CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr.

BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

NUTRITION
- This is the ability of organisms to acquire energy and materials for themselves for growth and other metabolic
processes.
- Organisms usually utilize energy to sustain their body activities such as movement, conduction of impulses,
Uptake of material, growth, etc.
Importance of nutrition.
 To provide energy for the synthesis of substances required for growth and repairs of worn out tissue.
 To provide energy used for active transportation of substances into and out of the cells against their
concentration gradient.
 To provide energy used for phagocytosis, pinocytosis, exocytosis, etc.
 To provide energy needed for mechanical work done such as muscle contraction, beating of the flagella/cilia,
peristalsis, etc.
 To provide energy needed for the maintenance of a constant body temperature in birds and mammals.
- Living organisms are divided into two main groups based on their mode of nutrition i.e. AUTOTROPHS
(CHEMOAUTOTROPHS OR PHOTOAUTOTROPHS) and HETEROTROPHS.
- Autotrophs carry out Autotrophic nutrition while heterotrophs carryout heterotrophic nutrition.
- Autotrophs are those organisms which can use inorganic carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) to produce
their own food which is later oxidized to provide energy.
- Heterotrophs are organisms that cannot manufacture their own food with the used of carbon dioxide. Thus,
they depend on the organic carbon produce by the autotrophs for their energy production.
Autotrophic nutrition
- This is a type of nutrition whereby green plants, some protoctists and certain bacteria use simple inorganic
substances such as carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen sulphide in the presence of light or other energy sources to
produce complex organic materials such as carbohydrate, organic acids, triose phosphate, etc.
- If these simple inorganic substances are converted to complex organic substances in the presence of light, then
this type of nutrition is called photosynthesis. If the source of energy needed for this conversion is from other
chemical source, then the process is called chemosynthesis. Photosynthesis is carried out by green plants,
photosynthetic bacteria, algae, etc. while chemosynthesis is carried out by some animals, some bacteria and
some fungi
CO2 + 4H2S + O2 (CH2O)n + 4S + 3H2O
Photosynthesis
 This is the process by which green plants, some photosynthetic bacteria and algae (chlorophyllous organisms)
manufacture their food usually carbohydrate, organic acids or triose phosphate with the used of simple
inorganic material such as carbon dioxide and water in the presence of light trapped by chlorophyll present in
the chloroplast with the released of Oxygen as a byproduct.
 Light is required to perform photolysis i.e. splitting of water molecules.
- As photolysis, occurs, energy is absorbed which excite electrons. The excited electrons move from their high
energy state back to the ground state.
- Energy is lost in the process and this liberated energy is used to produce ATP and NADPH2.
- Both ATP and NADPH2 are later used in the light independent reaction of photosynthesis for carbon dioxide
fixation. The overall reaction of photosynthesis is as below
CO2 + H2O (CH2O)n + O2
This overall reaction shows the process to be a simple reaction involving one step. However, this process involves
several steps with the production of many intermediates compounds not shown in the equation above.
- Sunlight is trapped by chlorophyll found in the chloroplast which is located in the palisade cell in most green-
plants.
- Chlorophyll is a photosynthetic pigment present in all green plants, algae and some bacteria which is
responsible for the absorption of sunlight energy during photosynthesis.
- It is found in the chloroplast which is a type of plastid.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- Plastids are small specialized protoplasmic bodies found in the cells of plants or algae containing pigments or
food.
- Plastids are mostly spherical or disc like in shape and each having a double membrane. The matrix of the plastid
(chloroplast) is called the stroma in which lie numerous granules called grana (granum in singular). Plastids are
of several types some of which include
 Leucoplast which are colorless plastids commonly seen in storage cells of the roots and underground stems or
parts not exposed to light. Leucoplast converts sugars to starch for storage and thus act as the site for storage.
 Chromoplast have varied colors ranging from yellow, Orange to red.
- Chromoplast are mostly present in the petals of flowers and in fruits.
- They contain xanthophyll and carotene. Since chromoplast have varied colors, different colors can
results from a combination of two or more colors.
- The main function of these colors is to attract insects to the flower to carry out pollination.
 Chloroplast is a green plastid that contains chlorophyll (the photosynthetic pigment).
Structure of Chloroplast.
- In higher plants, chloroplast is biconcave in section and circular in view. However, in
- Lower organisms, it shows varying forms e.g spiral in spirogyra, cup-shaped in Chlamydomonas, etc.
- A chloroplast is made up of a double membrane consisting of an outer and an inner membrane and contains its
own DNA.
- Between these membranes is a space called the intermembranous space.
- The inner membrane is folded into disc-like shaped sac called thylakoid (site for light dependent stage).
- The thylakoid contains chlorophyll and accessory pigments.
- Thylakoid also have a membrane called thylakoid membrane which encloses a space called thylakoid lumen.
- The thylakoids are arranged in tight stacks called grana (granum= singular).
- The grana are connected to each by lamellae.
- Within the chloroplast is a ground substance called stroma (site for the Calvin Benson cycle or the light
independent stage or dark stage.

Diagram of chloroplast.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

Photosynthetic pigments and their colours.

Photosynthetic pigments Color
Chlorophyll a Blue green
Chlorophyll b Yellow green
Xanthophyll yellow
Carotene Orange, red or purple
Phaeophytin a gray-brown
Photosynthetic pigments not found in higher plants (other photosynthetic organisms).
Pigment Color and organisms where it is found
Phycobilin (composed of phycoerythrin and Phycoerythrin (red) found in red algae
phycocyanin) Phycocyanin (blue-green) found in cyanobacteria
Phaeophytin a gray-brown found in purple bacteria and some
plant.
Bacteriochlorophyll a, b, c,d In some photosynthetic bacteria
Chlorophyll c Blue-green in brown algae.

NB; Carotene, chlorophyll b and xanthophylls are accessory pigments.

 Accessory pigments are those pigments that must pass their absorbed light energy to chlorophyll a.
Other functions of accessory pigments.
- They protect chlorophyll a from excess light.
- They protect chlorophyll from oxidation by oxygen produced during photosynthesis.
- Some accessory pigments like carotenoids found in flowers and fruits help to attract agents of pollination or
dispersal.
Under laboratory condition, the various pigments formed in green plants can be extracted by using acetone or petrol.
The extract is then separated using paper chromatography or a piece of white chalk. The separation is based on the
molecular weight of the pigment and is demonstrated as below

Most often identification of the various pigments is done by using the measurement called the relative front value. This
relative front value is a ratio of the distance moved by the spot to the distance moved by the solvent
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑝𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
RF= 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
The idea of elative front could also be used to determine the type of amino acid present in an extract. The various
pigments in the chloroplast are very important in the absorption of light. Each pigment has its own wavelength of
absorption. Chlorophyll a is the most important pigment and occur in all photosynthetic plants.
- The degree to which a pigment absorbs light is dependent on the light intensity and the wavelength of the light
that falls on it.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- The higher the light intensity, the more energy is absorbed by the said pigment.
- Also, the shorter the wavelength (ƛ), the higher the frequency of light falling on the leaf and the greater the
energy absorbed.
- Energy is contained in a single quantum called photon, when the photon of light strikes on the pigment such as
chlorophyll, blue and red light are strongly absorbed while the green light is reflected.
- This is the reasons why a leaf appears green to the human eye. The absorption of light by the pigment has led to
the notion of action spectrum and absorption spectrum
 Action spectrum is a graph showing the effectiveness of the different wavelength of light in promoting the
process of photosynthesis. It is also the graph of the rate of biological effectiveness plotted against wavelength
of light.
 Absorption spectrum is a graph showing the relative amount of light absorbed at different wavelength by a
pigment.

Blue light Red light

Action and absorption spectrum
Origin of oxygen gas eliminated during photosynthesis
- Samuel Ruben and Martin Kamen in 1941 in one of their experiments, they used water whose oxygen was
radioactively labeled i.e. H2O18 and carbon dioxide with normal oxygen i.e. CO216.
- These raw materials were provided to a plant as well as other conditions necessary for photosynthesis.
- When analysing the oxygen given off, they discovered that it was of the heavy isotope (i.e. O218) and the oxygen
in carbohydrate was of the natural type (i.e. O216)
6CO216+ 6H2O18 C6H12O616 + 6O218
- In a second experiment, instead of labelling the oxygen in water, they labelled but the oxygen in carbon dioxide
(i.e. CO218) and ensured that the oxygen in water was of the natural type (i.e. H2O16).
- When analysing the oxygen given off, they discovered that it was of the natural type (i.e. O216) while the oxygen
in carbohydrate was of the heavy type (i.e. O218)
6CO2 + 6H2O16
18
C6H12O618 + 6O216
- From these experiments, it is now clear that the source of oxygen given off during photosynthesis is from water.
- These experiment also gave a supporting fact that the water molecule usually split during photosynthesis to
liberate the oxygen gas.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

The Mechanism of photosynthesis.

