protection as well as air and water tightness. Unit system façade profile AK E65
is applied at the tower building and some facades of lower building volumes, post-and-beam
aluminium profile system AK 50 is applied on ground and basement floor of Green Gold Centre and
smaller part of tower building. Spider façade is also applied at the tower building and at the south
facades of lower building volumes of the complex (figure 4). Three applied façade types are all
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SBE23-THESSALONIKI IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
characterized by the green colour of glass. Double glazing consists of float-tempered glass (thickness
8 mm), a space thickness of 16 mm filled with argon gas 90% and laminated glass with Low-E coating
(thickness 8 mm). No external sun protection system was initially planned, so some of the users
individually installed internal sun protection blinds in their offices.
Figure 4. Green Gold Centre: layout of different types of glass façade. 1 point-fixed profile system 2
post-and-beam profile system 3 unit system façade profile.
The purpose of the case study analysis and conducted survey is the comparison of different groups
of users’ satisfaction regarding specific parameters of the glazed envelope.
2.2. User Satisfaction Questionnaire
Survey research is a quantitative and qualitative method with two important characteristics. First, the
variables of interest are measured using self-reports. The research was conducted in person (fieldwork)
and online. Students asked users to report directly on their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.
Second, considerable attention was paid to the issue of sampling. Students had a strong preference for
large samples because they provide the most accurate results. The questionnaire had to be carried out
in the shortest possible time due to the limitation of the duration of the course. To conduct a
questionnaire survey, several sources can be investigated. The mapping and systematization of all
users who gravitate the complex is based on two aspects of use: the way of using space (internal and
external users) and frequency of use (permanent and occasional users). So, the questionnaire was
conducted for all types of users/respondents: permanent and occasional external, and permanent and
occasional internal users (figure 5).
Figure 5. Different groups of users of the observed urban area.
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SBE23-THESSALONIKI IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
The questionnaire was divided into two main parts. In the 1st part the impact of the glass facade on
internal users was researched: permanent (employees of the Green Gold Centre) and occasional users
(visitors and clients of the Green Gold Centre). It consisted of five parts: basic information, general
comments, evaluation of thermal, visual, and acoustic comfort. In the 2nd part the impact of the glass
facade on external users was researched: permanent users (residents of the surrounding multi-
apartment settlements - mainly Sigečica area, persons whose workplace is located in one of the nearby
office buildings, students at the Vladimir Prelog High School) and occasional users (passers-by in
Vukovarska and Radnička Street, whether as a pedestrian, cyclist, car driver or public passenger in
city transport). It consisted of three parts: basic information, general comments, and assessment of
visual comfort. The 1st and 2nd parts were identical and refer to demographic characteristics (age,
gender, activities, and other factors), basic information necessary for better understanding and general
comments related to the research issue. The focus was set on differences, but the visual comfort of the
building is shared and comparable among all types of users.
The questionnaire consisted of closed-type and open-ended questions. Closed-type questions are
questions with enumeration answers as well as questions with intensity answers, usually in the form of
scales (with five levels of intensity). Their advantage is comprehensibility, easier selection, and less
possibility of mistakes. Answering open-ended questions, the respondent must write the answer
himself. The respondent has more freedom, but there is a higher percentage of missing answers, or the
answers may be insufficiently precise. In that case, the obtained data can be more difficult to process.
3. Results and Analysis
The process of collecting data was conducted for the first time (using a questionnaire) so this research
is the primary research. The facts are known through personal (subjective) experience i.e. by
conducting primary longitudinally research as it was investigated over a period of time, so this
research is also empirical. The research refers to the present and according to its scope, includes a
specific unit of the population, which makes it a micro-research. The aim of this research was to
investigate the pattern of occurrences and cause-and-effect relationships between variables and is
therefore a causal research (how the glass facade affects the different users of the building).
3.1. Occupant Satisfaction Questionnaire Data – Internal Permanent Users
This group of users refers to employees of the Green Gold Centre. Internal permanent users are
spending most time affected by the physical environment of the space in which they work. There were
seventy (70) interviewed users and they make the group the most numerous one. 94.3% of interviewed
internal permanent users are working in offices of Green Gold Centre; 64.3% of them are female.
61.4% of them are between 26 and 40 years old; 24.3% between 41 and 60 years old, and 14.3% are
between 18 and 25 years old. Among interviewed internal permanent users, most of them have been
working 3-5 years at the Green Gold Centre (38.6%), and most of them spend more than 32 hours a
week there (45.7%). When interviewed about their overall satisfaction regarding the building in which
they work, on the scale from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied) most of them reported 4
(41.4%). When interviewed about their overall satisfaction regarding the physical environment of the
space in which they work, 42.9% of them reported 4 (figure 6).
