ouper ‘The base impedance is thar j volage if the current through ey Which has a v me Me _VoVy tb Vel, ~ 5, Ohms 1 a 5 If proper selection of bases is Made, i , te Bale cut IEE quantities. For example, Ne Circuit relations can be applied to’ feo I applied to the per unit ; Spo= Vow Ip G15, J} aations (81.5) and (8.1.16) canbe combined gi ee ve ae “aR (8117, ‘Also, _ base current, y= 5 = base kVA Vo” basck¥ base kW = numerical value of base kVA base MW = numerical value of base MVA The admittance is the reciprocal of the impedance. Let ¥,=actual admittance in siemens Ypu = per unit adinittance. vee glee avi % Bo 2 aos’ Ss : yes a A 230 kV transmission line has a series impedance of (4 +j 60) @ and a shun: admittance of j2x 10" S. Using 100 MVA and the line voltage as base values, calculate pe: unit impedance and per unit admittance of the line. eABL.I8Base current = jy Base voltage = V)_ Base impedance, Zs. From Eqs. (8.3.2) to (8.3.5) 2repa= 2 From Egs. (8.3.1) and (8.3.6) S Prep = Lreps AM, OV, ‘The result of Eq. (8.3.7) may alternatively be deduced as follows Zhe _ Za (Ni/N2)? Zr Varios Thus, if the rated primary voltage is used as base with primay referred impedance and “d secondary voltage secondary referred impedance, the same per unit valuc ci ¢ is obtained. Consequently, the per unit impedance of a 2-inding transformer refe-tes side is the same, In othier words, the per unit equivalent mpedance of a 2-nin, ler is the same whether the calculation is made from the high voltage side or the Zena = star-connected system is rated at $0 MVA and 110 kV. Exp ie apparent power as a per-unit value referred to (a) the three-phs ee AVA as base.If the rated rine aaa Voltage is used as base, the secondary i give ee Per unit is given by j Ay (200; =03125 Q Sum of per unit reactance on both sides, Xu =Xipu + X2pu = 0.078125 4 Niepu = Xorpe = Xepa Thus, the same value of i former garde: = Per unit ti wypsin Tine ee Feactance of a transft is obtained regardless of the 1. Total per unit reactance referred 03125 = 0.390625 ‘ 64 PER UNIT QUANTITIES IN THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS Suppose that the suffixes / and p denote the line and phase values in 2 balanced three-phase system. In a star connection Vi=X3 Vp; V=V3 Vp N=Ip; t= Ipp ~ ES EES (8.4.1) (Dou = 75 = 3 Veo Vzp 7 Velow a 8.8.2) eos m5 ‘star connections a per unit phase voltage has the same numerical Thus, it is seen that in a the per unit phase current has the same i it tage, Also, value as the corresponding per unit line voltage. numerical yalue as the corresponding pet unit line current. Jn a delta connection220 Electical Power Systems, n_ Bh 3 Wes Bie” it phase volt ™ a in the delta connection also a per unit voltage has the . el case tie corcshonting per unit line voltage. Similarly the per uit phase o~ st has the same numerical value as the corresponding per unit line current. Suppose that the subscript 19 and 36 denote per phase and three-phase values. With boy 3 star and delta commections ; S aay b Say = V3 Vilt = 3Vplp (Si)39 = V3 Viel» = 3Vpolpb is Sw _ BV : ‘i == = Wi)pu (Ir + ABA, a Spu Gio W3Vule= (ipa (Ii) pu Z : iS i z 3Y, : t i Again, Spe ae (Wp pu (pow ie Spu=(Vidpu Upu = (Vp pa Up)pu (846 F Hence, a per unit phase voltampere has the same numerical value as the corresponding pe, unit line voltampere irrespective of three-phase connection whether slar or delta. Unless, otherwise specified, a given value of base voltage in a three-phase system a line-to-line voltage, and a given value of base VA is the total three-phase base VA. Base impedance using per phase values (Ye)? ind otBa Te e Also, the base impedance using line value of base voltage and total three-phase value of bas VA, Ve)? 