- The pigment within the grana of the chloroplast are responsible for the absorption of solar energy which is later
converted to chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH2.
- This energy is later used for carbon dioxide fixation into carbohydrate in the process of photosynthesis.
- Photosynthesis is divided into two main phases i.e. the light dependent phase and the light independent phase of
photosynthesis.
- The absorption of light or solar energy is the sole role of the light dependent reactions
Light dependent reaction of photosynthesis
- The light-dependent reaction is meant to produce energy and hydrogen to be used in the light independent
reaction.
- The energy is carried in the form of ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).
- The Hydrogen is carried by a coenzyme (NADP+) which is a hydrogen carrier.
- ATP is produced from the conversion of ADP to ATP in the presence of the enzyme ATPase (ATP synthetase)
ATPASE
- ADP + Pi ATP
- The addition of a phosphate molecule to ADP is called phosphorylation and since the process is powered by
light, is called photophosphorylation.
- NADP+ is reduced by the addition of Hydrogen in a process called reduction.
- The Hydrogen comes from water by the splitting of water molecule by light in a process called photolysis.
- Oxygen is also produced during photolysis.
The mechanism of the light reaction.
- The light-dependent reaction occurs on the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast’s grana.
- There are two light harvesting centers which are involved in trapping the light in the chlorophyll molecule. These
center are called photosystem I (P700 because it absorbs light at a wavelength 700nm) and photosystem II (P680
because it absorbs light at a wavelength 680nm)
- When light strikes a chlorophyll molecule in the reaction center, the chlorophyll releases excited electrons.
- The electrons are raised to a higher energy level.
- The excited electron is then captured by an electron acceptor (carrier).
- The electrons then move from one electron carrier with a higher energy level to another with a lower energy
level. That is, moving “downhill”.
- As the electrons move from one carrier to the next, small amount of energy is lost.
- The energy lost is coupled to produce ATP.
- The flow of electrons that result in the synthesis of ATP can be cyclic or non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
Cyclic photophosphorylation.
- It involves only photosystem I.
- The excited electrons may be passed along an electron transfer chain, with each next electron carrier at a lower
energy level until the electrons return to the chlorophyll molecule it left.
- As the electrons move along the chain, from one carrier with a higher energy level, to another acceptor with a
lower energy level, energy is released.
- The released energy is used to phosphorylate ADP to ATP with inorganic phosphate (Pi) being phosphate donor.
- Since phosphorylation of ADP depends on light, it called photophosphorylation.
- The process is cyclic because the two excited electrons that were released leave chlorophyll oxidized and
unstable are the same electrons that returned to stabilize the chlorophyll molecule.
- Cyclic photophosphorylation produces only ATP
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
- It involves both photosystem I and II
- When light strikes the chlorophyll molecules on both PSI and PSII simultaneously, both become excited at the
same time.
- The excited electrons pass from PSII to an electron acceptor and move down the electron transport chain
through a series of electron carriers to PSI.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- The loss of energy leads to the synthesis of an ATP molecule.

- Excited electrons from PSI pass to a different electron carrier where they are transported to NADP+ (oxidized
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) which becomes reduced by the addition of 2H+ to form NADPH2
(reduced NADP).
- The lost electrons from PSII are replaced by electrons from water.
- Oxygen is given off to the atmosphere as a waste product which is used for respiration by the plant.
- The process is non-cyclic because the electrons lost from the PSI and PSII are not the same electrons that return
to stabilize them.
- Non-cyclic photophosphorylation produces ATP, NADPH2 and oxygen. ATP and NADPH2 are used in the light
independent reaction.
The cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation can be represented in the Z scheme of photosynthesis.
NB.
In the light dependent reaction of photosynthesis, the energy absorbed raises electron from its ground state to an
excited state with the electron having high energy value. Once light strikes a chlorophyll molecule, it become excited
and loses electron thus causing the chlorophyll molecule to be positively charge
Chlorophyll chlorophyll+ + e
It is proven that provided ATP and NADPH2 are present, photosynthesis will still occur even if the plant is place in
darkness.
ADP+ Pi
ATP

Diagram of the Z-scheme

Similarities between non-cyclic photophosphorylation and cyclic photophosphorylation.
- Both are light dependent.
- Both generate ATP.
- Both involve the transport of electrons.
- Both occur during the light reaction of photosynthesis.
- Both involve photo system I.
Differences between cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation Cyclic photophosphorylation
Path way of electron flow is non-cyclic. Path way of electron flow is cyclic
First electron donor is water. First electron donor is PSI
Last electron acceptor (destination) is NADP Last electron acceptor is PSI
Useful products include ATP and NADPH2 Useful products include ATP
Waste product include oxygen No waste product
Involves both PSI and PSII Involves on PSI

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

Phosphorylation takes place only one place Phosphorylation takes place in two places
Photolysis of water takes place No photolysis of water occurs.

Differences between photophosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation.

Photophosphorylation Oxidative phosphorylation
Occurs in the presence of light only Occurs in both light and dark conditions.
Occurs in plants only. Occurs in both plants and animals.
Occurs in chloroplast containing cell. Occurs in all cells.
No stages are involved. Occurs in stages that is, glycolysis, Krebs cycle and electron
transport system.
Forms ATP and NADPH2. Produces only ATP and water.
Energy source is light. Energy source is food.
Less ATP is synthesized. More ATP is produced.
Photosystems are involved. No photosystems are involved.
Photolysis of water occurs. No photolysis of water occurs.
Occurs in the granum/thylakoid membrane. Occurs in the inner membrane of the mitochodrion
(critae).

Role/importance/functions of NADP+ in photosynthesis.

- NADP+ is a coenzyme that serves as an electron acceptor in the electron transport system during
photophosphorylation.
- The electrons released from excited chlorophyll combine with an electron acceptor and pass down to the chain
and finally end with NADP.
- During photolysis of water, protons from the splitting of water molecule help to form reduced NADP (NADPH2).
- The reduced NADP then passes along with the electrons to the Calvin cycle.
- The reduced NADP from the light–dependent reaction is then used as electron donor to form Trios Phosphate
(T.P) from Glycerate-3-phosphate (G.P).
- NADP+ then returns to the light-dependent phase to pick up another H+.
Importance of light dependent reaction.
- Produces ATP which provides energy for the reduction of G.P to T.P.
- ATP also supplies energy for the regeneration of Ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) from T.P (PGAL).
- It produces reduced NADP which supplies the Hydrogen atoms needed to reduce G.P to T.P in the Calvin cycle.
- It produces oxygen from photolysis of water which is used by the plant for respiration.
Properties of light that makes it biologically important.
- Spectral quality (color).
- Intensity (brightness).
- Duration.
Light independent reaction of photosynthesis.
The lollipop experiment of Calvin Benson.
- The events of the light independent phase of photosynthesis was worked out by Calvin Benson and Bassham in
USA.
- Calvin made use of the apparatus called the lollipop.
- A lollipop is a thin transparent vessel containing a suspension of a unicellular algae e.g chlorella
- Carbon dioxide labeled with radioactive 14C was then bubbled through the suspension of the chlorella in the
“lollipop” that is well illuminated (lighted).
- The plant chlorella was then allowed to photosynthesize for a certain period of time after being given the labeled
CO2.
- The chlorella was then rapidly killed in hot methanol to inactivate all the enzymes and stop the reaction instantly.
- The radioactive compounds which were formed were extracted from the plant and separated by paper
chromatography.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- Auto radiographs were made and the radioactive substances identified from their relative front values.
- Fractions of the algae were extracted from time to time and rapidly killed in hot methanol.
- The plant is killed at intervals after the initial fixation of CO2, from few seconds to several minutes.
- After only 5 seconds of bubbling the radioactive carbon dioxide with the radioactive carbon-14 (C14), glycerate-3-
phosphate was detected.
- After a minute of exposure, many sugars, organic acids such as amino acids were detected.
- By identifying the different intermediates formed after different periods of time, the pathway through which
carbon compounds are built was established.

