es ch. wl tree! 4 rrr ov) ¢ GeECECHE SEE ES eo & & 7 PPAR PRP PREP PP ® | 1 10. APPLIED PHYSICS LAB [Link] 2" Semester Paper Code: AP-102 Paper Title: Applied Physics Lab-ll OBJECTIVE: To impart experimental skills which are useful in various branches of Engineering ‘and Technology. The practical course is based on experiments designed to illustrate various Phenomena in different areas of physics and hence provides thorough understanding of the Subject. This course is also aimed at enhancing the analytical capability of the engineering students, List of Experiments To determine the Hall coefficient and hence find the density of charge carriers in a ‘semiconductor at room temperature by Hall effect measurement. To determine the Planck's constant by photoelectric effect. To determine the energy band gap of a semiconductor by four probe method, To verity Biot Savrat’s law, To determination of Joule's Mechanical Equivalent of Heat. To draw the [LV characteristics for ight emitting diode (LED) and determine the value of Planck's constant. To determine the magnetic susceptibility of hydrous manganese chloride (MnCl,4H,0) by Quinck’s tube method, To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coil carrying current and to find 1) the radius of the 2oil 2) horizontal component of earth's magnetic field. ‘Measurement of high resistance by Ballistic galvanometer. To determine the ratio of charge to mass (e / m) ratio for an electron.a eee ee ee eS ee Smet‘ iaet*é~«Ca CHOKE HSS > we é e*eoeeBoeddudb GUE Department of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO. STUDY OF HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT —HEE-100 STUDY OF HALL EFFECT EXPERIMENT — HEE -10 INTRODUCTIO? 'n 1879 physicest EH, Hall observed that when un electical current passes though a sample placed in & magnetic Field, a Potential proportional to the current and to the magnetic field is developed across the material in a direction perpendicular to both the current and to the magnetic field (1.] This effect is known as the Hall effect. And is the basis of many practical applications and devices such as magnetic field measurement, and position and motion detectors. vith the measurement he made, Hall was able to determine forthe time the sign of charge carriers in a conductor. Even tos) Hall effect measurement continue to be a useful technique for characterizing the electrical transport properties of metals and semiconductors THEORY Static magnetic field has no effect on charges unless they are in motion, When the charges flow. & mapnetic field direct perpendicular to the direction of flow produces s mutually perpendicular force on the charges. When this happens, elecirons and holes will be separated by opposite forces. They will in turn produce an electric field (Ls) which depends on the cross product of the magnetic intensity, H, andthe current densiy, J. the situation is demonstisied in Fig | hoe Ren o Where R is called the Hall coefficient =i, =e FIG.1. Crier Sepration due to Magnetic Feld Now, let us consider a bar of semiconductor, having dimension, x, y and 2. let J is directed along X and H slong 2 them Eh will ealong Y, as in Fig. “Then we could write WY Vue eo aH 1H \Where_Vi. is the Hall voltage appearing beween the two surfaces perpendicular 1o y and 1 = JyzSEeHO’ECOCSP PIS SHE PP POPP PEROT TES I dvd TPRPPP PP? | > f a {fut See ade EUEY -¢ {f/f 2 Generals. the Mall voltage is net a finear function of magnetic field applied, 14. the Hall coefficient #4 aerate cage: at # function of the applied magnetic. Consequently. interpretation of the Hall vollage is not Sate anne, matter Mowever itis easy 10 calelate this (Hall) voltage if is assumed ta ll caries have the same dnift velocity, We will do this. in i {0 steps (a) by assuming. that cer F both types are: presen rs of only one type ate present. (b) by (@) ONE TYPE OF CARRIER : Metals and degenerate (doped) semiconductors are the examples of this type where one cartier dominates, The magnetic force on the carriers is_Em_= e(v x'H) and is compensated by the Hall Field Fy € Ey where v is the drift velocity of carriers. Assuming the direction of various vectors as before Vx FG From simple reasoning, the current density J is the charge q multiplied by the number of carriers traversing unit area in’ unit time, which is equivalent to the cartier density multiplied by the drift velocity ie. J = qny. = By putting these values in equation (2) 5 vH 1 Re . —_ a JH qnvH ng From this equation, it is clear that the sign of Hall Coefficient depend upon the sign of the 9, this means, in 4 p-type specimen the R would be positive, while in m= type it would be negative. Also for a fixed field and input current, the Hell Voltage is proportional to W/m or its resistivity, When one carrier the conductivity of the material is'¢ = nqu. Where jis the mobility of the charges caries, Thus y= Ro “ Equation (4) provides an, experimental measurement of mobility R is expressed in em’ coulomb’! thus jis expressed in units, or em, volt” Sec! (b) wo Tyre oF carnuens : Inusinsic and lighily doped semiconductors are the examples of this Imerpretation of Hall coefficient is more dif oe also clear that for the same electric fled, the In such cases, the quantitative cult since both type of carriers contribute to the Hall field 1 is Hall voltage of p~ carriers. will be -opposte sign from the n— 24h 4, y a Ch ¢. Ja GHEE SXG ff ay ae pa a ded @ cain 86 a See any elation of Ha cen and eeed serps 61 TOP en : ae er rier densities of holes and. clostr Where ti 2nd 4h, are the mobilities of holes and electrons: p and n are somestly reduces t0 equation (3) when only one type of caters is present *** Since the mobilities jy and ju. are not constants bat function of temperature (T) the Hall coeflicient given by £q (5). is also a function of 7 and it may become zeru, even chanipe sign In general 44 > jy so that inversion may hhappen only if p * n: thus Hall coeicient inversion is characteristic only of plype semiconductors ‘AC the point of 2e10 Hall coefficient, itis possible to determine the ratio of mobilities and their relative concentration. Thus we see that the Hall coefficient, in conjunction with resistivity measurements. can provide information on carrier densities, mobiles, impurity concentration and other values. it must be noted. however. that-mobiltes obtained from Mall Effect measurements 1 = Re do mot always agree with dirccily measured values. The reason being that carters are distributed in enerry. and those with higher velocities will be deviated to a reser extent for a given field. AS i we know varies with carrier velocity i= 7 =) L oc“ NN +t. t | EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE: MEASUREMENT _ON (a) EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATION RELEVANT TO ALL. SEMICONDUCTORS : 1. In single erystal_ material the resistivity may vary smoothly from point 10 point, In fact this is generally. the case. ‘The question is the amount of the amount of this variation rather than its presence. Often however, it is ‘conventionally slated that it is constant within some percentage and when the variation does in fact all within this tolerance, itis ignored. 2. High resistance or rectification setion appears fairly ofen in electrical contacts 10 semiconductors and in fact fone the major problem, 3. Soldered probe contacts, through very much desirable may disturb the curen flow (shorting out part of the sample), Soldering directly to the body of the sample cin aiect the sample properties duc to heat ond by contamination unless care is taken, These problems can be avoided by using. pressure contacts an in the proscit 3Se eee te be managed by keep i eed oad = E Yaets clean and fim, ae “Both E443) and £95) have exact cael he a ‘assumption the all carers have same velocity: this is nat true, bu bya facto of only 3/8 n derived onthe ‘on midis the results obtained her TS CUM trOWD) the sample should not be lange enough to cause {0 prevent ‘injecting effect may have this effec. This c near the contacts is rough a1 before reaching the measuring probes ears il sein ix independent of eure its pestle 10 deerin’ wither ov non any of these eff ‘Ne Imerfering by messuring the Hall coetfcient i diferent valves of nero (©) EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATION WITH THE MEASUR MENT OF HALL COBFFICIED 4. The voltage appearing between the Hal Probes is not ‘enerally, the Hall voltage alone, Thete ate ot searomagnetic and themomagretic effets (Nears eect Rhigledee tite Co Entngshausen effect) wh Fed poetic as eevee the Hall Probes. In addin, IR drop due to poke, miedo te magn the erential) and Wemociecre vole die to vanvese theme! paint ne