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Text=Photosynthesis.
 Photosynthesis is physico-chemical process.
 They use light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds.
 All living forms on earth depend on sunlight for energy.
 The use of energy from sunlight by plants doing photosynthesis is the basis of life on earth.
 Photosynthetic product is the primary source of all foods of earth.
 Photosynthesis is important due to two reasons:
1. It is primary source of all food on earth,
2. Release of O2

Requirement of Photosynthesis:
Form simple experiments we have done in earlier classes the photosynthesis required Green
pigments (Chlorophylls), light ,CO2 and H2O.
 Variegated leaf or a leaf that partly covered with black paper.-------Sunlight.
 Half-leaf experiment-------(A part of leaf enclosed in a test tube containing some KOH
soaked cotton (which absorbs CO2)---Exposed part of leaf +ve for starch.

Photosynthesis is the conversion of the light energy to chemical energy.

Sun

Light reaction

ATP + NADPH

Calvin reaction
CO2 Triose phosphate.

 6CO2 + 12H2O ------Pigments + Light---------->C6H12O6 + 6O2 +6H2O

 Photosynthesis----Anabolic and endothermic.
 1st photosynthetic organisms----Bacteria,
 1st oxygenic photosynthesis starts from BGA(Presence of Chl-a like green plants----Page- 19)

Early Experiments:-
Scientist Experiment Contribution
Joseph Priestley Bell Jar Experiment for the Plants restore to the air whatever
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In 1770 growth of green plant. breathing animals and burning candle

remove.
He discovered the O2 in 1774
Jan Ingenhousz 1. Similar experiments 1. Sunlight is essential to the plant
(1730- used by Priestley, by process.
1799). placing one in dark
and one in light
2. An elegant(Stylish) 2. Sun light is essential to the
experiment with an plants process that somehow
aquatic plants purifies the air fouled by burning
(Hydrilla) in the candles.
presence of bright He identified that the bubbles to be of
light O2.
Julius Von ------------ Chlorophyll is located in chloroplast,
Sachs( 1 glucose is the photosynthetic
854) product. Glucose is usually stored as
starch
T.W.Engelmann Experiment with Filamentous Rate of photosynthesis high on blue and red
(1843- green alga light of the split spectrum.
1909) [Chlorophyceae,Clad
ophora] placed in a
suspension of aerobic
bacteria. Light is
passed by prism.

Cornelius Van A milestone experiment on Hydrogen from a suitable oxidisable

Niel (1897- purple and green bacteria. compound reduces carbon dioxide to
1985), 2H2A + CO2-----Light---->2A + carbohydrates.
a microbiologist CH2O + H2O.
 Purple bacteria---
Rhodospirillum.
 Green sulphur ----
Chlorobium.
 Green bacteria---BGA.

In oxygenic photosynthesis the O2 is released from H2O but not from CO2, this is proved by using
isotopes. Photosynthesis is not a single step reaction but it is multi-step reactions.

Where Does Photosynthesis Take Place?

The green parts of the plants are the site of photosynthesis
 Mesophyll cells------C3 plants.
 Bundle sheath cells-----C4 plants.

The chloroplast is double membrane bound organelles and are the site of photosynthesis. The
chloroplasts have a system of three membranes: the outer membrane, the inner
membrane and the thylakoid system.

There is a clear division of labour----------------

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 Membrane system------Light reaction------>Trapping light----->Synthesis------->ATP

and NADPH
 Stroma------->Dark reaction------->CO2 converted into sugar through enzymatic
reaction.

Thylakoid System=

 The thylakoid system is suspended in the stroma.

 The thylakoids are arranged in stacks known as grana.Each granum contains around
10-20 thylakoids.
 On thylakoid membrane chlorophylls are present.
 Granum connected through stromalamellae
Thylakoids are of two types - granal thylakoids and stromal thylakoids.

2.The granal thylakoids ( appressed

membrane)contain only photosystem
II protein complex.