The lollipop
Stages of the light independent reaction in C3 plants (Events of the Calvin Cycle)
- The reaction of the Calvin cycle occurs in the stroma of chloroplast with or without the presence of light.
- For this reaction to occur, ATP and NADPH2 must be present.
- The first stage is the fixation (combination) of Carbon dioxide to a Carbon dioxide acceptor, Ribulose
biphosphate (RuBP) which is a five carbon compound to form an unstable six carbon intermediate compound.
- This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase oxygenase (RuBISCO) using ATP from
the light-dependent reaction.
- The six carbon compound breaks down to form two molecules of glycerate-3-phosphate (G.P) or phosphoglyceric
acid (PGA) which is a three carbon compound.
- The next stage is the reduction (conversion) of G.P to Triose phosphate (T.P) or Phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL)
using ATP and NADPH2 (reduced NADP) from the light-dependent reaction.
- ATP provides energy for reducing G.P while NADPH2 provides the hydrogen atom that reduces G.P to T.P.
- The reduction of G.P uses only part of ATP and all of NADPH2 from light-dependent reaction.
- There is also the regeneration of RuBP from T.P. Of the 12 molecules of T.P produced from 6 molecules of CO2
that enter the Calvin cycle, 10 T.P molecules are used to regenerate carbon dioxide acceptor, RuBP with the use
of the remaining ATP from the light-dependent reaction.
- The remaining T.P molecules (two) are used to form a hexose sugar that polymerizes to form different
disaccharides and polysaccharides.
NB; G.P is considered as the first measurable product of photosynthesis which is a three carbon compound. Thus, plants
whose first stable products of photosynthesis are a three carbon compound are called C3 plants.
Synthesis of Carbohydrate
- Triose phosphate can be synthesized into hexose sugars such as glucose and fructose by the reverse process of
glycolysis.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- Glucose and fructose may combine to form the disaccharide sucrose which is transported throughout the plant in
the phloem.
- Glucose may be polymerized into starch for storage or polymerize into cellulose.
Synthesis of protein.
- Some triose phosphate can be converted to amino acids.
- Glycerate phosphate is converted to acetyl CoA and shuttle into the Krebs cycle.
- The source of nitrogen in the production of amino acid is from ammonium (NH4) or nitrates (NO3).
- These ammonium or nitrates play a role in converting intermediate compound of the kreb cycle to amino acids
e.g. NH3 combine with α-ketoglutarate in the presence of NADH to give glutamic acid.
- This reaction is described as transamination reaction. Similarly, Aspartic acid is formed from oxaloacetic acid
Synthesis of Lipid
- Lipids are made from fatty acid and glycerol.
- Triose phosphate is easily converted into glycerol.
- Glycerate phosphate enters the glycolysis pathway and is converted to an acetyl group which is added to
coenzyme A to form the acetyl CoA.
- The acetyl CoA is then converted through a series of pathways involving enzymes and acetyl CoA to give fatty
acids in both the chloroplast and the cytoplasm.
- Glycerol combines with the fatty acids to form triglycerate lipid.
Differences between light-dependent reaction and light independent
Light-dependent reaction. Light independent reaction.
Occurs in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast. Occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast.
Requires light. Does not require light.
Light energy causes the flow of electrons through electron No electron.
carriers.
Photolysis occurs i.e light splits water molecule into No photolysis.
hydrogen ions and oxygen.
Products are ATP, NADPH2 and oxygen. Products are carbohydrate, protein and fat.
Does not require enzymes and thus independent on Require enzymes, thus dependent on temperature.
temperature
- It has been proven that RuBP carboxylase is not very specific to carbon dioxide because at very low carbon
dioxide concentration the enzyme instead picks up oxygen and carries out a fixation that result to a 3 carbon
compound called triose phosphate and a two carbon compound called glycolate. This situation is called
photorespiration
Photorespiration
- This is a wasteful process whereby RuBICO fixes oxygen instead of carbon dioxide to RuBP to give a triose
phosphate and a glycolate in some plants such as rice, wheat, oats etc.
- The environmental conditions that promote photorespiration include hot, dry and bright day. Plants usually close
their stomata on such days to reduce excess water loss.
- As stomata close, photosynthesis soon uses up all the available CO2 and the concentration of oxygen increases
within the leaf’s air spaces.
- Photorespiration occurs because RuBISCO can catalyze the fixation of both CO2 and oxygen to RuBP when the
concentration of one is higher than the other.
- RuBISCO will act as an oxygenase or carboxylase depending on the concentration of CO2 and oxygen within the air
spaces of the leaf. When CO2 concentration is high, RuBISCO fixes CO2 and the Calvin cycle occurs. When oxygen
concentration is high, RuBISCO fixes oxygen and photorespiration occurs.
- In normal concentration of CO2 RuBISCO catalyses the fixation of CO2 to RuBP to form 2 T.P molecules, in low
CO2 concentration, RuBISCO catalyses the fixation of oxygen to RuBP to form one Triose phosphate and one
glycolate (a 2 carbon compound)

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- The glycolate diffuses out of the chloroplast into other organelles called peroxisomes. Here, there is a series of
reactions that convert glycolate into the amino acid glycine. Glycine then move into the mitochodria and is
converted to another amino acid (serine) with the release of CO2.
- Photorespiration uses up NADPH2 and ATP that was produced from the light dependent reaction similar to the
Calvin Benson Cycle. Photorespiration instead undoes the Calvin cycle by releasing CO2 instead of fixing CO2 to
form carbohydrate.
- Photorespiration can drain away about 50% of CO2 fixed by the Calvin cycle.
- Unlike cellular respiration, photorespiration does not produce ATP, and unlike photosynthesis, it does not
produce Carbohydrate.
 To overcome this problem, certain tropical plants have adapted a new way of carbon fixation called the C4
fixation and these plants are called C4 plants.
Differences between photorespiration and cell respiration.
Photorespiration. Cell respiration.
Occurs in the chloroplast, peroxisomes and mitochondria. Occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria.
Occurs only in plants. Occurs in both plants and animals.
End products, glycerate-3-phosphate and glycolate. End products CO2, and water, ethanol, lactic acid and ATP.
No AtP produced. ATP produced
Starting materials, RuBP and Oxygen. Starting materials, glucose and Oxygen
Wasteful process. Useful process.
Occurs during bright hot days. Occurs at all times.

C4 PLANTS
These are plants whose first measurable product of photosynthesis is a four carbon organic acids such as aspartate,
oxaloacetate, malate, etc. Example of C4 plants include maize, cane sugar, sorghum, millet, etc.
Structure of the leaf of a C4 plant (characteristics of C4 plants).
- The first stable product of photosynthesis in C4 plant is a four carbon compound.
- The leaf of C4 plants consists of two rings of cells found around the vascular bundle.
- The inner ring called the bundle sheath cells and the outer ring is called the mesophyll cells.
- This characteristic anatomy in the leaves of C4 is called the kranz anatomy
- The chloroplasts in the bundle sheath cells are different from those in the mesophyll cell. Thus they are called
dimorphic chloroplasts.
- The chloroplast in the bundle sheath cells lack grana, so no light reaction occurs here. Thus, they are adapted to
prevent photorespiration.
- The carbon dioxide acceptor in the outer mesophyll cells is phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP) (3 carbon compound)
while the carbon dioxide acceptor in the inner bundle sheath cells is RuBP.
- The enzyme that catalyzes the fixation of CO2 in the mesophyll cells is phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase.
- PEP carboxylase is more efficient than RuBICO in C3 for two reasons;
 It has a much higher affinity for CO2 than RuBICO.
 It is not competitively inhibited by oxygen
- In C4 plants, there is double fixation of carbon dioxide i.e. first in outer mesophyll cell and the second in the inner
bundle sheath cells.
Carbon dioxide fixation in C4 plants (the Hatch slack pathway).
- In C4 plants, Carbon dioxide fixation first occurs in the outer mesophyll cells where CO2 is fixed to the carbon
dioxide acceptor, PEP (a 3 carbon compound) to form a 4 carbon compound called Oxaloacetic acid or
Oxaloacetate (OAA) using ATP from the light reaction.
- This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme PEP carboxylase.
PEP carboxylase
- PEP + CO2 OAA.
- Oxaloacetate then reduced by NADPH2 to form malate.
- This is catalyzed by malate dehydrogenase.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- Malate then enters (is shunted into) the bundle sheath cell with the used of ATP where it undergoes
decarboxylation and dehydrogenation resulting to the liberation of CO2 and H2 atoms as well as the formation of
pyruvate.
- In the bundle sheath cells, there is refixation of CO2 by RuBP carboxylase to convert RuBP to G.P which is later
converted t triose phosphate.
- The H2 is used to reduce NADP+ to regenerate NADPH2 which acts as reducing agent.
- Pyruvate returns to the mesophyll cells to regenerate the carbon dioxide acceptor (PEP) with the used of ATP.
- In the bundle sheath cells, the normal Calvin cycle occurs and there is no oxygen to compete with CO2, thus
making the process more efficient and more yields are produced.

CO2 fixation in C4 plants

Differences between C3 and C4 plants
Structural differences
C4 plants. C3 plants.
Palisade mesophyll cells are arranged in a ring around the Palisade mesophyll cells are arranged perpendicular to the
bundle sheath cells upper epidermis
Bundle sheath cells have chloroplasts Bundle sheath cells lack chloroplast
Mostly monocot (maize, sugar cane etc) Mostly dicot (ground nut, beans, pear tree etc.)

Functional differences
C4 plant C3 plant
First product of photosynthesis is a four carbon compound First product of photosynthesis is a three carbon (triose
(oxaloacetate) phosphate)
Has high rate of photosynthesis Has a low rate of photosynthesis
Light intensity for maximum rate of photosynthesis is high Light intensity for maximum rate of photosynthesis is low
Compensation point occur around zero Compensation point occur between 40-60 ppm (part per
million)
Less amount of water loss per gram of dry mass produced Much water is loss per gram of dry mass produced
Occur in the tropics where the temperature is high Occur in the temperate zone where the temperature is
low
No photorespiration occur Photorespiration do occur

Differences between mesophyll cell chloroplast and bundle sheath cell chloroplast in C4 plants

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

Mesophyll chloroplast Bundle sheath chloroplast

Have a large grana Have no grana
it is the site for light dependent reaction It is the site for light independent reaction
Produce much ATP, NADPH2 and oxygen Produce little ATP, NADPH2 and oxygen
Carbon dioxide acceptor is PEP. Carbon dioxide acceptor is RuBP.
Has PEP carboxylase for CO2 fixation Has RuBP carboxylase for CO2 fixation
Little starch is produced Possess abundant starch grains

Advantages/importance significance of C4 plants.