fe resent. All these exci the Eingshawsen effet are ciminated by the method a wecging fou conn Re Entingshausen effect is negligible in materials in which a i igh thermal conductivity is primarily due Tatice conductivity oF in which the thermoelectric power is sna are TR ele ees the Hill robes is measured fr bth dreton of cure, only the Hall volt es the influence of the other effe (i measured for bother the drstions of the mapnetic fic, the IR drop dose + 2 Ths tell Probe must be routed i the flunk the palon of euxium velage is reached This ist Peron whendireion of eure! inthe probe and magnaic Geld would be pependoas to aa on™ with magnetic field’ on, for carvers with average velocity. Slower earns wil thera Ted Tis mu ams Ader comps, rening in tet tha are aot akg he ‘tera eld This resus in efeive decease ofthe man fee pth and hence an eee In ey There, hile taking readings with a varying magnetic eld at a panicularcurent va, current value should be adjusted, every time. The problem can ‘be lint ower supply, which would keep the current constant respective of the refes is necessary th ted by using a consant cure ance of the sample “fa tinea the reste of he sample i very high and the Hall Volges te very low. This means ® tnly Be cere aly any curent—net more than few micro amperes. Therctoe, he Hal Voterer en or po Pee wth& Rgh ino impedance (21M) devies suchas clewometey, ekctene Mateos (© good potentiometers preferably with lamp and scale srangenvene 5 Mtoweh the dimersions of the eral do not appear in the formula ice the tides, but the theor Sunion trey be eae ae moving only lengthwise. Practically it hes ten fourd tara Cua a ‘uafon may be obtained if the length may be taken three times the widh of ihe oneal APPARATUS REQUIRED. (©) Hall Probe (Ge Crystal) (Por N ype) :fe y Fe YY (8) HAM Probe (tn As) Digital Natl -Fflect Set, Model - DHE ~ 21 {Uestromagnel, Model ~ EMU ~ 35, EMU-$0 OR EM ~ 75, Const Current Power Supply, Model CC= 48, CC SOOR CC 1S/BPCC-75 Se Digial Gaus Meten Mode!” BGM So WALL Powe ie Gas {Ge Single Crystal with four sing ype pressure contacts fpr iver ismaunedon lass pos) tp Four leds re provided for ceanetions wih messing de SS Resistivity = 10.0hm cm. ‘The exact value of thickness and resistivity is provided in the te repor of the Hall Probe (Ge) supplied with the setup. The student afer calculating the Hall Coefficient from this experiment and using the given value of ‘resistivity can also get veluable information about earrier density and carrier mobilities, A typical xaniple 's provided inthe appendix. A minor draw back of this arrangement is that it may require zero adjustment from time to time. This type of probes are specially designed and recommended for Hall Effect Experiment (b) HALL PROBE dndium arsenide) + Indium arsenite Crystal (Rectangular) is mounted on 2 phenolic strip with four soldered contacts for Z Ia pe a onnetions with measuring devices. The ena covered bya protestive layer of pant The whole systenn 7s mounted in» pe-ype ease for farther protection A Contact ‘Slice, oy Hall Votage B= 10mV /100mA KG. The value of the thickness and resistivity ofthe sample given for these probes are not very reliable #8 these w not given for a specifi probe and may vary from probe as is usually the ease with all semiconductor evices. ‘These are essentially meant to be used as transducers. ‘ aw oy <<. 2 DIGITAL HALL EFFECT SET-UP, MoDEL-pie21 oe 7 ‘The scrup consis ofan electronic Digi! Milivometer and a constant cument power supply. The Hall Voltage and es robe curtent can be ead on digital panel meter trough the selector switch a (@) DIGITAL MILLIVOLTMETER ; as AWD Convener ICL T1O7 have ben id thas Nigh accrey Tike, ato 01 les as 10. ao di ess ~ than 1 VPC. int is cent of 10 pA sd ll over cor of ss than one sot. Shee ewe cra tree os “aus the degration in performance eto internal heating. aneseral eerenee hes boen ated The voles meh ‘ore coment sen Hl Experiment. ems ina a ces pay ese aed < 4 SPECIFICATIONS; Rae 0-200, Vo ~s Revotaion 100 yal Aewuray 2 eatreadng #1 Digit : impedance ‘stom 2 Special Features ‘Auto zero ond polarity indicator. 4 Overtnd Inienor Sienot ton he and Masking other igi, (bo) CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY: This power supniy specially designed for Hall Probe prosidst 100 percent protection apn eral hurt dt ‘scessine curtent The his ashore it ose the Feehih print lini the lial esse of de le 8 Se s % | | yee bo ¥JL tdeted d dé iL je" fe f (a) ) @ Moss val Variations. ate eae at ache pple Ihe D.C. Source. The euent ‘smear bythe dg panel meer Current Range Restotion Accurae ‘Lond’ Reputation Line Reputation 10-2004) or mesic forthe patel Hall ob Hoya. 20.2% ofthe reading + 1 Digit 0.0% for 0 te Fil oad 0.05% for 10% changes ELECTROMAGNET, Mopet.- EMU —75. Fld Intensity [Link] 2 $4 Gauss tan sit-gp of 10s. Aigap is continusouly sari pio 75 mm, Pote Pieces ‘[Link] diameter. Normally fat faced pole pieces are supplied with the mognet Engineering Coils Two cach coi hasa resistance af 10, ohn, Approw Power Require 0-5 Amps Coniuously variable ELECTROMAGNET, MopEL-EMU~50. Field totensity le Pieces gineering Cu Power Require 7.5K Gauss ¢ 5% 10. mm. it-gap The airgap is cominuowsy variable '[Link] dimer. Normally Na ace ple pices ae supe withthe magne To cach cil and ws a eistance of ehout 30 ohmcl on tap. ELECTROMAGNET, MODEL - EMU-36. Field Intensity $30 K Gaus at 10, mm ae -gop. The argup is adjustable fom 0 -60 mm. Pole Vicees 35. at faced ple Enginesring Coils “Two cach coil has resistance of abou 40, ohm, Pro er Reuire 072 Amps CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY, MODEL-CC-75. SPECIFICATIONS, a ‘Smovthly adjustabe fom O10 $ Ap 0.1% fr 10% mains variation, + 0.1% fr load reistance variation rom Ot fu loud. 3 Digi, 7 segmen panel mete. Elecioncally procied aginst over loading & shor circuiting 220Vol s10%e. Ste POLAR. OWER SUPPLY MODEL: BCC. 75 BCC-75, Bipolar power supplies are micro conroiec based highly regulated constant curren sources, special designed for Electromagnets . The BCC- 75 Power Supply maintain tight control over the entire output range including zero output . This achieved without reversal contactor or relays , which are not sultabe for ths purpos: because they produce , unintended field spikes, and other discontinuities asa result field hysteresis x other biases are avoided in experimental daa Features: ulin spikes. surge nose und transient suppressor * Bipot variable constant cup * Over Load and sho circuit protection * Low ripples + ih replat” + Advaneetechaology"9 Q G&ES¢ Jd vd prey pp Perr ane bd dG ddd bee r? able by push butions provided on pa Specification ‘Amps: through zc ‘0 4 4°S A Through a sicracontlr pride, + Bester than +08 ro no laa ofl oad. Better than + 05% for + 10% variation in Bins 3 igi, LED Meter (Two 90% one for eurent end uher for Se) ‘Tho units fll protected eleceniclly against sort cieung and os loading. Spb nse and rasiems in aon wa sutable fuse anda miiatun citet fre Meput sav He. sole Repo woes (b)_ CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUPPLY, MODEL - CC 50. ‘Specifications Current 0-4, Amp. Regulation (Line) 40.1% for 10% variation in mains Regulation (Load) £0.1% no load to fll load, Protected Electronically protected against overload or short circuit Metering 3. Digit, 7 segment LCD Digital Panel Meter Input 220Volt# 10%, S0H2 (©) CONSTANT CURRENT POWER SUI MODEL -CC~38. ‘Specifications Current Amp. . «Regulation (Line) +£0.1% for No load to fl load Regulaticn (Load) 0.1% for + 10% mains variation. Protection Electronically protected against overload o shor circuiting, Metering 3% Digit 7 segment LCD Digital Panel Meter. Range 220V 10% 30 He 6 DIGITAL GAUSS METER, MODEL-DGM- 100. Range 0-2, K Gauss and 0-20 k Gauss. Resolution 1 Gauss at 0-2 K Gauss Range ‘Accuracy £ 0.5%, Display 3% Digit, 7 segment LED. Detector Hall Probe with an Imported Hall Element, Input 220 Volt, $0 Hz. Speciat Indicates the diection ofthe magnetic Feld >= procepure : Connect the widthwise contacts wires of the Hall Probe to the terminels marked “Voltage” and lengthwise contects to terminals marked "Current. Switch “ON” the Hall Effect Set~ Up and adjustment current (say few mA). Switch over the display to voltage side. There may be some voliage reading even outside the magnetic field This is due to imperfect alignment of the four co “Zero field Potential”. In case its value possible (for Hall Probe “Ge” only) cts of the Hall Probes and is generally known as the comparable to the Hall Voltage it should be adjusted to 8 minimum In all cases, this error should be subtracted fromthe Hall Voltege treading, Now place the probe in the magnetic field as shown