1. The photosystem I and ATP synthase protein complexes are present

exclusively on non-appressed membranes of grana thyllacoid and stroma
lamellae.
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Distribution of Chloroplast on the basis of intensity of light:----{ To avoid photo damage}

 Epistrophy----Light is
minimum------>parallel to the
walls of mesophyll cells
 Parastrophe----Light is
maximum---->chloroplast gets
alinged perpendicular to the
incident light
 Apostrophe-----Moderate light--- >
Randomly in cytoplasm.

Photosynthetic pigments=---
The pigments are responsible for the photosynthesis is known as photosynthesic pigments. Grouped
into two=---
Photosynthetic
pigments.

Major Photosynthetic Accessory Photosynthetic

pigments.= pigments=

 Chlorophyll-a  Caretenoids.
 Chlorophyll-b  Phycobillins.
 Chlorophyll-c

Universal pigments-----Chl-a and carotenoids----are found in all O 2 liberating green

plants.

Chlorophyll synthesis-----
Succinyl CoA + Glycine [Simplest amino acid-CH3-CHNH2-COOH] Protochlophyll -------Light---
-------> Chlorophyll.---Deficiency of N2 , Mg ++ leads to chlorosis----NCERT-199

They are separated through paper chromatography

Pigments Features
Chl-a Bright or blue green in the
chromatography paper.
Chl-b Yellow-green
Xanthophyll Yellow
Carotenoid Yellow or yellow-orange.
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Chlorophyll=-----
Features=---
 Chlorophylls are Mg-porphyrins, Porphyrin ring consists of 4-pyrrole rings[Tetrapyrrole]
 It is chromoprotein, light green pigment.
 The central metal is Mg which is non-ionic combines with pyrols two covalent and two co-
ordinate bonds.
 Chlorophyll has a cyclopentanols ring fused with pyrol ring 3.
 A propional group on a ring 4 is esterified to a long chain
 Each chlorophyll has two parts-----
1. Head dia( Porphyrin ring-15 x 150A ).------Hydrophilic.
2. Tail---A phytol tail which is present only in Chl-a and Chl-b, containing 20 carbons------
Hydrophobic.Phytol tail absent in Chl-c.

Chlorophyll as a Photoreceptor=---

 Chlorophyll acts as photoreceptor because they contain a network of alternating

single and double bonds, and the orbitals can delocalise stabilising the structure.
 This is very similar in structure to the heme group found in hemoglobin, except that in
heme the central atom is iron, whereas in chlorophyll it is magnesium.
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 There are actually 2 main types of chlorophyll, named a and b. They differ only
slightly, in the composition of a side chain (in a it is -CH3, in b it is CHO).

1. Photosynthesis Active Radiation[PAR]----400-700nm.

2. Maximum photosynthesis occurs ----------Blue and red light.
3. Chl-a is chief pigment due to its maximum absorption of light.
4. Chlorophyll can also be damaged when vegetation is cooked, since the central Mg
atom is replaced by hydrogen ions.

Red drops and Emerson Effect:---

 Monochromatic light more than above 680 nm, then quantum yield suddenly drops due to at
that time only PS-I [Cyclic process] works.
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 When mixed light [below the 680 nm and above the 680 nm] is used both PS-I and PS-II
operate, so quantum yield increases due to cyclic and non-cyclic process------Emerson effect.

Why the plant leaves are mostly green?

The spectrum between 500-600 nm absorbs minimum and reflects maximum which are green

Distinguish between Chl-a And Chl-b.

Item Chl-a Chl-b

Chemical group 2ndpyrol ring contains CH3 2ndpyrol ring contains CHO group at
group at the 3rd the 3rd position.
position.
Role Acts as reaction center. It acts an accessory pigment.
Formulae C55H72O5N4Mg. C55H70O6N4Mg.

Carotenoids=--

Lipid soluble, yellow in colour, prevents the chlorophyll from damage by removing excess energy.
So, it is also known as shield pigments. Found in carrot, tomato and leaves.
 Carotenoids protect against photodynamic destruction catalysed by chlorophyll.
 Caretenoid converts nascent O2 to molecular O2
 These pigments absorb and transfer light energy to chl-a.

Phycobilins=---
They are non-cyclic, linear tetra-pyrol structure devoid of Mg and phytol tail, water soluble.