- C4 photosynthesis occurs efficiently at very low CO2 concentration and at high light intensity.
- In normal conditions, C4 plants make more glucose per unit area of a leaf and grow quicker than C3 plants, thus
they have higher yields.
- They can withstand higher light intensity and temperature.
- Concentration has no effect on C4 plants this is because;
 No photorespiration.
 PEP carboxylase does not accept oxygen.
 PEP carboxylase is not competitively inhibited by oxygen.
CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) plants
- These are succulent plants adapted to very arid conditions such as desert or areas of dry climate with prolonged
drought.
- These plants preserve water by only opening their stomata at night and closed them during the day.
- During the night, they fix CO2 in the mesophyll cells to PEP using PEP carboxylase to form Oxaloacetate which is
converted to malate and stored in the large vacuoles of the mesophyll cells of CAM plants until the next day
(malate acts as a CO2 store).
- During the day, malate (malic acid) is transported to the bundle sheath chloroplasts, where the malate is
decarboxylated and PEP is regenerated.
- The released CO2 is the used in the Calvin cycle when NAPH2 and ATP are available from the light reactions.
 This allows photosynthesis to occur on hot, dry sunny days even though their stomata are closed.
- CAM plants can conserve water efficiently and are able to survive in very dry conditions, but they do not
photosynthesize very efficiently because carbon dioxide fixation is limited at night.
- Where there is abundant water, CAM plants cannot compete well with C3 and C4 plants.

NB.
- CAM plants and C4 plants have a similar metabolism in that, CO2 is first incorporated into organic acid before they
enter the Calvin cycle. However, in Cam plants, the initial CO2 fixation and the Calvin cycle occur at separate
times ( initial fixation takes place at night, while the Calvin Cycle takes place during the day), whereas in C4
plants, the initial fixation and the Calvin cycle are separated structurally (i.e the initial fixation takes place in the
mesophyll cells while the Calvin cycle takes place in the bundle sheath cells) but both occur during the day.
- Whether the plant is a C3, C4 or CAM plant, all plants undergo the Calvin cycle.
Measurement of the rate of photosynthesis
- The rate of photosynthesis can be determined by measuring the volume of carbon dioxide taken in per unit time
or the amount of carbohydrate produced per unit time or the volume of oxygen given off per unit time .
- Under laboratory condition, the amount of oxygen given off during photosynthesis is used to give an estimate of
the rate of photosynthesis.
- In the experiment, an Elodea plant is used. Elodea plant is a sea weeds normally seen growing in the ocean and is
capable of photosynthesizing in water.
An experiment to measure the rate of photosynthesis.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- The apparatus needed to measure the rate of photosynthesis of the water plant Elodea (Canadian pond weed) is
shown below.

- A freshly cut strand of an Elodea plant is suspended upside down in a weak solution of sodium hydrogen
carbonate (NaHCO3), which acts as a source of CO2.
- In these conditions a healthy elodea plant produces bubbles of oxygen gas when illuminated. The bubbles
emerge from the cut end of the stem and are collected in the bulb at the base of the apparatus. From here the
oxygen can be drawn into the capillary tube by the use of a syringe.
- The volume of gas collected in a fixed time interval gives a direct measurement of the rate of photosynthesis.
- The effect on different light intensity can be investigated by moving the light source closer to or further away
from the apparatus.
- The light intensity reaching the Elodea plant is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the
source of illumination. That is, doubling the distance between the plant and the lamp does not halve the light
intensity received by the plant but quarters it.
- Also, the effect of temperature can be investigated by changing the temperature of the surrounding water.
Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis
- The rate of photosynthesis is affected by both the external and internal factors.
- The external factors include: light intensity, CO2 concentration, temperature, wind velocity, amount of water and
mineral salt.
- Internal factors includes the type and concentration of photosynthetic pigment, enzymes, water content, leaf
structure, and their position.
Limiting factors
- A limiting factor is a factor that is nearest its minimum value that can prevent/slow down or limit a chemical
reaction from proceeding even when other factors are at their maximum value.
- In other words, a limiting factor is a factor nearest to its minimum value that determines the rate of reaction and
that any change in the concentration of this factor will lead to a change in the rate of reaction.
- In photosynthesis, light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature act as the limiting factors.
Light intensity.
- When light intensity is very low such as in the dark, Photosynthesis does not occur and light intensity becomes
the limiting factor.
- Inadequate light intensity will not excite electrons in chlorophyll so no ATP and NADPH2 will be produced
- Increasing light intensity also increase, the rate of photosynthesis up to an optimum level. Above this optimum
level, further increase in light intensity will no longer increase the rate of photosynthesis because other factors
such as CO2 concentration and temperature may become limiting.
- High light intensity bleaches chlorophyll and slows down the rate of photosynthesis.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

CO2 concentration.
- If a plant has optimum light intensity and temperature, the limiting factor of photosynthesis will be CO2
concentration.
- An increase in CO2 concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis up till an optimum level. Above this
concentration, further increase will lead to no corresponding increase in the rate of photosynthesis as enzyme
concentration becomes limiting.
Temperature.
- The Calvin cycle is temperature dependent since the reactions in this stage are catalyzed by enzymes.
- Provided light intensity and CO2 concentration are not limiting, the rate of photosynthesis will increase
proportionately with increase in temperature.
- The minimum temperature for which photosynthesis can occur in most plants is 00C although some arctic and
alpine can still carryout photosynthesis below this temperature though the rate is very low.
- At low temperature enzyme activities are limited; thus the formation G.P and T.P is reduced.
- The rate of photosynthesis roughly doubles for each 100C rise in temperature up till an optimum temperature
which can vary from specie to species. The optimum temperature in most plants is 250C, above this, further
increase will lead to leveling of the graph and falling since enzymes are denatured

Graph
- From the above graph, initially the rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional to light intensity. As light
intensity increases, it gets to a point where the plant does not exchange gaseous material with the atmosphere.
- This point is called the compensation point and the time taken to reach the compensation point is called the
compensation period.
 Compensation point is a point at which the rate of the uptake of carbon dioxide by a plant during
photosynthesis is equal to the rate of oxygen uptake during respiration. It indicates that the rate of
photosynthesis is equal to that of respiration.
- After the compensation point, further increase in light intensity results to a proportionate rise in the rate of
photosynthesis until it reaches the saturation point at X where the graph levels off.
- Shaded leaves have a shorter compensation period than leaves that are exposed to sunlight. This is an adaptation
to make shaded leaves manufacture their own food with the limited amount of light available. Shaded leaves
make efficient use of sunlight at low light intensity.

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

- A rise in the concentration of carbon dioxide to about 0.13% will lead to an increase in the rate of photosynthesis
up to a point where carbon dioxide is no longer the limiting factor as in Y. The low carbon dioxide concentration
in the atmosphere has led to the evolution of the C4 plants.
- At point Z, increasing the temperature will lead to a proportionate increase in the rate of photosynthesis now
showing that temperature is the new limiting factor. However, change in temperature has little effects on the
reaction of the light dependent phase. This is because the reactions are driven by light and not heat.
Adaptation of the leaves to the process of photosynthesis
- The leaves are arranged in a mosaic pattern i.e. in such a way as to minimize shading.
- The leaves have a large surface area for absorption of light and are held perpendicularly to the rays of the sun
during the day to expose in order to provide a maximum surface area for absorption of light. Some plants move
their leaves so that it can be perpendicularly facing the sun.
- The leaves are thin and this reduces the distant through which gases have to move thus increasing the rate of
photosynthesis.
- The cuticle and epidermis are transparent to allow light through them to the photosynthetic mesophyll and
palisade cells.
- The palisade mesophyll cells have packets of chloroplast that are arranged perpendicularly to the epidermal cells.
They are closely packed though a small intercellular space still occurs. This allows light to be absorbed for
photosynthesis.
- The chloroplast within the palisade cells moves and this enables them to have a good orientation for maximum
absorption of light.
- The leaves have numerous stomata at the lower epidermis which opens for the diffusion of gases and are
concentrated in the lower epidermis to prevent a lot of water loss. The stomata close and opens to regulate the
passage of water vapor.
- The spongy mesophyll cells have many air spaces that permits easy movement of gases within the leaf. The gas
does not diffuse from cell to cell but easily passes through these air spaces.
- The leaf has a central mid rib which contain phloem and xylem vessels that evacuate end products of
photosynthesis and supply water and mineral salt to the leaf for photosynthesis.
- The veins are ramified through the entire leaf making sure that every cell of the leaf is supply by these vessels.
- The arrangement of the midribs and veins also provides support to the leaves

Cross section of a dicot leaf.