in Fig3 and switch on the electromagnet power supply and adjust the current to any desired value. Rotate the Hall Probe ill it become perpendicular to maENCtC Field. Hall voltage will be mssimum in this adjustment,S$ Menure Hall voluge tr Particular value of current beth the directors of the curren! and mn f nd magnetic eid), field (1.6. four observations § Meas the fll Voltage as function of carent keeping the magnetic fell consan Plot graph graph |" Hall Volige as a function of magnetic field keeping a suitable value of extent as BoM swe the magnetic felé by the Gauss Mec. CALCULATIONS 2 BML the raph Hal Voge Vs. Magnetic 2M calculate Hall coefcien 3, GefeMine the type of majoiy charge caries, i. whether the esta In mtype oF pt 3. Caleuate charge carer density fom the ret on ™ a 1 1 "4 Rg 4. Catelt ear motiliy, using. the femula Ws (Or) = Re sing the spestes ave of resistivity (1) given by the spiro o Probe Meta). Typical eleation we shown 5 sopcti QUESTIONS; What is Hall Effect 2 What are n type and p type semiconductors ? ‘What is the effect ot temperature on Hall coeficient of a lightly doped semiconductors. Do the holes actually move ? Why the resistance of the stmple magnetic field ? Why a high input impedence device is generally needed to measure the Hell volaye, Why the Hall Voltage should be measured for bth the directions of current as well as of magnetic field REFERENCE! sd by Some other method PPP? |. Hall, £.H.."On a new action of the magneton elestronic cures", American Joumal of Mathematics, 2, No.3, 27-297 91879). The orginal paper by hall which describes the effect. An interesting historical read 2. Preston, D.W. and E.R. Dietz, The at of experimental Physics, John Wiley & Sons 91991), pages 303-315, Exo siscussion of the Hall eect in semiconductors 3. __AsheroR, Neil W., and N. David Mermin, solid sate Physic, Saunders college, Philadephia (1978) Chaper | giv ’lementary theory ofthe hall effect, Chapter 3 discusses the flues ofthe free-electron model Chapters 12 ang 18 ‘te hall effect in the height field low temperaure limit for metals, 4. Hurd, Colin M.: The hall effet in metals and Alloy, Plenum press, New York (1972). A thorough overview of th effect in metals, Predates the quantum hall effect. 5 isbee, Rober H., ang Jorg Drager, Simulations fer solid state physics, Cambridge University Press 91997). The ‘and computer simulation illustrate many important concepts in solid state physis. The simulations are aveilable computer inthe lab. Ziman, 1M, Principles of the theory of solids, Cambridge university Press (1969). An excellent, readable and cles ‘covering much ofthe same material as Ascrof end Mermin. 7. Fundamentals of semiconductor Devices, J. Lincmayer and C.Y. Wrigley, Affiliated East-West Press. Pvt New Delhi Introduction to Solid State Physics, C. Kite; Joha Wiley and Sons Ine, N.Y. (1971), 4 edition Hall Effect and Retated Phenomena, E.H, Pulley, Butterworths, London (1960), APP aad o ed LP eee rad JI) ae P ve For degenerate Cartier Mobility 1 CARRIER MORILITY 'miconductor i. when one carrier dominates Ra 33.X 10° X 01 = 3300 em? volt” sec"! ‘Thus we see that Hall Coefficient in conjunction with resi Ona FEFFEERS ePP PRP eeovueu”d LAP rrr rrr fon carrier density, mobilities Measurement 1. CONSTANT M: netic Field ... and other values. it must be noted Ro do not always agree with directly. measured values ly measurement can provide valuable informs ‘ever. thal mobilities obtained from Hi 8. The reason is explained in the book SERVATION TABLE a nGauss, __FoRWARDED_—— REVERSE — T(mAy Vimv) Tomay Vimv) current (ma) Voits mv) curren (ma) Vos) | 2. CURRENT CONSTANT. Coren Mili Veit —Z a Sa, ¥¢ ve Y / ppp ra Ty § ¢ eaddadeies ae a a ny t 2 > M5 M2 ay i Ly 7 APPENDIX Sample saleviation for Hall Coctfcien: Cartier Benshy and Mobility 1 ng Hall Prabeas sample SAMPLE DETAILS Sample 'Ge" Crystal n-type, ‘Thickness (2) 5x 107 em, vy Resistivity (p) 10 ohm em or ohm= —= = [Link]! see 10 Voit coulomb" 1 dQ sec em, a Conductivity («): 0.1 coulomb velt-1 see~1 em=1 EXPERIMENTAL DATA : Current 8x10 Amp. Magnetic Field (H) ; 1000, 6. Hall Voltage(V,) £53 10” Vol (i) HALL COEFFICIENT @) ; We know from equation 2 of the text Viet R= 1H 83 X 10? X 5X 107 8x 10° x 10 = 33 X 10° voltemamp! G! or 33. X 10% X 10% em? coulomb = 3 33. X 10? em? coulomb Gi) CARRIER DENSITY (a We know from equation 3 of the text ' 1 R= — 3025 — nq Rq 1 33X10" X 16 X 10" 19X10! em”e ¢ “ ¢ TIIILI IPP TITS CH~HKKhH LEG CEL PP PP eevdeadd (a wee evs a l a eriment of Applied Flys i £ PERIMENT NO.-2 Determination of Plank’s Constant by Photoelectric Effect Theory: IN was observed as early as 1905 that most metals under influence of radiation, e electrons. This phenomenon was termed as photoelectric emission, The detailed study of il has shown, 1. That the emission process depends strongly on frequency of radiation. 2, For each metal there exists critical frequency such that light of lower frequency is ‘unable to liberate electrons, while light of higher frequency always does. Ey m of electron occurs within a very short time interval after arrival of the mn and member of clectrons is strictly proportional to the intensity of this radiation, The experimental facts given above are among the strongest evidence that the electromagnetic field is quantified and the field consists of quanta of energy E= hv where v is the frequency of the radiation and his the Planck’s constant. These cvanta are ealled photons. Further itis assumed that electrons are bound inside the metal surface with an energy 4, where @ is called work function. It then follows that ifthe frequency of the light is such that hv>eb it will be possible to eject Photoelectron, while if hv OBSERVATIONS [Link] Filters v( see" x 10% Stopping Voltage (V) 1 Red (635 nm 2 Yellow 1 (585 nm) 3 | Yellow 1 ($40 nm) 4 Green (500 nm) 5 Blue (460 nm) CALCULATIONS Planck’s Constant: h= ¢4¥e av Where eis the charge of electron By putting the value of AV, & Av from graph = 1.602107 x 0-825 2.00%10" = 1.602 x 10° x 0.413 x 104 6.61 x 10 Joules sec, From Graph 1 intercept at v= 0 the value of within accepted error range. $= 1.625 Compared with accepted value of h= 6.62 x 10 Joules. sec. the results are well PRECAUTIONS 1. This instrument should be operated is 2. Phototube particularly should not be exposed to direct li a 5. Afier finishing the experiment remember to s\ 8 tnt dry, cool indoor space. ight, particularly at the time of installation of phototube; the room should be only dimly lit. ‘The instrument should be kept in dust proof and moisture proof environment, if there is dust on the phototube, color r filter, lens etc. clean it by ‘using absorbent cotton with a few drops of alcohol. The color filter should be stored in dry and dust proof environment, witch off power and cover the drawtube (4) the lens cover (15) provided, Phototube is light sensitive device and its sensitivity deereases with exposure to light, due to ageing. uments vt hd Pow2 | gL - é | & = & & ° 2 ry | ; a 7 > x z 7 : : g : x = 3 3 5 2 é te & 2 > b 2 3 8 2 g 5 2 z s a I | | | § 88 @ 8 88 ge Ree Re eR s 4 2 3 5 8 5 $$ 8 § € 8 @ k (1) 6uppseioy requoiog Buiesjessy | SCOCCCELIIOL LOC LL T ITLL.BY tf ¢ 1 eee “eg & LULL “@ se [ Gam é ¢ @ Od dd GEC O oe 6 e owe EXPERIMENT 2 = To verify inverse square law of radiation using a photoolectrie cell Theory: stam Lhe luminous intensity of an electric lamp and Eis the luminescence (intensity of illumination) at point from it, then according to inverse square lav. gab -_s r : If this light is allowed to face on the cathode of a photo-clectric cell, then the photo- electric current (1) would be proportional to E. E-4. 7 KI Hence a graph between + and lisa struight line, which verify the inverse square law 7 of radiation. PROCEDURE (1) The connection would be same as before except a positive voltage would be applied to the anode with respect to cathode. (2) Place a filter in front of the photoelectric cell. G) Keeping the voltage constant and'position of photocell xed, lamp from photo-cell in small steps. n each case note the position of the lamp r on the optical bench and the current I. (4) The experiment may be repeated with other filters. OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS: eee Filter red 2. 6400 nm Anode Voltage: 0,25 V Reading of Photo-electric cell on the optical bench = 0 em [Link], | Distance between lamp and photo-eell(r) | 110% em? TpA r 18cm 20em [Link] 24em 26 em 280m 30cm sfofola}oele[- Graph between -L taken along the X-axis and I along the Y-axis is a straight line r Proving the inverse square law of radiation, SES Instuments Po, Fo-101 Page¢ 5 s & ~ Sy & bla Vt @ x 9 7 % pe dd Ps Ppp d i) euecddaed yy fy p/p % ay (—' oe PRECAUTIONS. _This instrument should be operated in a dry, cool indoor space. 