Distinguish between Bacteriochlophyll

and higher plant chlorophyll:------

 Structural difference:---

The overall structure of these two pigments

is very similar. They both have the
distinctive tetrapyrole ring with a Mg2+
in the centre and a long 20-carbon
phytol tail that helps anchor them to
the photosynthetic membrane. The differences occur in the substitutions around the
ring and in the length and substitutions on the phytol tail.
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 Functional difference:-----Oxygenic [Chlorophyll] and non-oxygenic

[Bacterochlophyl]
 Chlorophylls are 4 types and bacteriochlophylls are 7 types.

Another kind of photosynthetic pigment found originally in marine archaea but now known
to be more widespread in the ocean is bacteriorhodopsin. Membrane proteins bind
retinal pigments forming a light-driven proton pump. Most of them absorb green light
(between 500 nm and 650 nm) and appear purple.

Bacteriochlorophyll-a[C55H74O6N4Mg]. Chlorophyll-a [C55H72O5N4Mg]

Quantosomes=---

Quantosome ------> a group of pigment molecule carried out photochemical reaction-------> present
in thylakoid membrane-------Each quantosome contains 200-240 chl-molecules including
carotenoids, quinine proteins.

Pigment system=---
Pigments are organised into pigment systems=----
PS-I and PS-II ( P= Pigment . S=system. I=Ist discovered, II=2nd discovered)

Item PS-I( P700) PS-II ( P680)

Reaction centre Chl-a-700 one molecule. Chl-a-680 one molecule
AntennaeChl Chl-a 683 , 200 molecule Chl-a 670 , 200 molecule
Shield pigment Carotenoids-50 molecules Carotenoids-upto 50 molecules
pigments
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LHC= All pigments except chl-a.

Distribution of PS-I and PS-II

The two photosystems are distributed differently in thylakoid membrane within chloroplast.
 Ps-I is found almost exclusively in non-appressed membrane of grana thylakoid (or grana
lamellae) and stroma thylakoid(or stroma lamellae).
 Ps-II is located predominantly in the appressed membrane of grana thylacoids.
1. Stroma lamellae contains only Ps-I.
2. Grana lamellae contains Ps-II and NADP reductase.

The outer membrane surface of the thylacoids can be divided into two structurally different
regions=----
1. The appressed membrane of the grana thylacoids whose surface is in contact with other
membrane.
2. Non-appressed membranes of the stroma thylacoids and the ends margins of the grana
thylacoids that are also exposed to the stroma.

Antenna complex=---
Also known as light harvesting complex (LHC). LHC made up of hundreds of pigment
molecules bounded to proteins, except Chl-a .The antennae complex captures
the light energy and transfers it to the reaction centre through inductive resonance.

Light Reaction=---
Light reaction is the photochemical phase includes light absorption, water splitting, O2
release, and formation of high energy intermediates like ATP and NADPH.
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 Light absorption=---
Light is harvest through the PS-I and PS-II. The PS-I the reaction centre chlorophyll-a has an
absorption peak at 700nm, hence it is called P700, while in PS-II it has absorption
maximum at 680 nm, and is called P680.

 Electron transport=---
Chlorophyll absorbs the light ------>Excited chl releases the electrons------->electrons come
out from their ground level and extra energy converts into heat and flurocences.
Electron transport system consisting the cytochrome---

1. The movement of electron is downhill in terms of an oxidation-reduction or redox

potential scale.
2. The PS-I is excited when they are received red light(700nm)and transferred to
another acceptor molecule that have a greater redox potential.
3. The electrons are not used as they pass through the electron transport chain.
4. P-II is also excited through the light 680nm, the electron are picked up by an electron
acceptor which passes them to an electron transport chain.