Chemosynthesis.

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- The production of organic molecules such as Carbohydrate from simple inorganic molecules such CO2 and water
using energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds such as hydrogen sulphide, ammonium etc.
- Organisms which carryout such nutrition are called chemoautotrophs e.g iron-oxidizing bacteria.

Differences between chemosynthesis and photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis Chemosynthesis
Carried out by chlorophyllous organisms (plants, algae, Carried out by bacteria
some bacteria).
Uses chlorophyll and other photosynthetic pigments. No pigments involved.
Source of hydrogen is water. Source of hydrogen is hydrogen sulphide.
Occurs in the chloroplast. Occurs in the cytoplasm of bacteria.
uses sunlight as source of energy Energy derived from oxidation of in organic molecule
such as hydrogen sulphide.
Oxygen produced. Oxygen used up for oxidation of organic molecules

Mineral needed for plants growth

- Some minerals are required for the process of photosynthesis in plants, consequently if they are absent, the
plant will be unable to photosynthesize.
- While some of the minerals are needed in greater quantity (macro-nutrients), others are needed in small
quantity (micro-nutrients or trace elements)
Macro-nutrients
Nitrogen:
- It is absorbed by plants in the form of ammonium or nitrates. Leguminous plants have symbiotic bacteria that
convert atmospheric nitrogen to soil nitrate.
- The nitrogen is used to build up amino acids, nucleic acids, chlorophyll, etc.
 Deficiency will lead to stunted growth and chloresis i.e. yellowing of the leaf due to inadequate production of
chlorophyll)
Phosphorus:
- It is absorbed by plants in the form of phosphates.
- It is needed for the synthesis of nucleic acids, ATP, phospholipids a component of the cell surface membrane.
- It promotes nuclear division and cell division.
- It promotes the maturity and ripening of fruits.
- It also promotes the development of the root system.
 Deficiency will affect all processes that require ATP. Consequently, there shall be poor growth especially in the
root and of course reduction in the uptake of minerals by active transport
Potassium:
- It is absorbed in the soil in the form of potassium ions. Large amount of potassium ions is found in the green
plants.
- It activates enzymes for optical activities and also necessary for the transportation in the phloem.
 Deficiency of potassium leads to yellow and brown margin of the leaves as well as premature death.
Calcium:
- It is absorbed in the form of calcium ions from the soil.
- It binds adjacent cells to each other through the middle lamellae.
 Deficiency lead to chloresis of young leaves and poor growth of adult leaves
Magnesium:
- It is absorbed from the soil in the form magnesium ions.
- It is used to manufacture chlorophyll in green plants and activates enzymes activities.
 Deficiency leads to chloresis

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Sulphur:
- It is absorbed from the soil in the form of sulphate.
- It is used in the production of amino acids e.g. cysteine and methionine.
Sodium and chlorine: similar to potassium

Micro-nutrient or trace elements

Iron
- It is absorbed from the soil in the form of ferrous ions. Ferrous ions are present in the cytochrome.
- In the light phase of photosynthesis, cytochrome act as electron carriers resulting to the transportation of
electron that ends up producing ATP and NADPH2 in the photophosphorylation reactions.
- It is needed for the synthesis of chlorophyll though it is not found in the final chlorophyll molecule.
- It may be associated with other plastids.
- It is also present in the protoplasm and chromatin of the nucleus.
Manganess:
- It is found in the decarboxylase and dehydrogenase. It equally acts as hydrogen donor to NADP.
Copper:
- It is present in a number of oxidase enzymes and in plastocyanin that act as electron carriers in photosynthesis
Zinc: it is present in the enzyme carbonic anhydrase.
Boron: essential for meristematic activities and growth of pollen tubes
Molybdenum: Necessary for nitrogen fixation and activationof nitrate reductase.

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HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
- This is a type of nutrition where organisms are able to feed on already made organic materials.
- They breakdown complex organic material into simpler forms which could be used to provide energy.
- There are three main forms of heterotrophic nutrition i.e. saprotrophic, parasitic and holozoic nutrition.
Saprotrophic nutrition.
- It is a form of heterotrophic nutrition where saprotrophs e.g some bacteria and fungi feed on complex organic
matter obtained from the bodies of dead plants and animals or their products, with the release of nutrients like
CO2 water, and ammonia into the environment.
- Ammonia is later converted to soil nitrate by nitrifying bacteria.
- Saprotrophs secrete enzymes unto the complex organic matter which digest the food externally (extracellular
digestion) to produce simple absorbable molecules which are absorbed into the body of the saprotroph.
Importance of saprotrophs.
- Help in the recycling of nutrients such as Carbon, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, etc.
- Used in brewing and baking e.g yeast (Saccharomyces).
- Production antibiotics e.g penicillin from fungus Penicillium.
- Production of dairy products e.g yoghurt and cheese.
- Waste decomposition such as sewage.
- Industrial processing e.g production of vitamins, tanning of leather.
- Act as food source.
Parasitic nutrition (parasitism)
- It is carried out by living organisms called parasites e.g tape worm, plasmodium etc.
- Parasites live in or on the body of another living organism of different species, called the host, deriving food and
sometime shelter from it, and causing harm to it.
Advantages of parasitic mode of life.
- It has a constant supply of food.
- There is no need to store food.
- It has a relatively constant environment that is, it is protected from harsh climate.
- It is protected from predation
- There is degeneration of many unuseful body systems giving it a simple structure that requires little energy to
maintain itself and permit rapid development.
How parasites are adapted to their parasitic mode of life.
- They show degeneration or total loss of unwanted organs eg tape worm lack digestive system, lack locomotory
structures etc.
- Many parasites have attachment devices to enable them cling on their host e.g Taenia solium has hooks for
attachment unto the walls of the intestine.
- Some parasites have penetrative devices to enable them gain access into their host e.g some parasitic bacteria
produce enzymes called aggressins, which dissolve connective tissues facilitating their entrance into their host.
- Gut parasites possess protective devices, which protect them from being digested by the host’s digestive system
e.g presence of thick cuticle, secretion of large amount of mucus, production of inhibitor substances which
inactivate the host’s digestive enzymes.
- Some produce substances that protect them against the host’s immune system by switching off the host’s
immune system.
- Some parasites have intermediate hosts that permit them to be dispersed.
- Some parasites have dormant or resistant phases to permit survival outside the host.

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Differences between saprotrophs and parasites.

Parasites Saprotrophs.
Energy derived from living organisms. Energy derived from dead organisms.
Very specific to their host Have a variety of food sources.
Many stages in life cycle Usually a single adult stage plus spore.
Very adapted to its nutritional mode of life Simple method of nutrition.
Represented by most plant and animal groups Almost totally bacteria and fungi.
Most are aerobic Are aerobic and anaerobic

Holozoic nutrition
- It involves the intake of complex solid organic food substances such as carbohydrate, protein and fat into the
alimentary canal and is broken down physically or chemically and absorbed along the gut.
- Physical or mechanical digestion is carried out by the teeth and muscles of the gut which break down large
complex food substances into small simpler ones while chemical digestion is carried out by enzymes.
- The food is finally assimilated in the system of the animals.
- The undigested food substances are egested.
In mammals, holozoic nutrition involves five main processes namely; ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion.
Ingestion. This is the taking in of food from the outside of the animal into the gut where it is processed.
Digestion.
 Physical and enzymatic breakdown of large, insoluble, complex organic molecules such as carbohydrates,
protein and fat into simple, soluble and absorbable end products such as glucose, amino acids fatty acid and
glycerol which can be use in metabolism.
 Physical digestion is carried out by the teeth and the muscles of the gut, which breakdown large food particles
into smaller ones with large surface area for enzyme action, while chemical digestion is carried out by enzyme.
Absorption. This is the taking of nutrients (digested products) such as amino acid, glucose, fatty acid and glycerol) from
the digestive system into the blood stream to be used by the body.
Assimilation. It the process of incorporating and using digested food substances for metabolic activities of body tissues.
Egestion. The elimination of undigested food together with dead epithelial and bacterial cells from the gut through the
anus.
Teeth and dentition in mammals.
- Dentition is the set of teeth, number, type and arrangement in the mouth of a given species of animals.
- Mammals have different types of teeth and are described as heterodonts.
- The different teeth present in mammals from front to the back are; incisors canines, premolars and molars.
Incisors. They are sharp and chisel-like in shape for cutting and biting of food. They lie at the centre of the jaw bone.
Canines. They are conical with sharp pointed tips. When present, lie on either side of the group of incisors.
- They are poorly developed in humans but well developed in carnivores.
- They are used for seizing prey, piercing and tearing of flesh.
Premolars. They are arranged in rows on either side of the jaw bones.
- They possess one or two roots two cusps (projections on the surface of the tooth)
- They are specialized for crushing and grinding food.
Molars. Upper molars have three roots while lower ones have three roots with each having four to five cusps.
- They are used for crushing and grinding food.
- They are absent in deciduous teeth.
The number and type of teeth present in the mouth can be represented in an equation called the dental formula.
The number, size and shape of teeth is related to diet.