2. Phototube particularly should not be exposed to direct light, particularly at the time of installation. of phototube; the room should be only dimly lit. ‘The instrument should be kept in dust proof and moisture proof environment t, if there ‘is dust on the phototube, color filter, lens etc. clean it by using absorbent cotton with @ few drops of alechol. a The color filter should be stored in dry and dust proof environment. - After finishing the experiment remember to switch off power and cover the drawtube (4) with the Iens cover (15) provided. Phototube is light sensitive device and its Sensitivity decreases with exposure to light, due to ageing. ‘SES Isruments Pt. PC-101 PageC/o PIPII97 arr PEt CLEC eidiud?d ma we ove 7 2 Current GA) VERIFICATION OF INVERSE SQUARE LAW Graph: 1/? vs | 24 2.2 12 08 06 04 0.2 1 2 3 4 5 (18x 109)j / e + wv 4 99 GEER: | PPP fe % fff tft Vee eeevseded ” / 18 i 3-Scele, 4-Drawtube, 5-Cover, 6-Focus lens, 7-Vacuum Phototube, ‘ototube, 9-Digital Meter, 10-Display mode switch, 11-Current range “4-Accelerate vollage adjustor, 16-Lens cover, 18-Power indicator. 4-Light source, 2-Guide, 8-Base for holding the selctor, 12-Light intensity switch, 13-Fitter set, 16-Voltage direction switch, 17-Power switch, Panel Diagram of Planck's Constant Experiment, PC-101» - % . re; 'os Department of Appli i et jepartment of Applied Physics i EXPE] NTN ee? RIMENT NO. -3 j»> AIM: To a : | AIM: To determine the energy band gap (E,) of a semiconductor (Germanium (Ge) crystal) by ] S Four Probe method. ei> > ATPARATUS: Four-Probe arrangement, P-type Ge erytal (10X8X0.5 mm, (2xwX!), 8 current eae souree, voltmeter, an oven to heal the sample, thermometer. ; eas. THEORY: The four probe method isthe most common method to measure the resistivity ofthe . ; . eel sein aa The oregon otf ene eal | > ‘metal tips with finite radius. The probes have springs attached on the other end to make good e& 2 contact with the semiconductor sample. Since, no soldering is required for the contacts, any error ? in resistivity measurements due to contamination of the surface, rectification and change of properties is avoided. Four sharp probes are placed on a semiconductor sample, A high impedance current source is used to supply current through the outer probes (1,4) and a voltmeter measures the voltage developed across the inner two probes (2, 3) to determine the sample resistivity and hence, the energy band gap of the semiconductor sample. Figure | shows the schematic diagram of four-probe arrangement. The whole arrangement is mounted on a suitable Lek > stand and leads are provided for current and voltage measurements. An oven is used to change ? the temperature ofthe sample, At the top of the four probe arrangement stand, a hole is provided atl for inserting a thermometer to measure the temperature ofthe sample. The sample is in the form al o of thin wafer with non-conducting bottom surface, Te va als = = 3 ‘current Source =? = sx 3 aoe 3 Figure 1: Schematic diagram of Pour Probe arrangement —— Paget '[Link](Common to all)/ AP-102/2s semesterY haf y IV9F y © wv 9 ppp <¢- avd L ‘ef REE LEE % { we I it 1 a f OFM Wo deus U _ Department of Applied Physics FORMULA USED: Resistivity (p) is given by Po. P= Fw/s) where v po=px2ns po : Resistivity ofthe sample 1p: Resistivity ofthe sample with correction applied F(w/s) : Comesion divisor andi a function of th ratio ofthe thickness of the sample (») fo the probe-spacing (6) Voltage across the two inner probes 1: Current through the two outer probes 4: Probe Spacing jw: Thickness ofthe sample “The variation of resistivity with temperature is p= Po given by the formula etalent where is the energy band gap and kis the Boltzman’s constant. “Taking log on both side of above equation inp=ings+ 2 5 logsop = log10 Po + az a09T or pp would be a straight line. From the slope of this lin, the ‘Thus a aap baneen# and loge ictor can be determined as follows energy band gap, E, of the semicondu — Slope = Fzz30axk logioP _ Ey aT ~ 2x2303xk logs0 2x 2303 x kx ‘BTech(Common to all] AP-102/2% semester Page2I) orp ~SHo¢¢ E a) F EEE L a [ % | i ait? i arr ey Eee EU rane 4- Probe ‘Sample (on Mica) Base Plate Figure 2: Four-probe arrangement for mounting the sample. Figure 3: Various parts of four-probe apparatus. nn TS? ‘BeTech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2~4 semester Page 3vou Department of Applied Physics PROCEDURE: 1. there is any need of replacing or mounting the Paype Ge sample then proceed as per the following procedure: (Unscrew the pipe of the four probe aangement and place the sample onthe base pate such thatthe 4-point probe lie in the midle ofthe sample as shown in figure 2 (i) Gently apply some pressure and tighten the pipe inthis postion so that all the 4-probes are in good contact withthe sample. (Waming : Application of excess pressure may break the sample) 2. Connect the RED and BLACK plug leads ofthe 4-probe arrangement to 4 mm sockets (7) marked as “Voltage”. 3. Connect the YELLOW plug leads to 4 mm sockets (6) marked as “Current”. 4, Switch “ON” the apparatus using switch (1). Note that voltage should be positive. Its not so then interchange the current leads. ‘Set the current to a desired value (say 8 mA) using current adjusting knob (2) as shown in figure 3. Also, select the range of multiple gs X1 or 10 of the, yaljase dioplay. (ts aways better to start with lower range ie. X1) 6. Using the switch (9) as shown in figure 3, select the rate of heating of oven as low (Lo) oF high (Hi) as per requirement. 7, Switch “ON” the oven using switch (8) as shown in figure 3. Green LED will glow, indicating that oven is “ON”. 8. Note down voltage, V in the voltmeter (4) for different temperatures while heating the ‘sample and record the readings in table 1 9, Switch off the oven and record the voltage while cooling the sample. 10. Repeat the experiment for another value of current. Find the mean voltage V for each temperature. 11, From the values of w and s supplied by the manufacture, find the correction divisor (ws) using the table A. 12, Calculate resistivity (p) for each reading and plot a graph between logiop along y-axis and 2 along x-axis BeTech(Common toall)/ AP-102/2v# semester Page4econ vs M. { e aa 4 NT EO é Department of Applied Physics___ OBSERVATIONS : 1. Least count of thermometer: ic Distance between probes (5) = 0.24 em, Thickness of the sample (1) = 0.05 em 5. Correction divisor, F(wis) = -~ Fwis) Observation Tables: SET- I: Table 1 Current / mA [SNe | Temperate | Temperature? | Voltage 7 Mean co w (mY) v While] Walle |) Heating | cooling Set- Il: Make a similar table for Current. CALCULATIONS: 1. Find the resistivity, corresponding to diferent temperatures using expression = F(w/s) where F (w/s) can be found from the table A. (NOTE: For diferent values ofV, there willbe different values of po) 2. Make an obseration abe as shown below ‘B-Tech(Common to all/ AP-102/2 semester Page Sawe ¢@¢e-v" ener > > > > f , > > ’ > > ? > 3 3 3 2 Department of Applied Physics unneen Table 2: [Link], | Temp. | ow) L 3, Plot a graph logyo versus T" and find the slope of the curve as shown in the typial graph figure 4. 4, Calculation of energy band gap (Eq) is as follows Slope = et ope = 2x 7308 xk By = 22.308 x ke x Slope eV E, = 0.396 x 10"? x Slope eV Now, k= 1.38% 107? IK = 8.6% 10° eV/K “The percentage eror in the experimental result is calculated by the following formula Standard value ~ Calculated value 00 Sandan poleniermeren Percentage Error GRAPH: Figure 4: Plot between logigp and T" [Link](Common to all/ AP-102/2% semester Page 6bd ved ds d i dled d Up wr wrerwre 9 OIF EE Department of Applied Physics ——— aS ‘RESUL ‘The band gap (E,) forthe given semiconductor at room temperatu Standard Value % Exror PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. Current should be constant while performing the experiment. 2. Reading should be taken not only while heating the sample, results are expected while cooling since more stable conditions prevails. 4, The top ofthe sample should be cleaned vey carefully withthe finest quality send PaPe to ‘but also, while cooling it. Better remove any coating formed on it. 4, The pressure on the probes should be just appropriate to make a contact, As too much pressure can break the erystal. 5. The tip of the thermometer should be wel carefully, . 