When asked about thermal comfort of the office they work in, most of them reported 4 (32.9%).
Some of the users stated insufficient thermal comfort, especially during the months of July and
August. The office air humidity level was considered satisfactory as most of users ranged it 4 (30%).
Despite that, some of the employees complained about indoor air being too dry, especially when air
conditioning was turned on. 62.9% of interviewed internal permanent users stated thermal comfort of
their working space to be in favour of their productivity (figure 7). Despite mostly positive evaluation
of their working environment, users of this group also had some complaints. Some of the users
expressed their dissatisfaction regarding the building maintenance or the occurrence of drafts in office
spaces. Open plan offices were also something users were complaining about, as it was more difficult
to adjust indoor air temperature in such spaces and noise was irritating users making them less
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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
productive. Some of the interviewed employees were displeased with heating, cooling, and ventilation
system in offices. They expressed their dissatisfaction regarding ventilation of their office, noticing
that many users opened windows with restrictors and tried to regulate the ventilation level by
themselves.
Figure 6. Internal permanent users: overall Figure 7. Internal permanent users: the effect
satisfaction of working space. of thermal comfort on productivity.
The analysis of visual comfort revealed that most users (57.1%) were very satisfied with the
amount of daylight in their working space rating it 5 on the scale from 1 to 5 (figure 8). No external
façade sun protection was initially installed so some of the users often faced glare from surrounding
glass buildings through façade. However, 38.6% of them assessed visual comfort (glare, reflection,
and contrast) in their offices evaluating it 4 (figure 9). 77.1% of them stated they were satisfied with
the sun protection in their office, although some of them were complaining about it. Users stated views
through large, glazed areas of facade affected positively on their overall mood.
Figure 8. Internal permanent users: satisfaction Figure 9. Internal permanent users: visual
with the amount of daylight in working space. comfort in working space.
Internal permanent users were mostly satisfied with acoustic comfort of their offices. Sound
protection of offices regarding the outside noise was positively evaluated. Opposite of that, sound
protection of offices regarding the noise from adjacent offices was referred to as inadequate. Noise
level negatively affects employees in their everyday work.
3.2. Occupant Satisfaction Questionnaire Data – Internal Occasional Users
This group of users refers to visitors and clients of the Green Gold Centre. There were twenty-two (22)
interviewed users and 63.6% were female. Most of this group is between 18 and 25 years old (54.5%).
22.7% are between 26 and 40 years old. Among interviewed internal occasional users, most of them
have been visiting Green Gold Centre few times a year (45.5%) and they spend approximately less
than an hour there (63.6%). When interviewed about their overall satisfaction regarding the building
which they visit, on the scale from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied) most of them reported 5
(36.4%). When interviewed about their overall satisfaction regarding the physical environment of the
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SBE23-THESSALONIKI IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
space which they visit, 40.9% of them reported 5 (figure 10). Some users declared building looks ‘like
any other business building today’.
When asked about thermal comfort of building spaces they visit at the Green Gold Centre, most of
them reported 5 (45.5%) and they stated that thermal comfort has a positive (50%) or neutral (40.9%)
impact on their stay there. Some of the comments testified about inadequate HVAC system, but it
didn’t affect their stay at the building as they didn’t spend much time inside.
The analysis of the amount of daylight revealed that most users (36.4%) were satisfied with the
amount of daylight in space they visit rating it 3 on the scale from 1 to 5 (figure 11). The reason of
such assessment could be the fact that most content these users visit is situated on the ground level of
building or below, and those spaces are less exposed to daylight than spaces on upper levels of
complex.
Figure 10. Internal occasional users: overall Figure 11. Internal occasional users:
satisfaction of visited space. satisfaction with the amount of daylight in
visited space.
3.3. Occupant Satisfaction Questionnaire Data – External Permanent Users
Most of external permanent respondents believe that the complex, as well as its facade, does not affect
their stay in one of the buildings near by. A total of 9 responses were received from employees of
nearby buildings. A small number of complaints were made about occasional problems with the sun
glare in the early morning and late afternoon hours. All external permanent users expressed overall
satisfaction with the appearance of the complex (figure 12). The existing buildings of this complex do
not block the view and sunlight gain in their working space (figure 13).
Figure 12. External permanent users: overall Figure 13. External permanent users:
satisfaction of building in general. blocking the view / sunlight.