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Carnivores 2[I3/3 C 1/1 Pm 4/4 M 2/3] = 42

Pig 2[I3/3 C1/1 Pm 4/4 M 3/3] =44
Rat 2[I 1/1 C0/0 Pm 0/0 M 3/3] =16
Guinea pig 2[I 1/1 C0/0 Pm 1/1 M 3/3] =20
Man 2[I 2/2 C 1/1 Pm 2/2 M 3/3] =32
- In man, there are two sets of teeth i.e. the milk and the permanent teeth.
- Man has a heterodont dentition.
- The milk teeth are replaced by the permanent teeth as from the age of 5 years. The last sets of teeth to come out
are called wisdom teeth.
- In rodent, the incisor has opens root. This enables the incisors to grow continuously. This growth enables the
replacement of worn out teeth due to grinding.
Generalized structure of a tooth.
- All teeth have the same basic structure and consist of the following regions.
The crown. The visible part of the tooth which is covered by the enamel which is the hardest substance in the body.
The neck. The junction between the crown and the root. It is surrounded by the gum.
Root. The part that is buried into the socket of the jaw bones.
All incisors and canine have one root each while pre molars and molars have two to three roots each though some
premolars have one root.
- A vertical section of a tooth shows the enamel which is the outermost.
- Beneath the enamel is a hard bone-like substance but not as hard as the enamel called dentine.
- The dentine forms the bulk of the tooth and has many small canals (canaliculi) containing cytoplasmic extensions
of dentine-producing cells called odontoblasts.
- Below the dentine is the pulp cavity that contains odontoblasts, nerve endings and blood vessels which supply
the living tissues of the tooth with nutrients and carry away wastes.
- The root is covered with cement which is a bone-like substance.
- Many fibers are connected to the cement on one end and the jaw bone at the other end to hold the tooth firmly
in place. Though the tooth is still able to move slightly in other to reduce the chances of being sheared off during
chewing.

Diagram of a molar and incisor tooth

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

DIGESTION IN THE GUT OF MAN

General plan of the alimentary Canal
- The alimentary canal is a tube that runs from the mouth to the anus.
- Although each region in the gut has its own special characteristics, all have a basic common structure. This is
composed of four layers, that is starting from the inside of the lumen toward the outside, mucosa, submucosa,
muscularis externa and serosa.
Mucosa. It is the innermost layer of the gut and has three layers, the epithelium, lamina propia and lamina muscularis
- It is the main absorbing and secreting layer.
- The epithelium secretes much mucus to lubricate the lumen and prevent auto digestion.
Submucosa. It is made up of connective tissues, blood and lymph vessels, collagen and elastic fibers.
Muscularis externa. This layer is made up of an inner circular and an outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle.
- Coordinated movement of these two layers bring about the wave-like peristaltic movements of the gut wall that
force food to move along and to churn it.
- There the Auerbach’s plexus between the circular and longitudinal layer which is a nervous tissue that controls
pertalsis, and also the presence of Meissner’s plexus between the circular muscle and submucosa which is a
muscular tissue that controls secretion of glands in the gut walls
Serosa.
- It is the outermost coat of the gut which is composed of loose connective fibrous tissues.
- Then whole of the outer surface of this layer is covered by the peritoneum which forms the mesenteries. The
mesenteries contain blood and lymph vessels help to keep the gut in place. There are some glands found
completely out of the gut and they include; the salivary glands and the pancreas.

Diagram of the general plan of the gut

Digestion of food in the mouth.
 Digestion is the physical and chemical breakdown of large complex organic molecules into small, simple
absorbable end products.
 Physical digestion is done by the chewing action of the teeth and the churning action of the muscles of the gut
wall while chemical digestion is carried out by the enzymes.
Digestion of food begins in the mouth and this is stimulated through various ways
- The sight of food
- Smell or scent of food
- Simple thought of eating can set on reflexes which all prepare the mouth and the rest of the alimentary canal for
digestion.
In the mouth both physical and chemical digestion occur.

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- In physical digestion, the food is broken down smaller pieces by the teeth.
- The manipulation of the tongue mixes the food with saliva and shapes the food into bolus for eventual
swallowing.
- In chemical digestion, the salivary glands secrete saliva that acts on the food. The saliva consists of mostly;
 Water, which helps to increase the surface area of the food.
 Mucoprotein help to make the food particles sticks together.
 Buffer which helps in the maintenance of a stable environment i.e. neutralizes the effect of acid so that the
environment is slightly alkaline.
 It also contains lysozyme an anti-bacteria agent which is able to digest any bacteria that enters the mouth.
 Saliva also contain the enzyme ptyalin or amylase that begins the digestion of starch, converting it to maltose.
There are three pairs of salivary glands that secrete their secretions directly into the tubular acinar. They include.
Parotid gland. It is the largest salivary gland and is located below and slightly in front of the ear. Each of these glands
are connected by duct called sternson’s duct to the mouth and opens opposite the second molar on the inside of the
cheek
Submaxillary gland it is next to parotid gland in size and is located beneath the mandible on each side of the cheek.
Their secretion are connected through the Wharton’s duct and are poured on the floor of the buccal cavity.
Sunlingual gland it is the smallest of all the glands and are located beneath the tongue and their secretions are poured
through numerous ducts on the floor of the buccal cavity.
- The tongue has various sensory organs and taste bud for sweetness/ salt which is located at the tip and central
region of the tongue.
- Taste bud for sour are located at the side of the tongue.
- Taste bud for bitter are located at the back of the tongue. These buds enables the individual to detect the aroma
or taste of the food.
- There are also nasal sense organs which can also detect the flavor of the food. Nasal sense organ can only detect
flavor or chemicals which are in volatile form.
Swallowing or deglutition
- It is the process whereby food is pushed from the oral cavity into the esophagus and then to the stomach.
- Swallowing is voluntary at the beginning but once started, it continues involuntarily to its completion.
- Contraction of the pharyngeal wall pushes the bolus or pellet into the esophagus.
- During swallowing, the larynx is raised and the glottis is covered by the epiglottis. Thus preventing food from
entering into the trachea.
- Also, breathing is momentarily stopped during swallowing.
- Food then moves from the esophagus into the stomach by peristalsis due to the alternate contraction and
relaxation of the circular and longitudinal smooth muscles of the gut.
The stomach divided into 3 regions i.e. the cardiac, the fundus and the pyloric regions.
Digestion in the stomach
- The entering of food into the stomach is guided by the cardiac sphincter and food gets to the first region where it
moves to the fundus body and later to the pyloric region.
- The outlet of the pyloric region is guided by the pyloric sphincter. The stomach has invaginations called gastric
piths leading into the gastric glands.
- The gastric glands are made up of three types of cells and each produces its own secretions.
- The arrival of food in the stomach stimulates the stomach wall to secrete the hormone gastrin into blood which
is carried back to the stomach to stimulate the gastric glands which are made up of three types of cells. That is,
Oxyntic cells or parietal cells, chief or parietal cells and mucus secreting cells which secret their various
secretions.
- Arrival of food in the stomach stimulates the contraction and relaxation of the circular and longitudinal
muscles of the stomach that helps in churning the food, mixing it with the gastric juice to form a semi liquid
called chyme.
Oxyntic cells or parietal cells secretes HCl and Intrinsic factor.

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HCl has the following in the stomach.

- Provides a comfortable PH for gastric enzyme to work well (1-2.5)
- Kills bacteria and other microbes present in food in the stomach.
- Activates enzyme from their inactive (zymogen) form to their active form e.g. pepsinogen is converted to pepsin.
Also prorennin is converted to rennin.
- Stops the action of ptyalin (salivary amylase).
- Renders Calcium and Iron salts suitable for absorption.
- Stimulates the contraction and relaxation of the pyloric sphincters.
- Denatures protein and soften fibrous connective tissue in food.
- Split nucleoprotein into nucleic acid and protein.
- Begins the hydrolysis of sucrose.
Intrinsic factors
- Helps in the absorption of vitamin B12.
The chief cell or zymogen cells secrete enzymes in their inactive forms called zymogen i.e. the secretion of pepsinogen
and prorenin.
- Once pepsinogen is activated to pepsin by HCl, it breaks down protein to polypeptides.
- Prorennin (produced only in young mammals) is also activated to rennin by HCl which solidifies, curdle or
coagulates soluble milk protein (caeseinogen) to insoluble protein (casein) in order for pepsin to act on it.
Mucus secreting cells. They secrete mucus which has the following functions.
- Mucus forms a protective layer on the stomach wall preventing auto digestion.
- It also helps to lubricate movement of food within the stomach.
NB.
- Mucus is also produced by the columnar epithelium of the stomach.
- Insufficient production of mucus will permit gastric juice to attack the mucosa leading to ulcer.
- At times the cardiac sphincter remain open hence the chyme moves in the reverse direction into the oesophagus
leading to heart burnt
The food mixes with gastric juice due to contraction of the wall of the stomach thus transforming the food into a creamy
fluid called chyme. Chyme sends reflex that causes relaxation of the pyloric sphincter hence food descends to the
duodenum (first part of the intestine).