41 inside the hole and temperature should be read + 6 ‘Thesurface on which the probes rest should Be flat wit no surface leskage “The four probes should lc in straight line “Table A: Values of Fs) for different combination of wis for non-conducting bottom surface. [saan [asa oao [ons [ost [von [an [200 [ 32s [stm [oon [aaron [sy] 270] 50 | 25 | os] ons [27] ene Toe? [Link](Common to all)/ AP-102/2~ semester6 e ai Z ~ / ay SAP ITTT? Vda7/ i = ~ Experiment- 4 AIM: |. Measuring the magnetic field of circular conductor loops as function of the current. 2. Measuring the magnetic field of circular conductor loops as a function of the Toop ‘radius and the distance from the loop. THEORY: ‘According othe Biot-Savarts law, the magnetic field B at a point P fora conductor traversed Py the current | is made up ofthe contributions ofthe infinitesimal parts of the conductor, the length and direction of which are described by the veotor ds. ke ap= 42, a) an Where, 14, = 47.107 4 Permeability of free space. ‘The position vector from the part of the conductor under consideration to the point Pis given by r (see Fig. 1) Fig.1 Calculating the total magnetie moment thus means solutions can be evaluating an integral. Analy certain symmetries. given only for conductors ‘The magnetic field of an infinitely long wire, for example, is -@) [Link] (Common to all/AP-102/2" Semester Page 1At a distance r from the axis, and the field lines are concentric around the cylinder axis (see fig. 2) tddJIJ3 ‘The magnetic field of a circular conductor loop with the radius R is sdtdd Se pe 4128, Ro 8) (Rate at a distance x on the axis through the centre of the loop. Its field lines are parallel to the axis (see Fig. 3) fain this experiment, the magnetic field of above mentioned circular conductors is measured by means of an axial probe respectively. The Hall sensors of the axial probes, which particularly thin, are sensitive to the field components perpendicular to their surface, Therefore, not only the strength of the magnetic field can be determined, but also sts direction. At the straight conductor, the dependence of the magnetic flux density B on at the circular conductor loops the dependence on the space the distance r is studied, the proportionality between the magnetic induction B and the coordinate x. moreover, current (1) is verified. [Link] (Common to alll/AP-102/2™ Semester Page 2 ddd: pisj JI) V3 d EXPERIMENTAL SETUPS: ‘The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig. 4 (below), Jd IT)) J | exrermenaL serves : a) 7 =. DESCRIPTIONS: = pica bench, 2. Optical sale, 3. Plugin clement, 4. Hall sensor, $. Probe mount, 6 i : “Awial Probe, 7. Digital gauss meter, 8, Rheostat 1 ohm, 20 Amp, 9. High eurent supply, ~~ 10. Cirular conductor 40 mm, 11, Circular conductor 80 mn, 12, Circular conductor 120 = mm se 2 [Link] (Common to al/AP-102/2% Semester Pope 3 Hyalgtele asProcedure: 1. Set the optical bench in experimental table and align it horizontally. 2. Mount the holder for plug-in elements (3) with an optical saddle. 3. Clamp the circular conductor loop 40 mm diameter (10) and connect it to the high current power supply 20 amp through 1 ohm 20 amp theostat in series. tal gauss meter, set selector switch at X1, 4. Connect the axial probe to the switch ON the gauss meter and adjust the zero of the gauss meter via adjustment knob. ‘Align the axial probe towards the centre of the conductor loop. le with Hall sensor (4). 6. Align the conductor loop as precisely as po: 7. Increase the current I from 0 to 20 A in steps of 2 A. Each time measure the magnetic field B, and take the measured values down Note: Adjust the Iohm rhteostat for maximum load current 20 A. 8. At I= 20 A, move the axial probe to the right and to the left step by step. eld B as a function of the space coordinate x, and take ‘measure the magnet the measured values down. Replace the 40 mm conductor loop with 80 mm conductor loop and then with 120 mm conductor loops. In both cases measure the magnetic field as a function of the space coordinate x. [Link] (Common to alll/AP-102/2% Semester Page 47 ST. 7 e eee od J w mw MEASUREMENTS: (A) Magnetic field of circular conductor loops: The magnetic fied B of the 40 mm, and 120 mm conduetor are asa function of the current 1 GaneslT Rapper [Raat Fos wagers Fa mp) auss) Gauss) 5s sion ‘stn 120mm (B)The magnetic field B of the conductor loops as a function of the distance x at 20 A current. [asin 2am, Distance x Distance x] Fete = 8 [iatree x] Field — uss) tt Field 8 (Gaus (Gauss) 5) (um Pages [Link] (Comman to all/AP-102/2" SemesterEVALUATION: ‘The dependence of the magnetic field B of a circular conductor loop on the current 1 fh too, the agreement between the measured values and the stright line through thi the origin drawn in the graph confirms the proportionality between the magnetic field B and the current I The dependence of the Magnetic Field B on the space coordinate x is shown for the three circular conductor loops. The curves drawn in the graph have been calculated according to Eq. (2) with the current I= 20 A. Sample Data (A) Magnetic field of circular conductor looy ‘Current Amp) an feo ee fe fied B of the conductor loops as function of the distance x at 20 A (B) The magneti current. [Link] (Common to alll/AP-102/2" Semester Page 6eee vo te Sieawclltc tte = Department of Applied Physics —— ERIMENT No. -5 AIM: To Determine Joule’s Mechanical equivalent of heat by using n electric calorimeter. APPARATUS: Electric Calorimeter, set of masses, ie for cooling water, 10 Amp current source, 110°C thermometer, stop watch, distilled water. Heating coil Current source Fig.1: Circuit Diagram ‘THEORY: in electric ‘A measured potential difference and current are maintained for @ given time in « ‘calorimeter. The heat evolved is measured by the usual calorimetric methods. The value of clectrical equivalent of hea, joule's constant J, is determined from the ratio of the electric enerBy expended to the heat produced. Potential difference is defined as work per unit charge, v-wQ ~ 0) ‘Where W is the work done in moving the charge Q through the circuit. ‘The most frequently used units are V in Volts, W in Joules and Q in Coulombs ‘equation 1) is wten in the form W=VO, and the substitution Q = Hand VIR ae mais the basic equation fr electrical energy may be writen inthe form W=VQ=Vit=FRt indicates that 1 joule of work must be done in maintaining —- (2) current of 1 amp in a ‘This equation resistor of 1 ohm resistance for 1 second. In a cireuit containing only resistance, a direct proportionality, betw heat H developed. This fundamental Jaw is represent reen the expenditure of electric energy W and the ted by the of energy conservati Page 1 BeTech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2v¢ semester: Department of Applied Physics o wom Where, J i the proportionality factor calle the methane! for the electicalpequavabent of hea! Tn equation (3). J has the value of approximately 4.18 joules} A useful form of the equation for the heat developed in a resistor is cbtained by combinin ‘equation (2) and (3) vit _ PRE H 7 ane “rae Calories ee “) “The variation ofthe heating effect of an electric current with various factors as represented by the equation H = FRU is usually referred to as Joule’s Law. From this equation i is evident that R and t are kept the heat developed in a resistor varies directly with () the current I (when constant), (i) the resistance R (when I and t are constant) and (it) then time t (when I and R are constant) PROCEDURE:- Part-I:- Variation of heating effect with time 1. Connect the apparatus as in figure-1 12. Arrange the apparatus so that the observer can conveniently watch the ammeter on the panel of the current source, 3. Never switch ON the current source unless the heating coil is immersed in water, as ‘otherwise the resistance element might be buried out “4. One can make a short test run, using tap water inthe calorimeter and a current of about 2 ‘Amp Practice the tcclnique of carefully stiring the water and nothing rise of temperature. This is optional. ‘5. () Emply the calorimeter and refill it with 250 gm of distilled water (10 which a lite ice has been added to reduce the temperature to about 10°C). (b) Stirthe water thoroughly until the temperature approached the equilibrium value. (©) At an accurately noted time, switch ON the current source, quickly set current at the desized value (2 Amp), (@) Continue stirring the water and record the temperature every minute until about ten ‘observations have been made. Record the current and the voltage. a ——— BeTech(Common toall)/ AP-102/2¥ semester Page 24 / wv db dIIIIEL, od us ewes * ~ ~S y wwe dv de, Department of Applied Physics - Heating effect as a function of current 1, Take observations of temperature rise of same mass of water as in Step-S of path beginning with cold water each time, Note the temperature rise in § min. and record the final temperature after water had risen to its highest temperature. 