 Splitting of H2O------Through Ps-II

The splitting of water is achieved through the excitation of PS-II. The water is split into H +,
[O] and electrons. This creates the oxygen, one of the net products of
photosynthesis. These electrons needed to replace those removed from
photosystem-I are provided by photosystem-II.
Water splitting complex ( Cl-, Mn2+, Ca2+ NCERT-197-98 )is associated with the PS-II which
itself is physically located on the inner side of the membrane of the thylakoid.
 Hill reaction 1st demonstrated by Robbin Hill, using the chloroplast of Stellaria media,
in the presence of leaf extract or hydrogen acceptors ( ferricyanides , ferrioxalates).
Hydrogen acceptors are called Hill oxidants.
 Ruben and Kamen proved the evolution of 18O2 using the chlorella
Cyclic And Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
The formation of ATP is called phosphorylation. Photophosphorylation is the synthesis of
ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate in presence of light is known as
photophosphorylation. Electron moves downhill, the addition of these electrons
reduces NADP+ to NADPH + H+

Item Cyclic photophosphorylation Non-cyclic

photophosphorylation

Involved PS. Only PS-I is involved. Both PS-I and PS-II are involved.
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Electron Electron returns to the same chl. Electrons not returned to the
same chl.
ATP production ATP produced in two phases ATP produces in one phase
NADPH formation Not formed Formed.
O2 evolved Not occur. Occur.
Representation Not represented as ‘Z’ Scheme Represented as ‘Z’scheme.
Photolysis of water Not occur Occur[PS-II ]
Inhibition Not inhibited through DCMU Inhibited through DCMU

Electron flow ‘Z’ scheme=---

Starting from the PS-II---------->uphill to the acceptor-------->down the electron transport
chain to PS-I--------->Excitation of electrons--------> transfer to another acceptor
------------>Downhill to NADP+---------> reduced to NADPH + H+
 The electrons from excited chlorophyll molecule of PS-II are 1st accepted by -----
Pheophytin[Quinone]
 The electrons from excited chlorophyll molecule of PS-I are 1st accepted by---
Ferredoxine[Fd],FRS
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Electrons Blocker=---
There are few photosynthetic inhibitors which blocks the electrons flow through electron
carriers like as DCMU ( Dichlorophehyl dimethyl urea), CMU ( Chlorophenyl dimethyl
urea).

PQ------------>/DCMU/------>PC.
FRS---------->/CMU/--------->FD.

Chemiosmotic hypothesis=

Discovery= Proposed by Peter Mischell( 1961)

ATP synthesis is linked to development of a proton gradient across a membrane. The

protons are accumulated in the thylakoid lumen but in case of mitochondria the
protons are accumulated in the intermembrane space of the mitochondria.
Proton gradient developed by three process:-
1. Photolysis of H2o by Ps-II at luminal site.
2. PQ shifting of H+ from stoma to lumen.
3. NADH reductase mediated utilization of H+ from stoma.
 The pH of the lumen is 3 to 3.5 ( Acidic) and pH of the stroma is 8 ( basic).
 The NADP reductase enzyme is located on the stroma side of the
membrane. Along with electrons that come from the accepter ofelectrons of PS I,
protons are necessary for the reduction of NADP+ to NADPH+ H+. These protons are
also removed from the stroma.

Break down of Proton gradient=---

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Proton gradient releases the energy through breaking. The gradient is broken down due to
the movement of protons across the membrane to the stroma through the
transmembrane channel of the F0of the ATPase.
 The ATPase enzyme consists
of two parts---
 F0 part which is embedded in
the membrane and forms
trans-membrane channel
that carries out
facilitated diffusion of
protons across the
membrane.
 F1 part that protrudes on the
outer surface of the thylakoid
membrane on the side that
faces the stroma.
 The breakdown of the
gradient provides enough
energy to cause a conformational change in the F1particle of the ATPase which
forms the ATP.
 One ATP forms through the passing of 3H+ through F0-F1 particle.
Chemiosmosis requires----
1. A membrane.
2. A proton pump.
3. A proton gradient.
4. ATPase.
 Proton motive force about 200mv across the thylakoid membrane.
Biosynthetic Phase=---
 The end products of light reaction are ATP, NADPH, and O2.
 The O2 diffuses out of chloroplast and ATP, NADPH are used for the synthesis of
glucose, so the name biosynthetic phase, the process is not directly depend on light
hence the phase called dark phase.