Digestion in the duodenum

- The duodenum is about 20cm long in man.
- Arrival of the food in the duodenum stimulates its walls to secrete the hormones enterogastrone,
Cholescytokinin (CCK) and secretin.

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- Enterogastrone is carried by blood to the stomach to inhibit gastric secretions.

- CCK (Cholecystokinin) formerly called pancreazymin stimulates the pancreatic cells to secrete digestive juice or
pancreatic juice rich in enzymes.
- It also stimulates the gall bladder to release bile into the duodenum.
- Secretin stimulates the pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice. Pancreatic juice contains the following:
 Pancreatic Amylase which converts any undigested starch to maltose.
 Pancreatic lipase that converts lipid to fatty acid and glycerol.
 Trypsinogen which is converted to trypsin (its active form) by enterokinase and the alkaline nature of the
duodenum.
 Trypsin converts protein to ploypeptides.
 Nuclease that break down DNA into its constituent nucleotides.
 Carboxypeptidase which break down polypeptides into amino acids starting from the carboxyl terminal (C-
terminal).
 Aminoypeptidase which break down polypeptides into amino acids starting from the amino terminal (N-
terminal).
 Chymotrypsinogen which is converted into chymotrypsin by trypsin.
 Chymotrypsin converts any undigested protein to polypeptides.
- Bile is produced and stored in the gall bladder. Bile contains a mixture of salts e.g sodium hydrogen carbonate,
sodium glycocholate and sodium taurocholate.
- Sodium hydrogen carbonate (an inorganic salt) neutralizes the acid chyme from the stomach, while sodium
glycocholate and sodium taurocholate (both organic salts) cause the emulsification of fats converting it into
droplets thus increasing the surface area for the enzyme lipase to work on.
- The bile pigments called biliverdin and bilirubin are excretory waste from the breakdown of worn out RBC and
is partly responsible for the colour of the faeces that is egested. Bile also adds to the water content of the
chyme. In the duodenum the chyme making the chyme a more watery substance now called chyle
NB: All enzymes of the duodenum require an alkaline medium to function best. This is enhanced by the pancreatic juice
and the inorganic salt produced by the bile.
Digestion in the small intestine (ileum)
- The walls of the small intestine produce their own secretion which helps in digestion.
- They have glands called the brunner’s gland located at the crypts of lieberkuhn.
- This gland secretes mucus and sodium hydrogen carbonates which makes the environment alkalinic. The cells of
the brunner’s glands are constantly dividing and the new cells move up the side of the crypts and up to the villi.
- From here it finally moves to the tips of the villi where they are shaded and are replaced by other cells from
below. The wall of the small intestine secretes the following proteases:
 Erepsin which ends protein digestion by converting peptones and polypeptides to amino acids.
 Carboxypeptidase which break down polypeptides into amino acids starting from the carboxyl terminal (C-
terminal).
 Aminoypeptidase which break down polypeptides into amino acids starting from the amino terminal (N-
terminal).
 Dipeptidase which break down dipeptides to two amino acids.
 Nucleotidase that converts nucleotides into pentose sugars, phosphate group and the nitrogenous base.
 Maltase that converts maltose to glucose molecules.
 Sucrase that converts sucrose to glucose and fructose.
 Lactase that converts lactose to glucose and galactose.
 Lipase breaks down fat into fatty acid and glycerol.

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Absorption
 This is the taking of nutrients (digested products) such as amino acid, glucose, fatty acid and glycerol) from the
digestive system into the blood stream to be used by the body.
Mechanism of absorption.
Uptake of glucose and amino acids.
- The uptake of glucose across the cell membrane is by active transport and it is linked with the transfer of sodium
ions.
- Protein is absorbed as dipeptides or tripeptides. Protein uptake is either by facilitated diffusion involving carrier
protein or active transport.
- Peptides are transported across the membrane and later hydrolysed into free amino acids in the cytoplasm.
- Active transport requires energy which is provided by the many mitochondria present in the epithelial cell of the
ileum.
- The absorbed amino acids and glucose enter the blood capillaries of the villi and are transported to the liver
through the hepatic portal vein.
Uptake of fatty acid and glycerol.
- Glycerol and fatty acids are not carried through the hepatic portal vein rather they are carried through the
lymphatic system.
- Glycerol and fatty acids diffuse through the columnar cells of the villi where they are reconverted into fats.
Proteins found in the epithelial cells coat the lipid molecules to form lipoprotein droplets called chylomicrons.
- These pass the epithelial cells by exocytosis into lacteals (lymphatic system).
- Fats in the lymphatic system eventually enter the blood system through the left subclavian vein. In blood,
enzymes hydrolyzed the fats into fatty acids and glycerol, the form in which they are taken up by tissues for
metabolism or stored in the adipose tissue. Fatty acids and glycerol are mostly deposited in the liver, muscles,
mesenteries, etc.

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- Some fatty acid and glycerol enter the blood capillaries and go directly to the liver.
- Also extremely small emulsified droplets of fat are sufficiently water soluble to be carried to the liver as lipid.
Adaptation of the ileum for absorption.
- The ileum is ideally suited for absorption in the following ways.
- It is thin, consisting of a single layer of columnar cells which permits simple diffusion.
- The cells of the ileum contain mitochondria that permit active transport.
- The small intestine is about 5m long in human this provides a large surface area for absorption.
- The internal surface of its wall is folded (folds of kerckring) to increase the surface area for absorption.
- Its internal surface is greatly increased by tiny finger-like called villi.
- Surface area for absorption is further increased by the presence of micro villi which line the outer surface of a
villus. All of these collectively form the brush border.
- The villi are highly supplied with blood vessels and lymph capillaries called lacteals to pick up absorbed end
products of digestion and transport them immediately away from the gut.
The large intestine or colon
- The ileum opens into the large intestine at the caecum.
- The caecum is elongated at one end to form the appendix which has no function in man but since it contains
lymphocytes, it functions in immunity.
- The first part of the large intestine consist of the colon and is made up of columnar epithelial cells having many
mucus secreting cells.
- The main function of the colon is for absorption of water and some inorganic salts e.g. calcium salt.
- The mucus lubricates the food. Some bacteria e.g. E. coli, present in the colon help to produce vitamin K, folic
acids, and at times vitamin B and Biotin. Some of the bacteria also produce amino acids. All of these products
are absorbed from the colon into the blood stream.
- Once all of these have been absorbed, the feces become semi soluble. The composition of feces includes;
undigested waste product, death bacteria, cellulose, plant fibers, death mucosa cells, mucus, bile pigments and
small amount of water.
- The feces can stay in the colon for about 36 hours after which it is sent to the rectum for temporal storage.
- The rectum leads to the anus.
- The anus has two sphincter muscle, the inner one has smooth muscle which is under the control of the
autonomic nervous system, the outer one has striated muscle and is under the voluntary control
NB:
- Food intake is controlled by two centers in the hypothalamus in the brain i.e. hunger and satiety centers.
- Stimulation of the hunger center causes the individual to search for food and stimulation of the satiety center
inhibits the individual from looking for food.
- The glucose level of blood affects both centers.
- Intake of food is determined by the strength of reflex in the alimentary canal. Physiological state or conscious
habit of the individual.
How auto-digestion of the gut lining is prevented.
- The gut lining is often thicker than that of other system and is constantly and rapidly being replaced.
- The goblet cells secrete large quantity of mucus that coat the entire lining of the gut which lubricates food and
protects the gut against enzyme action.
- Most protein digesting enzyme are only secreted in inactive (zymogen) form, e.g pepsinogen which becomes
active only in the presence of food in the stomach.
- Enzymes are only produced or released once food arrives in a given region of the gut.
Assimilation.
- It the process of incorporating and using digested food substances for metabolic activities of body tissues.
- Glucose, amino acids, fatty acid and glycerol are all end products of digestion.
- Glucose is broken down to release energy; excess is stored in the liver and skeletal muscles as glycogen.

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- Amino acids are used to make protein for growth and repair of damaged tissues; excess amino acids are not
stored in the body but deaminated (broken down) in the liver.
- Fats are used for energy production in the body; excess fats are stored in the adipose tissues in the dermis of the
skin, or around delicate organs such as the heart, kidneys etc., they protect these organs from physical injury.

Human digestive system

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 CONCISE A. LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES BY Mr. BONG-AKA BIG BROTHER

Digestion in herbivores.
- Herbivores are organisms that feed exclusively on plant materials.
- Herbivores can either be ruminants or non-ruminants.

Diagram showing the mouth of a sheep

Digestion of cellulose in ruminant eg sheep, goat, cow, antelope etc.