2. Repeat observations fora total of five different curents, Data recorded in Step-S of Part-T can be used for one observation. 3, Do not heat the water above 40°C, as otherwise the effects as much below room temperature as the final temperature is above that of the room. If necessary the water should be cooled with ice to produce this condition. Record each voltage. OBSERVATIONS: ‘Mass ofthe calorimeter M,=85.3 gm Mass ofthe calorimeter + water =335.5 gm Mass of water My = 250 gm Resistance of the coil R= 3.0 ohm Specific heat of water S.= 1 Calignv‘C Specific heat of cupper S_ 0.093 Cal/gmC TABLE-I: Ss. Time interval | Initial Temp. Final Temp. | Temp. Difference No. | (sec) TCO) TCO) aT(’c) [Link](Common to all)/ AP-102/2m! semester Page 3Department of Applied Physics TABLE- Time interval = $ minutes (S [Curent |r | inal Temp. | Temp. Difference ay |) TO) ar (co, 1 variation of the heating effect ture is direct cepts of 1. Use the data of step-5 of Part-I to plot a curve showing th swith time, all other factors being constant, In this ease the rise in temper measure of the heat developed. Discust the significance ofthe shape and interes curve. 2. Use the stright line curve of BT against which was ploted in Pat asthe basis for the computation ofthe average value of fom the observed data 3, The working equation may be written as 8) j= we PRt SH MwSwtMeSe)(T2-T) here the symbols have the usual sigifcane of those used in eaorineter, The reciprocal of the slope ofthe curve gives I?/(Ts ~ Ty). equivalest of the heating col, ster and electrodes Use proper value for the water in by the use of Determine te percentage difference between the average values of J obi the curve and curve and eg (5) and the standard valu of 4.18 joules/ca RESULT: ‘The value of mechanical equivalent of heat (1) is ‘Standard value of J= 4.18 Joule/Cal 102 /2v¢ semester found to be ....+--+ Joule/cal, Page 4 BTech(Common to all)/ AP-Department of Applied Physics —__ af peroentage eror= Sums satpro 100% PRECAUTIONS AND SOURCES OF ERROR: |. Stirring should be uniform and slow. 2. Check that current does not vary during the obseration. 1 taken to ensure the 43, While taking masses of the calorimeter and water care should bs initial balancing of the balance. 4. The coil should not touch the calorimeter. 5, Temperature should be measured carefully. [Link](Common to all)/ AP-102/2%4 semester Page 5Ve / & & oe 4 e E6¢WHbEEEKSY Vr sSseteee &¢ 6 Ee E __Department of Appli — Et of Appl EXPERIMENT NO. ~ IM: T el AIM: To draw the I-V charcternics for light eating diode LED) and determine the value of Planck's constant APPARATUS: Power Supply, Patch cords and T raining board THEORY: ‘The energy ofa photon is given by the equation v seen (I) Where Eis the energy of photon visits frequency, and his a constant In the photoelectric effect, an electron is emited from a metal surface when a light is incident onthe metal surface. The emission of electrons is deeply connected tothe frequency of the light incident upon the surface. Ifthe energy ofthe incident photon i greater than the ‘work function of a given material then the electron emitted possesses energy Fj, which is given by: Ex=hv -W = 2) ‘Where, Eis the kinetic energy of the emitted electron, W represents the work function &f the material. Figure 1: Emission of Photoelectrons Laws of Photoelectric emission: 1. Fora given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the rate at which photoelectrons are ejected is directly proportional to the intensity ofthe incident light. 2. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of incident radiation below which no photoelectrons can be emitted. This is called the threshold frequency. 3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photo electron is independent of the incident light but depends on the frequency of the incident light. [Link](Common toall)/ AP-102/2s semester Page 1Depar ent of Applied Physics 44 The time lag between the incidence of radiation andthe emission ofa photo electron is very small less than 10° seconds. In this experiment, the current-voltage relationship ofa set of light emitting diodes (LEDs) are used to measure Planck's constant, An LED is a semiconductor device that emits ce electromagnetic radiation at optical and infrared frequencies. The de diode made from p-type and n-type semiconductors, usally GaAs, GaP or SiC. They emit a p-n junction light only when an extemal applied voltage is used 10 forward bias the diode above a ‘minimum threshold value. The gain in electrical potential energy delivered by this voltage ts sufficient to force electrons to flow out of the n-type material, across the junction barr, and into the p-type region. These excited electrons recombine with holes in that region and photons are emitted having energy approximately equal to the band gap energy om Fig. 2 p-n junction of LED Fig. 3 I-V characteristics for different LED colour If Vo is the minimum voltage required forthe emission of light, then The light energy emuted daring forward biasing is given as, 0) where velocity of light, ‘b-Planck’s constant. 3. -wavelength of light used. ICV; is the forward voltage applied across the LED when it begins to emit light (the knee ‘voltage, the energy given to electrons crossing the junction is, Ee, Eaquating (3) and (4), we get ev, ———_ Tech(Common to all/ AP-102/2+ semester Page 2Itis recommended that ell the Experiments should be done iri Dark Room. Objective: Determination of Planck's constant using Light Emitting Diode (LED). Procedure: 1 Take the Planck's Constant Determination Setup Make the connections a¢ shown in figure below VISAYAN,gg. a eo ec % @©@€2#2.866 € Bt EF GS SE. GS-8 Meort [Link] + ve terminal of DC power supply to + ve terminal of DC voltmeter and +ve terminal of any one LED. 3, Now connect - ve terminal of DC power supply to - ve terminal of DC voltmeter and - ve terminal of LED. 4, Set the range of DC voltmeter at 20 V. 5. Connect the mains cord and switch ‘On’ the power supply. 6, Now vary the DC voltage slowly by variable resistance pot and see the LED connected in circuit. 7. When the LED is just start to emit light note the value of applied voltage by DC voltmeter. 8. Now switch ‘Off the DC power supply and break the LED connection. 9. Again make same connection for another colour of LED. 410. Now repeat the step 8 and 9 "44. Repeat above experiment for different colours of LEDs. 42. Now use the formula given below and put the value of all parameters used in formula and calculate the value of Planck's Constant for different LEDs. h=eVNc ‘Where, h_ is Planck's Constant, e isthe electronic charge, Vo is Threshold voltage, A is wavelength of LED and C is the velocity of light Take mean value of h calculated for different LEDs.LY) ef dd CR oe e (ddd dd é Py ddd sdddd ee dae Uo Itis recommended that all the experiments should be done in Dark Room Electronic Charge e = 1.601 x 10-19 coulomb Velocity of Light c= 3 x108 m/s Formula used : h=eVONc TABLE 1 ue | Peace | mae | wt Blue 70 Green 525 Yellow 7 580 Orange : 630 Red 700 3 Common Standard Value of h = 6.63 x 10% Js Calculated Value ofh = | Percentage error = Calculated value - Standard value / Standard value x 100 Percentage error = - 6.63 /6.63 x 100 Error % = ca[Link] the V-l Characlenstics cic timation Selup Make the connections @ shown in figure below, o eve dd I II J Ea “el. edd std? oredd eeee VABLE.: LED V-| Charactoristice bkhedsvdivvg eve & 6s viv) V-I Characteristics <v Wepartment ol Applicd Piiysres , ENPERIMENT NO ea AIM: To determine the magnetic susceptibility of hydrous manganese chlonde me (Mo 11,0) by Quineh’s tbe method wv APPARATUS: Quinck’s tube fitted on sland, Travelling microscope, Experimental solution, ‘ Electromagnet with supply Day FORMULA USED: Mass suscepsbiityis given by z, =2a,e-5> me » : Here py..42 * 10 Vs/Am, » Gis in mv/s°, his in meters and B is in Wb/m? » PROCEDURE: > 1. Put the tube on stand and fix it with clamp. 2. Insert the narrow limb of the quinck’s tube vertically between the pole pieces of the » uniform magnetic field or in the centre of the poles and the wide limb is placed » ‘outside the field as shown in Fig. 1 3. Adjust the crosswire of the eyepiece of travelling microscope on the meniscus of 4 ‘water i.e, 0% and note the reading ofthe microscope. It will be the inital postion of , the meniscus. Record this reading (h) in table as shown below. 4. Switch onthe electromagnet power supply and adjust the curet inthe range of 1~3 4 amp. Bring the cross wire again on the meniscus and also record this reading (hy) in ) the table. 