In Out
6 CO2 C6H12O6
18ATP 18ADP
12NADPH 12NADP

 C3 cycle/ Calvin cycle=---

Discovery=-----
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 First discovered by Blackman (1905), after 2nd world war,

 1946, Melvin Calvin and Andy Benson, University of California, discovered the
technique through the using of 14C in algal[Chlorella] photosynthesis studied that the
1st CO2 fixation product was a 3-carbon organic acid( 3-phosphoglyceric acid /PGA)
 Technique---Chromatography and Radiography.

Site-=----All photosynthetic plants have C3 cycle.

Process------Has main three steps---Carboxylation, Reduction and Regeneration.

Net Cycle=----

For the fixation of one CO2, 3ATP and 2 NADPH are required

1). Carboxylation=----No ATP required.

 1st stage of calvin cycle.
 CO2 enters the mesophyll through stomata.
 An enzyme nicknamed rubisco (RuBP carboxylase-oxygenase) catalyzes attachment of CO2
to a five-carbon sugar called ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).
 The resulting 6-carbon molecule is unstable, however, and quickly splits into two molecules
of a three-carbon compound called 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).

2) Reduction:-ATP required

It requires ATP and NADPH, converts 3-PGA (from the fixation stage) into a three-carbon sugar.

This process occurs in two major steps:

 First-------- 3-PGA receives a phosphate group from ATP---------->1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.

 Second-------- the 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate molecules are reduced (gain electrons). Each
molecule receives two electrons from NADPH and loses one of its phosphate groups, turning
into a three-carbon sugar called glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). This step produces
NADP+.

The ATP and NADPH used in these steps are both products of the light-dependent reactions (the first
stage of photosynthesis). That is, the chemical energy of ATP and the reducing power of
NADPH, both of which are generated using light energy, keep the Calvin cycle running.
Reciprocally, the Calvin cycle regenerates ADP and NADP+ providing the substrates needed
by the light-dependent reactions.
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3) Regeneration of the starting molecule:-ATP required

Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor molecule RUBP is crucial if the cycle is to continue uninterrupted.
The regeneration steps require one ATP for phosphorylation to form RuBP.

The reduction stage produces two G3P molecules per CO2 .Although two G3Ps can combine to make
one glucose molecule, there isn't actually a new glucose made for each turn of the Calvin
cycle.

 Three turns of the cycle fix three carbon atoms from CO2resulting in a total of six G3P
molecules.
 One of these six molecules can exit the cycle and be used in glucose production. (One G3P
has three carbons, so three fixed carbon atoms exit the cycle
 The other five G3P molecules must be recycled to regenerate the starting molecule of the
 cycle, RuBP. Since the cycle has gone around three times, three new RuBP molecules must
be made.

The regeneration of RuBP involves a complex series of reactions, nicknamed the “carbohydrate
scramble,” that converts the five G3P molecules (5 X 3C) into three RuBP molecules (3 X 5C).
This process, which requires energy and phosphate groups, uses ATP from the light-
dependent reactions

In alvin cycle, ATP is required for two separate steps (one during the
reduction phase and one during the regeneration phase).

Neet-23: How many ATP and NADPH2 are NEET-23: Which of the following combinations is
required for the synthesis of one molecule of required for chemiosmosis?
glucose during Calvin Cycle? 1.Membrane, proton pump, proton gradient, NADP synthase.
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1.18ATP & 12 NADPH2. 2.12 ATP & 16 NADPH2. 2.Proton pump, electron gradient, ATP synthase.
3.Proton pump, electron gradient, NADP synthase.
3.18ATP & 16 NADPH2. 4.12ATP & 12NADPH2
4.Membrane, proton pump, proton gradient, ATP synthase.
ANS-1. Ans-4.

The C4 Pathway=----

C4-Plants are special------

1. Have special type of leaf anatomy or ‘Kranze’ anatomy.
2. Tolerate to high temperature.
3. Response to high light intensities.
4. Lack of photorespiration.
5. Have greater productivity.
 Structural feature of C4 plants=----
The most distinguished anatomical features of leaves of C4 plants in the presence of bundle
sheath containing chloroplast. The bundle sheath cell lacks grana in their
chloroplast, while mesophyll cell has well developed grana. This type of arrangement
is known as ‘Kranz’ anatomy.
‘Kranze’ means ‘wreath’ and is reflection of the arrangement of cells, the bundle sheath
cells may form several layers around the vascular bundles. They are characterised by
having a large number of chloroplasts, thick walls impervious to gaseous exchange
and no intercellular spaces.