3.4. Occupant Satisfaction Questionnaire Data – External Occasional Users
A total of 39 responses were received, mostly from pedestrians and car drivers (figure 14). The need
for investigating the passers-by's perspectives shows as expected a small number of cyclists in this
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SBE23-THESSALONIKI IOP Publishing
IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
business area. The majority of passers-by pass several times a year by building (46.2%), twenty-eight
percent (28.2%) pass several times a month and ten percent (10.3%) several times a week and a day.
Sixty-seven percent (67%) were female respondents and 34 percent men. Regarding the age, most
of the respondents were in the category from 18 to 25 years (71.8%), a smaller part from 26 to 40
years (12.8%) and from 41-60 years (12.8%), and only one respondent was younger than 18 years.
Figure 14. External occasional users: Figure 15. External occasional users: visual
categories of passers-by. impression of the building.
The respondents were asked to rate the building image for its ‘visual aesthetic appeal’. According to
the questionnaire, impression with the visual appeal of the whole complex was rated 3 out of 5 by
most respondents (41%), 23.1% of respondents rated it as 4, and 25.6% as 5 (figure 15). In the
category of questions about the visual comfort assessment, most respondents (94.9%) answered that
they do not notice the glass facade of the complex when passing by.
From the results of the questionnaire of external occasional users, it can be noticed that the
majority of respondents have a neutral opinion of the complex as well as its visual impression in the
context of the urban area. As most of the responses are related to pedestrians and car drivers, a
frequent negative comment is the sun glare problem. Less frequent, but also a negative comment
related to the impact of the glass facades in contemporary architecture refers to birds that accidentally
fly into glass facades, with many of these collisions being fatal. The glass either reflects the landscape
or allows it to shine through, thus simulating a free flight path or an attractive target for the birds.
3.5. Discussion
The forthcoming section provides a discussion of the relationship between the obtained data and the
analysis of the questionnaire findings.
Although students animated the large number of respondents through an online questionnaire (the
survey method), the most reliable data is collected by interviewing the users of the building on the spot
(the examination method). The users were surveyed inside and around the whole complex. The
number of respondents is 140 that have completed the questionnaire, but the total number of 399
respondents is included in a study. There are two reasons why: first, users express impressions in the
environment where they are currently located and second, users can make well-founded conclusions.
On the other side, the observation method did not prove to be a suitable method for this type of
research.
This research work confirmed and raised awareness of the various factors that participate in
establishing the relationship between the building and its users, and most of them are closely related to
the quality of materials and performance of the building's outer envelope. This research discussed
working conditions, indoor and outdoor atmosphere, technical solutions as well as architectural
approaches. Some results of conducted survey of internal and external users were expected, part of the
results always surprises and there are also some unexpected findings. As predicted, the results of the
research indicated that the glass building envelope really affects its internal permanent users, while
other groups of users did not perceive it to that extent and their experiences were positive or neutral.
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IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1196 (2023) 012060 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/1196/1/012060
In addition to study the effect of buildings glass facades on users′ visual and thermal comfort,
students also became familiar with numerous other shortcomings of the building like unused available
built space and inaccessible design of the building and the workplace for employees and users
with disabilities.
4. Conclusion
As on outcome of the performed examination and data gathered from questionnaire the study
concluded that the office building located in Zagreb and equipped with the fully glazed façade, could
meet requirements for the thermal and visual comforts.
Internal permanent users expressed satisfaction regarding thermal comfort, the overall aesthetics of
the building, good view and high level of sunlight provided by its envelope, saying that these factors
positively affect their behaviour and working conditions. Despite this, numerous comments pointed
out the problem of inadequate sun protection. On the other side, external permanent users pointed out
consequences of the glass envelopes: large glass surfaces are fatal for birds and for drivers in the areas
affected by the ‘sun glare’. Out of all the surveyed groups, internal occasional users rated their
experience the highest.
After analysing all the collected results, it can be concluded that the human factor must not be
neglected when designing glass envelopes. Individual user impressions were often opposite than the
group ones, which emphasizes the importance of individual and flexible approach in glazed façade
design. This is important in obtaining a healthy and sustainable environment for all users. The
importance of this study is to make sure that architects, designers and researchers are engaged in a
comprehensive study of their environment before major facade design decisions.
Acknowledgments
Authors wish to acknowledge financial assistance received from the scientific project UniZG -AF-IP
2022, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Architecture, entitled ‘The influence of glazed facades on the
health and comfort of the users’. We also thank master’s students Fran Gamulin, Paula Pavleković,
Ana Periša and Ema Perović, who have helped in carrying out the research.
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