5. Increase the power supply cument in steps of 05 amp and note the comesponding : position (hy) ofthe level ofthe liquid. Note al these readings in table. ) 6. Repeat the experiment for different concentration (30%, 15%, 7.5%) of the solution. ) —— BeTech(Common to ll)/ AP-102/) OnSERVATIONS w 4 Least count of naling mictoscope Ge Nov] Powersupply | Magnetic eid | Initial position | Final position | — Yall n ny | current | B(Tesla) | ofthemeniseus | ofthe | eight 4 | Lamp uy) rmeniseus |r) em » = - | bcm _| es) | | | ‘CALCULATIONS: ed in Tesla Plot a graph each for different concentrations between B’ Square of magnetic fil along the X-axis and the h change in beight in meter along Y-axis which gives a straight line as shown in Fig. 2 Change in height of A liuid column (8h) EEUU LI Db end I pts 8 x Fig.2 From the graph calculate the slope + Ah _ AB re Ah AB a ao” ———— Page2 [Link](Common to all)/ AP-102/2¢ semester (ieee(1 Tesle = 1 weber /m? = 10* gauss) Now put above value inthe equation writen below and calculate the mass susceptibility aS Similrty calculate the value of mss susceptibility for oherconcensation ofthe sluion and ‘make table as shown below for the results, “The table shows the mass susceptibility of the given solution for different concentsion, ‘[Link] ‘Concentration of the solution Mass susceptibility 2m "AUTIONS: 1. The initial level ofthe liquid meniscus inthe tube shoud be noted for each ‘due to residual magnetism observation as itis liable (o change ion 2. Salt should be completely dissolved while preparing the solu SOURCES OF ERROR: 1. Ithas been assumed that the magnetic field at 2. Due to residual magnetism the rise in capillary is not correc ‘3. Results obtained are slightly less than the actual value due to ‘evaporation of water, the wider end is zero which isnot tue. Page 3 B-Tech(Common toal)/ AP-102Ze eo EXPERIMENT NO.- 8 objective: Determination of the magnetic eld withthe variation af distance alone the axis of current carrying coll Items Required 1. Tangent Galvanometer ‘current cateyng coil measurement unit 2 3. Magnetometer 4 Patch cords 5. Mains cord Procedure iat the arms of, place the Tangent Galvanometer on the table such th magnetometer lie roughly in east and west direction. at the centre of the coil in such @ manner that ‘collin same direction. 1 2. Place the magnetometer magnetic needle lies at the center of the vertical 4. Place the eye a ite above the coil and rotate the Tangent Gahanometsr a ontontal plane till the cil the needle and its image inthe mirror of magnetometer, alli in the same vertical plane. ‘4. Inthis manner the coil willbe set roughly in the magnetic meridian. 5. Now rotate the Magnetometer so thatthe pointer read the postion of 0-0. 6 Now take the current carrying coll measurement unit and place Kay the instrument, Connect Cand 5 terminals of coilto the 6 and 7 terminal of reversing key. 2 Connect OC power supply between the points 2 and 3 with same polarity.INvis 6034 Current Carrying Coil Setup 9. Connect DC Ammeter between the points 10 and 11 with same polarity. 10. Now short the terminals 4 and 5, 8 and 9, 12 and 13, 1 and 14 respectively 11. Connect the mains cord and switch on the power supply 12, Select reversing key in one direction and switch on the DC power supply 13. Observe the deflection of the needle of magnetometer. long the axis of the coil and find the flection is obtained. In this position the he vertical col 14. Now slide the magnetometer al position where the maximum de center of the needle co-insides the center of tl jersing key and note down the 15, Now change the direction of current by rev 3s the coils deflection again. If the both deflections are nearly equal that means in magnetic meridian. 16. If the mean deflection of both cases tangent galvanometer till the deflection for the direct an become nearly equal. 17. Note the position of the deflect ‘ends of pointer keeping the cur ‘again note the deflection of point 1 is not nearly equal, then slightly turns. id reverse current jon @1 and @2 in observation table by both rent constant. Now reverse the current and fer for both ends and say it 3 and 64. 18. Above readings are for origin (0-0) position. rent shown by ammeter. ft hand side of the coil and note ion table by both ends of pointer 19. Now note the value of the cur 20, shift the magnetometer by 1 cm in Le down the deflection @1 and 62 in observath keeping the current constant. 21, Now reverse the current and again note the deflection of P tends and say it @3 and 04, 22. Take the number of observations by shi time for both forward and reverse current, fat the steps 20, 21 and 22 by shifting the ma ping the constant current. inter for both iting the magnetometer by 1 cm at @ 23, Similarly repes ygnetometer in the Right hand side of the coil kee€ vw © we © ee w eee? & "NVM OSOoeuvrieverwv7Tewew7rvwvwvwvwvwws @ vis 034 Crvent Crying ol Setup Observations Table No. of turns (n} = Current | = .... ihe TT os Yea Tag ihe 24. Now plot a graph taking posting (x) along the X- axis and tan6 along the Y-axis, i willbe similar to graph shown in figure, below Note: For plotting the graph take let hand side reading 2s ve" and right hand side reading 35 “ve 25, Find out the two inflexion point on the curve, the distance between these ‘wo point will be the rads ofthe coll lea=Pa, 26 Similar perform ll the steps for another no. of turns of col. 27. Similarly perform all the steps for another no. of turns of coil,Nvis 6034 Current Carrying Coil Setup Observation Table - No. of turns (n) Current I=.Department of Applied Physics EXPERIMENT NO.- § I Objective: Determination of ballistic constant by steady deflection method Kems Rei 1 2 3. 14, 16. oo, Ballistic galvanometers Ballistic galvanometer power supply Lamp and scale arrangement ocedure First set the ballistic galvanometer for experimental procedure as described above Take ballistic galvanometer power supply and connect it with mains cord. Connect terminal 1 and 2 to supply (polarity wise). Keep S2 towards Pt (1) and $3 towards T1 Connect terminal 3 & 4 to ballistic galvanometer Set resistance Q and R to any value. Tum on power switch Keep S1 toggle in ON mode (you wil see the deflection) Note and record the deflection of spot on scale. (First throw) Select S1 towards OFF mode. Wait till reflecting spot rests on Zero. When reflecting spot stops oscillating than select $3 toward T2. Select $1 towards ‘On’ mode (You will see the deflection in opposite direction) Note and record the deflection of spot on scale. (First throw) Keep $1 towards off mode ee& eee ee eee ee eet ©. se © ev ew 4 2 9 & Nvis 6107 Ballistic Galvanomotor Setup 16. 7 18 19 20 Now change the value of R and note the value, Again select St towards on mode and see the deflection Note and record the deflection Select $3 toward T2 and note reverse deflection, Repeal this procedure for different value of R and note down the corresponding deflection. Tabulate all the retrieved data in below table Observation Table For P=1E 2 Plot @ graph between resistance R along X axis and reciprocal” of deflection (110). The graph will be straight line as shown in Figure. yNvis 6107 Ballistic Galvanometer Setup 21 Comesponding fo two values of R2 and Ri find the value of (142 10 ‘and calculate the value of 1 from equation 2-01) ni = EP/(P#Q) (R2— RA) * (1/02 ~ 1/61) Where, E = (Voltage of supply) PQ 2 oon of RQ- RY = oo. ORM So, ballistic constant Where, T is time period of ballistic galvanometer For Time period of galvanometer take reference of xvii 2. at this procedure for P = 2E and calculate balistic constant 23. Again repe =a m Where 2 = EP / (P#Q) (R2—Rt1) * (1/81 ~ 162) 24. Find the average of k; and k2, which will give average value of ballistic constant Hence ballistic constant ke kit hel,» 9 9 » 9 » 9 ° > 9 a 4 2 a & Nvis 6107 Ballistic Galvanometer Setup PART~IL Object: To find the logarithmic decrement for a ballistic galvanometer Procedure 1 ‘Set the balistic galvanometer for experiment ‘Obtain sharp image of spot of light at the center of scale Connect mains cord with ballistic galvanometer power supply Turn on power switch Connect terminal @ and 10 with supply Keep toggle S4 and S7 towards off condition Select $4 towards on mode Connect voltmeter across 7 and 8 terminals Use Vrt to set voltage and note down the reading of voltmeter Select any one capacitor C1 or C2 using $6 toggle Let it chose for 1 MFD towards C2 Select S5 towards charging mode ‘After a bit time simiiltaneously chose S5 toward discharging and S7 towards on condition, Observe the deflection on scale Note the first and the eleventh throw ofthe spotlight on the scale Select $7 towards off mode, Tabulate all the retrieved data in below table = 2303/10 logi0 qt/a2 Logarithmic decrement of ballistic galvanometerLee-t d d » i Department of