C3 Plants=----Rice, wheat.
C4 plants------Maize, Sugarcane and Sorghum.
CAM- plant------Crassula, Bryophyllum.

Neet-22: The first stable product of CO2 Neet-22:Which of the following statements is
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fixation in sorghum is : incorrect ?

(1) Pyruvic acid (2) Oxaloacetic acid (1) Both ATP and NADPH+H+ are synthesized
(3) Succinic acid (4) Phosphoglyceric during non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
acid (2) Stroma lamellae have PS I only and lack
Ans-2 NADP reductase.
(3) Grana lamellae have both PS I and PS II.
(4) Cyclic photophosphorylation involves
both PS I and PS II
Ans-4.

 Discovery=--
Kortschak and his coworkers (1954) reported the formation of dicarboxylic acids (C4) as
primary
productsof
photosynthesis
in sugarcane
which was
confirmed in
several other
plants by
Hatch and
Slach( 1966) of
Australia.
 Features of the
cycle=---
1. CO2 fixation
occurs in two
ways, 1st in C4
cycle in
mesophyll cells
and 2nd C3
cycle in bundle sheath cells.

2. More ATP is required, in mesophyll cell, pyruvate is converted to phosphoenol

pyruvate witch is ATP depended. The 30 ATP is required for the 6CO 2 fixation.

C4- cycle completes in 4 stages=----

1. CO2 fixation:----The primary CO2 acceptor is a 3-carbon molecule phosphoenol
pyruvate (PEP) in the mesophyll cell to form a C4 acid like OAA( Oxalo acetic acid)
with the help of PEP carboxylase.

The decarboxylation process is ATP dependent. The cost of concentrating

CO2 within the bundle sheath cell is 2 ATP per CO2, thus, the total energy
requirement for fixing CO2 by the combined C4 and calvin cycles is 5 ATP( 2 ATP
for CO2 enrichment and 3 ATP for calvin cycle) plus 2 NADPH per CO2 fixed. So,
C4 cycle is ATP-driven CO2 enrichment.
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In bundle sheath cells, malic acid decarboxylated and aspartic acid deaminated
through following--------
1. Malic acid + NADP+----Decarboxylase---->Pyruvic acid + NADPH + H+ + CO2
2. Aspartic acid + Pyruvic acid---Transaminase----->Alanine + Oxaloacetic acid.
3. Oxaloacetic acid + ATP---PEP carboxykinase----->Pyruvic acid +CO2 + ADP.

2. Transport:-------The OAA forms 4-carbon compounds like malic acid or aspartic acid in the
mesophyll cells. These are
transported in the bundle
sheath cells.
3. Decarboxylation:------In the bundle sheath cells these C4 acids forms CO2 through the
decarboxylation with the
formation of pyruvate (C3
–compounds). The
formed CO2 is fixed
through C3-cycle with the
help of RuBisco.So, the
Calvin pathway is common to all
plants.
4. 2nd Time CO2 fixation:--:---CO2 fixed to RUBP through C3 cycle.

5. The 3- carbon compound (Pyruvate) is transported into mesophyll cell where it is

converted into PEP again.

Distinguish between C3 and C4 cycles=

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Points C3-cycle C4-cycle.

Sites C3 cycle operates in all C4 cycle operates only in C4
plants plants
Primary CO2 The primary CO2 The primary CO2 acceptor is
acceptor. acceptor is Phosphoenol pyruvic acid
Ribulose bi (PEP, a 3 Carbon
phosphate compound).
(RUBP a 5
Carbon
compound).
1st Stable The first stable product The first stable product is a 4-
compound is a 3-Carbon Carbon compound, oxalo
compound, acetic acid (OAA).
phosphoglyceric
acid (PGA).