- Ruminant are animals with a complicated digestive system, having a four chambered stomach.
- The chambers are rumen (first chamber), reticulum (second chamber), omasum (third chamber) and
abomasum (fourth chamber).
- The grass is cut using their sharp, chisel like incisors and send into the mouth.
- The food is chewed with the used of the pre-molars and the molars and later swallowed into the oesophagus.
- The diastema helps to separate the freshly cut grass from the already chewed grass.
- In the oesophagus, the food descends into the rumen or paunch.
- The rumen acts as a fermentation chamber.
- Food mixed with saliva is fermented by mutualistic microorganisms such as bacteria, protozoans and fungi
producing carboxylic acids mainly ethanoic acids, propanoic acids, butanoic acids as well as carbon dioxide and
methane.
- These carboxylic acids are absorbed within these chambers providing primary source of energy to the rumenant.
- These microorganisms also secrete cellulase (β-amylase) which converts cellulose into cellobiose (a
disaccharide) and then to glucose.
- At times microorganisms use these end products together with mucus and saliva from their host to produce
particular fatty acids and amino acids for their own consumption.
- The partially digested food is then sent to the reticulum (second chamber) where it is moulded into round bollus
of cud and is regurgitated back into the mouth where it is thoroughly chewed.
- This is referred to as rumination or chewing the cud. Rumination occur when the animal is at rest (leisure).
- After rumination, the food is then swallowed again where it moves into the third chamber (omasum) where
physical digestion occurs (churning) and later into the fourth chamber.
- The third chamber screens the pellets that descend down into the abomasum (the fourth chamber).
- From the abomasum which the true stomach, chemical digestion continues just as in man.

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A four chambered stomach of a rumenant

Digestion in non-ruminants e.g. rodents such as rabbit, guinea pig, rat and a non-rodent such as a horse.
- In non-ruminants cellulose passes through the alimentary canal up to the large intestine undigested.
- This is because cellulose digesting enzymes (cellulase) is absent from the mouth to the ileum.
- Microorganisms (bacteria) that produce cellulase and carryout fermentation of cellulose are found but after the
ileum in the large intestine and caecum.
- Thus after fermentation, the food cannot reverse into the ileum.
- The animal will therefore defecate and feed on the cecotropes or caecotrphs or cecals pellets (portion of the
feces) which is rich in nutrients.
- The cecotrpes are then properly digested producing end products of digestion that are absorbed in the ileum
into the blood stream.
Structure of the gut of non-rumenants

Gut of a non-rumenant e.g rabbit

Differences between ruminants and non-ruminants
Ruminant Non ruminant
Upper incisors absent Upper incisors present
Stomach divided into four compartments; rumen, Stomach not divided into compartments.
reticulum, omasum and abomasums.
Cellulose secreting bacteria are found in the Cellulose secreting bacteria are found in the
stomach. caecum.
Caecum is small Large caecum.

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Adaptation of herbivores to their diet.

- A sheep has the dental formula as; 2[I 0/3 C 0/1 Pm 3/2 M 3/3].
- Presence of a hard horny pad which replaces the upper incisors and canines which is used for browsing or
cutting grass.
- Possess sharp chisel-like incisors for cutting grass.
- Presence of the diastema between the incisors and the premolars to separate the freshly cut grass from the
partially chewed grass.
- The cheek teeth (premolars and molars) have “M” and “W” shape surfaces for efficient grinding.
- Premolars and molars are flat broad grinding grass.
- Presence of loose joint between the skull and the lower jaw allows sideways, back and forth and up and down
movements leading to proper grinding of grass.
- The gut is relatively long for storage and efficient digestion of grass.
- Continuous growth of teeth throughout the herbivore’s life in order to gradually replace the worn out parts.
- The four chambered stomach hosts microorganisms that carryout fermentation of the grass to produce
carboxylic acids used as primary source of energy.
- Also the microorganisms produce cellulase which breaks down cellulose to cellubiose (a disaccharide of two
beta glucose) and then to glucose.
- Regurgitation of food ensures proper grinding of grass.
Digestion in carnivores.
Adaptation of carnivores to their diet.
- Well-developed canines (long and pointed) for piercing, killing and tearing flesh from the body.
- Sharp and pointed incisors for nipping and biting prey.
- Presence of sharp pointed cusps on the molars and premolars and presence of carnassal teeth for shearing
(cutting) flesh.
- The teeth of the upper jaw tend to overlap those of the lower jaw permitting the carnassal teeth to slide past
each other in order to slice meat into smaller pieces.
- They have well developed and powerful jaw muscles for gripping of prey firmly.
- There is no lateral jaw movement as in herbivores this minimizes easy dislocation of jaw bones when trying to
grip a struggling prey.
- They are fast moving to capture prey.
- Powerful peristaltic movements to swallow large chunks of meat.
- Well-developed sense of smell, to smell prey.
- Relatively short gut since most of the food is made of protein which is easily digested.
- Vertical movement of the mouth is less restricted permitting a wide opening of the mouth to capture and kill
prey.
Differences between the teeth of herbivores with those of carnivores.
Herbivore teeth Carnivore teeth
Open pulp cavity in teeth. Closed pulp cavity in teeth.
Sharp chisel-like lower incisors for cutting while upper Incisors sharp and pointed for nipping and biting.
incisors are absent.
Canines small or absent leaving a gap called diastema. Well-developed canines for piercing tearing.
Carnassal teeth absent Carnassal teeth present for shearing flesh.
Cheek teeth flattened with ridges of enamel and grooves Cheek teeth pointed (cusps) adapted for shearing flesh.
of dentine for grinding.
Upper teeth meet with lower teeth to facilitate grinding. Upper jaw wider than lower jaw to ease shearing of flesh.
Do not reingest their faeces. Reingest their faeces.
e.g goat, cow, sheep, antelope etc e.g rabbit, guinea pig, horse etc

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NB:
 Liquid feeders are animals that absorbed liquid food e.g. tape worm and some insects such as butterfly, honey
bee that have sucking mouth part.
 Filter feeders feed on small suspended particles in water. These particles must have been filtered by rags in
water or algae before the animal can feed on e.g. clams, aquatic molluscs.
 Some plants traps and digest small animals e.g. butterwort, sundew, etc. here photosynthesis is supplemented
by heterotrophic nutrition
Vitamins
These are organic compounds that are non-protein molecules that have no energy value but are needed in the body in
small quantity for the normal functioning of metabolic processes and growth in the body. A deficiency of any vitamin is
manifested by a disease condition. Some vitamins are fat soluble (ADEK) while others are water soluble (B complex and
C)
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS
Vitamin Major source Functions Deficiency symptoms
Vitamin A or Retinol Orange, vegetable, It maintains the mucus membrane of Night blindness
carrot, cod liver oil, the eye and respiratory tract. It also Increase risk of infection
liver, dairy products, forms components of the visual Xerophthermia, permanent
fresh palm wine pigments (rhodopsin) blindness

Vitamin D or Liver, oily fish, dairy Functions in calcium metabolism and Ricket in children
Calciferol products, egg yolk, formation of bone. It also plays a role Oesteomalacia in adults
sunlight in phosphorus metabolism

Vitamin E or Wheat grains oil, Acts as anti-oxidant Anemia and sterility in rats
Tocopherol sunflower oil, and pea Prevents damage to phospholipid in
nut the cell surface membrane
Vitamin K or Green vegetable, tea, Blood clotting Failure to clot resulting to
phylloquinone liver, intestine Produces prothrombin excessive bleeding after
sustaining injury

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Water soluble vitamins

Vitamin Major source Functions Deficiency symptoms
Vitamin B1 or Liver, wheat, kidney, heart Acts as co enzyme in cellular Beriberi Muscle become
Thiamine respiration weak and painful.Heart
failure
Vitamin B2 or Liver, yeast extract, eggs, Acts as prosthetic group in FAD Sore tongue and mouth
riboflavin dairy products the transport electron
Vitamin B3 or Nicotinic Meat, bread, yeast Component of the coenzyme skin lesion, rashes
acids (Niacin) extract, liver NAD, NADP diarrhea
Are part of coenzyme A pellagra
Vitamin B5 or Most food Component of coenzyme A Poor nerve/muscle
pantothemicacic Involved in krebs cycle coordination
Vitamin B6 or Eggs, liver, kidney, Are converted to coenzyme Anemia. And dermatitis
pyridoxine vegetable, fish needed for amino acid and fatty
acid metabolism
Vitamin B12 or Meat, milk, egg, fish, Nucleoprotein synthesis, Pernicious anemia
cyanocobalamine cheese Prevents pernicious anemia i.e. iron deficiency anemia

Folic acid Liver, white fish, green Formation of red blood cells Anemia especially during
vegetable pregnancy
Vitamin H or Biotin Yeast, liver, kidney. Egg Involved in protein synthesis Dermatitis and muscle
white pains
Vitamin C or Ascorbic Citrus fruits, green Production of connective tissues Scurvy i.e. gum and skin
acids vegetable, potatoes, Production of collagen fibers become weak and bleeds.
tomatoes Anemia and heart failure

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