Applied Physics ee ln > a EXPERIMENT NO-10 AIM: Todetonine the rat oF cage oma (fn) eran lesion jj __-APPARATUS:etn be, Powers wit volnterané ant, Varie mesuing sak BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF THE SET UP : > ‘The arrangement for measuring e / m, the charge to mass ratio of the electron is a simple set up > and is based on Thomson's method. The / m tube is bulb like tube and contains a filament, & ‘ cathode, a grid, a pair of deflection plates and an anode. The filament heats the cathode which emit clectrons, The electrons are accelerated through a known potential applied between cathode and anode, The grid and the anode have a hole through which the electrons can pass. The tube i filed With helium ata very low pressure, Some ofthe electrons emitted by the cathode collide withthe helium atoms which get excited and radiate visible light. The electron beam thus leaves a visible ‘rack and all manipulations on it canbe seen. The tube is placed between a par of fixed Helmholtz coils whieh produce a uniform and known maynetic field. The socket ofthe tube canbe rotated so that the electron beam is at right angles tothe magnetic field. The beam is deflected ina circular path of radius r depending on the accelerating potential V, the magnetic field B and the charge to ‘mass ratio e/m. Tis circular path i visible and the diameter d can be measured and e/m obtained from the relation e/m=8) / Bed? ‘The deflecting plates are interesting for visual observation of how the electron beam gets deflected ‘when a potential difference is applied between the deflecting plates EORY : RELATION CONNECTING e/m TO ACCELERATING POTENTIAL ¥, MAGNETIC FIELD B AND RADIUS R OF THE CIRCULAR PATH > - ‘Tech(Common toall}/AP-102/2 semester Paget EN GENE NE SE EEE OI EO wnnD rrer rr renner rrr rise Here eee (ee & wervs » ¥ » wuoeue ewe ww uuu bepartment of Applied Physics ‘When ah elect at aceserated rough the potential they gain hanes S1SI8Y equal elerating potential. Therefore, ¢F = anv" / 2. The final (non their charge times the relativistic) velocity of the electrons 1s therefore He 20, Vf)" a) ‘When thes electrons pass through a region having magnetic field B, they ae acted upon by lectrons are intially moving along the x-axis and Lorentz force, given by evx B ithe el hin the xy~ plane with the ‘magnetic fel is along z-axis, the electrons describe circular pal centripetal force balancing the Lorentz force, evB = my" Ir or v=eBr/m (2) Eliminating v between Eqs. (1) and (2), we get e/m=8V/B'd’ (3) ‘Where dis the diameter ofthe circular pat, This result assumes uniform magnetic field. This in the apparatus is produced by a pair of Helmholtz cols. I's the mumber of turns in a col and @ is the radius, then the magnetic field B, midway between the coils is given by poy lela, |iaels % i lyfe (4) When a curent of J amp is flowing in the coils. 1, is permeability of free space and is given by x10” |tesla 4, = 42x10" NVA? The field is uniform in the region where electrons are moving. Substituting the value of B in Eq, (3), we get £ (ee x10") wiser re © [Link]{(Common to all)/ AP-102/2 semester Page 2Department of a ‘The coils in this apparatus have 160 turns each and their radi is 0.4m, Using these values, we get V (volt) F (amp*)d'(m"') coulikg. (5) etm ites apna Take ow wy = f- 25 ig. 2: Electron Gun Fig 2: elm Tube ‘elm Experiment, EMX-01 AK acrensina Control Pane! DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP : -Teeh(Common to all} AP-102/2" semester Page 3Department of Applied Physics co a The central prt ofthe se-up iS the e/metube, This is energized by (Filament curent supply, {ij Deftones volo 75 iy Continuowsly variable accelerating voltage supply to the anode. ‘hethe smeunted on rotatable socket nds placed between apr of Helolz coil ‘The tbe can be rtated abouts vertal xis, varying the orientation ofthe electron beams wih respect tote Helmholtz coils, Thisllows deletion ofthe beam tobe demonstrated ‘orvarious orientations of he beam direction, crcula, helical or undeflcted pats canbe seen, The direction of the current can ‘be changed. The magnetizing current I and the accelerating voltage V are respectively measured by an ammeter and a voltmeter mounted ‘on the front of the panel. The diameter of the electron beam path is measured by a detachable scale mounted in front of the bulb of the tube. This scale has a slider with a hollow tube (fitted with cross wires at its both ends) to fix the line of sight while making the measurements of the beam path diameter. Base of the unit contains the power ‘supply ‘that proves all the required potentials and the current to the Helmholtz coils. The entire pparats is contained in a wooden cas for convenient storage. ) SPECIFICATIONS: ) Helmholtz coils of rai I4em ) Number of tums 160 on each col Accelerating Voltage 0-250v ) Deflection plates voltage SOV -250V } Operating Voltage 220V AC/ SOH2. ) , PROCEDURE 7 ) 1. Before the power is switched ‘ON’, make sue ll the conta knobs are at their ) ‘minimum position. }_- BTeeh(Commontoal)/ AP-02/2"semester Tee ) )—— Dep rtment of Applied Physics nt of Applied Poy 2. Tum the poser switch to “ON”. The inwicator Famp will low |. Wait hte fo the eathode to heat up. 4k Tumtheacclerto voltage adjust knob clockwise to neease the vl, Rest team emerging from the cathode will be visible, Adjust the acetate electron voltage at about 200 vot 5. te ahoutd be clear tha he eletronsthemssves inthe beam are nat wise, I hs low of the helium gasin the tube which is observed onthe olision of electrons with the atoms ofthe gos. We actualy see the glow of eas atoms which have Been excited by collisions with the electrons. 6 Rotate the ein tbe so thatthe electron beam is parallel tothe plane ofthe Helmholtz coils. i ntrferes with the measurements. However this magnetic field \d ignore 17, Earth's magnetic fick is weak compared tothe field generated by the Helmboltz coils and we coul its effect as first approximation Slowly tum the curet adjust knob clockwise to increase the current for Heimholz coils, The electron beam will get curved. Increasing the current will increase the curvature ofthe electron beam. 9, In case the electron beam does not make @ complete circle and the cieular path is skewed, rotate the socket ofthe tube untl the path is closed circle, This happens when the tube pointer is stat about 90° 10. Measure the diameter ofthe electron beam. This measurement has been facilitated by fixing a hollow tube on the sider of the scale. This tube fixes the line of sight during measurements. 1LNote the emmeter reading forthe current to the Helmholtz coils and the voltmeter reading for accelerating voltage . 12, Decrease the accelerating voltage by a small amount (20 volt, say) and measure the iameter of the electron beam. 13,Carry on the observations. The voltmeter reading should not be increased beyond 250 voll. A value lower than 80 volt is also not advisable, Similarly the eurent to the Helmholtz cols should not be more than 2 amp. BlTech(Common to alll/ AP-102/2+ semester Page SDepartment of Appl OBSERVATIONS : Measurement of ee cletating vo V. magne electron beam path rent Fay dict we cute Accelerating Current tothe — | Diameter of the Miarnetery | Ve Voltage (volt) | Helmholtz coils | beam path (my (m?y RESULT: em form graph eee Chg Average e/m from calculations = = oo" Chkg Standard value of e/m - 1.76 x 10" Cig. Error % 7 PRECAUTIONS 1. Range ofall meter should be properly chosen 2 Handle the apparatus caeflly and donot leave the beam ON for long periods of time, BTech(Common toall/AP-102/2 semester Page 6Department of Applied Physics 4. Observation ofthe electron beam touching the edge ofthe electron tube should e done by fat ineeasng the curren more than required, when the curvature of the electrons path is wll inside the tube, Then stat decreasing the curent and observe the curvature il touches the edge. ¥ 4. The value ofthe filament current should remain constant throughcut the experiment DISCUSSION : The main source of eor in his experiment isthe velocity of the anode to allow the eletrons to pas through i. Tis makes electrons. There is a hole in the the velocity of the electrons non unifonmand slighty less than the theoretical value Further lctrons with the helium gas inthe tube decreas their velocity a litle the collisions of the ek of the ) » a i ) » J Dit. The effect of these errors can be minimized by measuring the outer radius ) electron beam path and by not using low values ofthe accelerating voltage. , Other source of error is the measurement of the diameter ‘of the electron beam. ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) t ——————<— << rn Page 7 BTech(Common to all)/ AP-102/2 semester