Carboxylase The carboxylase enzyme The carboxylase enzyme is PEP

enzyme. is Rubisco carboxylase and Rubisco.

CO2-fixation Single CO2 fixation Two CO2 fixation

Efficiency of CO2 CO2 fixation is slow and CO2 fixation is fast and more
fixation less efficient efficient
Required energy. Fixation of 1 molecule of Fixation of 1 molecule of CO2
CO2 requires 3 requires 5 ATP and 3
ATP and 2 NADPH
NADPH.

Nature of Only granal type of Granal and agranal (bundle sheath

Chloroplast chloroplasts are chloroplast) type of
. involved chloroplasts are involved.

Kranz anatomy Kranz anatomy is absent The leaves have Kranz anatomy is
present.
CO2 concentration Cannot operate under Can operate under very low CO2
very low CO2 concentration
concentration
Oxygen Oxygen has inhibitory Oxygen has no inhibitory effect of
effect of photosynthesis
photosynthesis
Example. Occurs in plants like Occurs in plants like maize,
Mango, apple sorghum etc (C4 plants
etc. (C3 plants)e

Adaptive value of C4 plants:------

1. C4 plants are better adapted to tropical climate.
2. C4 plants effectively obtain CO2 even when low concentration due to high affinity of
C4 organic acids to CO2.
3. Lack of Photorespiration.
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4. Adapted to water conservation.

5. Presence of C4 organic acids, plants can tolerate saline and acidic soils.

CAM Cycle=---

Full name= Crassulacean Acid Metabolism.

Site = this type of cycle is found in the plants belongs to –Crassulacaeae, Cactaeae,
Orchidaceae, Liliaceae,Euphorbiaceae etc.

Why the plants are succulent?

The plants are mainly xerophytes, stomata opens at night and closed in day which leads to
prevent transpiration. The storage of water often gives succulent plants, swollen or
flashy.

This cycle is a modified C4 cycle but distinguished from C4 plants as

follows---
1. Both cycles like CAM and Calvin cycle occur in mesophyll cell. Kranz anatomy is
absent.
2. Stomata open in night only to avoid
transpiration. The CO2 fixed by PEP
to malic acid and stored in vacuoles
of the cell. The process is known as
acidification.
3. During the day, the stomata is closed
which prevents the uptake the CO2
and release of O2. The Malic acid
decarboxylated and evolved CO2
which is fixed throughC3-cycle. The
process is known as deacidification.

Distinguish between C3, C4 and CAM plants

Characters C3 plants C4 plants CAM plants

Kranz Anatomy. Absent Present Absent.
CO2:ATP:NADPH 1: 3 :2 1: 5 :3 1: 6.5 :3.
Carboxylation RuBIScoonly . In mesophyll cell In dark PEP case. In
enzyme PEPcase. In light RuBisCO.
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bundle
sheath
RuBisco
Initial CO2 acceptor. RuBP. PEP PEP
1st stable product 3-PGA. Oxaloacetate. Oxaloacetate.
Optimum tepm.for 15-250C 30-400C >400C.
photosynthes
is
CO2 compensation 30-70 0-10 0-5 in dark.
point(ppm)
Photorespiration Present Not easily detectible Detectible in
afternoon.
Calvin cycle Alone Alone with Hatch Alone with Hatch
operative and Slack and Slack
cycle. cycle.

Photorespiration=---
Photorespiration occurs when the CO2 levels inside a leaf become low. This
happens on hot dry days when a plant is forced to close its stomata to
prevent excess water loss. If the plant continues to attempt to fix CO2 when
its stomata are closed, the CO2 will get used up and the O2 ratio in the leaf
will increase relative to CO2 concentrations.

When the CO2 levels inside the leaf drop to around 50 ppm,
Rubiscostarts to combine O2 with RuBP
instead of CO2.

The net result of this is that instead of

producing two 3C PGA
molecules, only one molecule of
PGA is produced and a toxic 2C
molecule called phosphoglycolatei s
produced.

In the photorespiratory pathway there is no synthesis of ATP or NADPH. Therefore,

photorespiration is a wastefulprocess.
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The plant must get rid of the phosphoglycolate

The organelles are required for photorespiration=----

1. Chloroplast.
2. Peroxisome.
3.

Mitochondria.

In C4 plants photorespiration does not occur. This is because they have a mechanism
that increases the concentration of Co2 at the enzyme site. This takes place when
the C4 acid from the mesophyll is broken down in the bundle sheath cells to release
CO2—this results in increasing the intracellular concentration of Co2. In turn, this
ensures that the RuBisCO functions as a carboxylase only

Factors Regulating the Photosynthesis=--

Photosynthesis is under influence of several factors , both external and internal.

Photosynthetic factors

External Internal factors=---

Page 23 of 24

Concept of Limiting factors=---

 Law of Minimum-----Proposed by Liebig(1843), states that when a process, such as
growth, is governed by a number of separate factors, the rate of the process is
limited by the pace of the slowest factor.

Law of limiting.-----Blackman(1905)extended the law of Minimum to formulate the law of

limiting which is ‘If a chemical process is affected by more than one factor,
then its rate will be determined by the factor which is nearest to its
minimal value: it is the factor which directly affects the process if its
quantity is changed.
 CO2 becoming limiting in clear sky, but light limiting in cloudy days and in dense forest.
 Atmospheric CO2 is not limiting factor for C4 plants and submerged hydrophytes.

1. Light=----
Photosynthesis depends on the light,
 Wavelength of light----occurs in between (250 to 750nm). The maximum
photosynthesis is shown to occurhigh in the red spectrum and next high in
theblue part and the minimum is the green region.
 Intensity of light----at stronger intensity increase in the rate of photosynthesis is not
proportional to increase in light intensity. Except on a cloudy day light, in shade or
in dense forest light is rarely a limiting factor in nature.So on a cloudy day light,
in shade or in dense forest light is a limiting factor in nature
A certain light intensity the amount of CO2 used in photosynthesis and amount of CO2
produced in respiration is volumetrically equal. This point is known as
compensation point.
 Photo-oxidation-----when the light intensity for the photosynthetizing tissue is
increased beyond a certain limit the cells become vulnerable to chlorophyll photo-
oxidations so rate of photosynthesis lowered in high light intensity.
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2. CO2 concentration=--
CO2 is the major limiting factor for photosynthesis. The con. Of CO2 is very low (0.03
to 0.04) .Increased the concentration upto 0.05 can cause an increase in CO2
fixation rates, beyond the levels can become damaging over longer periods.

The C3 and C4plants respond differently to CO2 concentrations.

1. At low light conditions neither group responds to high CO2 con.

2. At high light intensities, both C3 and C4 plants show increase in the rates of
photosynthesis.
3. The C4 plants show saturation at about 360µIL- while C3 plants responds to
increase CO2 concentration and saturation is seen only beyond 450µIL -. Thus the
current availability of CO2 level is limiting to the C3 plants.
4. Green House:---The C3 plants respond to higher CO2 concentration by showing
increased rates of photosynthesis leading to higher productivity has been used for
some greenhouse crops such as tomato, bell and pepper. They are allowed to grow
in CO2 enriched atmosphere that leads to higher yields.
3. Temperature=---
 The dark reactions being enzymatic are temp. Controlled.
 Light reactions are also temp. Sensitiveupto limit.
 The C4 plants respond to higher temp. and show higher rate of photosynthesis while
C3 plants have a much lower temp. Optimum.
 Also depends on the habitat, tropical plants have higher temp. optimum than the
plants adapted to temperate climate.

According the Vant Hoff’s rule that is for every 100C the rate of photosynthesis is double or
Q10=2. ( Between 50C to 350C ).

4. Water=---
Water is one of the reactants in the light reaction. Water stress caused the stomata to close
hence reducing the CO2 availability. Besides, water stress also makes leaves wilt.,
thus reducing the surface area of the leaves and their metabolic activity as well.
5. Oxygen---
The oxygen is the by-products of photosynthesis, Wargburg(1920) observed on Chlorella,
accumulation of O2 reduces the photosynthesis, known as Warburg effect.