2 v, 2 ioe) BV) Wall (B47 (‘Sd)ip 3 (Ss)ig — (Sd)ig These relations show that the base impedance is the same whether (i) per phase values of _ V, and Sp are used or (ii) line value of Vs and total three-phase value of Sp are used. But te same basis should be adopted for selecting Vy and Sp to calculate base impedance. In this wa) the subscripts are eliminated, i.c.,ee at omar ® can be ae transformer. The per unit ;, ana Baa) wee phase is the same irrespective ofthe threonine he sang iro delaitar es * Surrey 45 SELECTION OF BASE VALUES ith bow, Generally the per Hn ae of devices are Blven in terms of the ma 1 < fT device my bs cluded in a power system network. A penne, A ae wohage ratings ppvels at di poinis. It ts necessary to refer all o the pron stem has differe base values. To apply the per unit method to a given pobies fee a vee ys ore. Te ag MR cee reed Wh all Darts of ihe ayes convenient value of MVA (8.4.5) the system, the largest ‘A of a section, or any round fi ‘may be the total MVA of the selection of the base MVA the base voltages foreach verte: om 1000 MYA, etc, rated voltage of the largest section may be taken as the base solace eto Pe chosen, The voltages for other sections are then assigned ¢ for that section. The base ~ - accordis z When the selection of a common base MVA and oe ee Iatis of the tanslermes ite per Unit impedances of various sections can be calculated to deaw the rindeies ne giving impedances in per unit values. re singleline diagram Mt voltage the system 8.6 BASE QUANTITIES IN TERMS OF kV AND MvA In power systems it is a common practice to specify voltage ratin in BV and the ¢ol: rating in MVA. The results already derived in terms of V and VA can be andifed Base MVA, Sp=(MVA)» = Volo x 10° Base voltage in kV = (kV)o= Vox 10> (k¥os D= . TIMVA)s}39 (MVA\, (8.6.1) _ og, (MVA)ia | (kVon (862) fnew eavayn aoe : [(MVA)o]s0 (86.3) ey ee ae aN: two generators in parallel, connected to ists 0 ‘ oi e. The ratings of these a 230 kV transmissionParalla Fepresentation of load = Fig. 8. 2. Sores fepresentation of load X, = load reactance in 9 V= load voltage in V. Similarly, -[“) (S)_& (a) (eee | Series Representation of Load Impedance Series represcniation of load impedance is shown in Fig, 8.2. Let R; = load resistance inQ X, = load reactance in Q Z= load impedance in Qcrapion 8 Por Unt Representation 225 4, The impedances of a The i ‘machines are specified by the manufacturers in terms of fer cnia 52g) 5 The per unit impedance rete f 6. i a 89 ONE-LINE DIAGRAMS single-| i i A pat ae OF one-line diagram is a representation of the essentials of a system in a most simplified form. As already discussed, power system are basicall posed of ting plants, a t ssi p eis ate aoa ote Ne smmission network, and a combination of industrial, commercial and eee oa Now a-days, mostly power is generated by three-phase synchronous generators, transmitted by three-phase transmission lines and distributed through three-phase networks. A balanced three-phase system is studied on a per phase basis. A single-phase circuit consists of one of the three-phase conductors and a neutral return conductor. The loop impedance of 2 single-phase circuit may be supposed to be concentrated in one conductor only with the impedance of the return conductor assumed 10 be zero. Thus, a three-phase balanced system is effectively replaced by a single-line diagram. Fig. 8.3 shows a one-line diagram of a power sysiem. Gi, G2 and Gy are three synchronous generators, Gi is grounded through a resistor, G2 and G3 through reactors. Ty and 7; are two transformers. Circuit breakers are numbered 1-8, Generation——»!<—— Transmission —»i«-— Dssintuton Fig. 8.3. Singe-line dagram of a power system the different components of Penen system are ee a ‘cui is replaced by a constant voltage sour E uivalent circuit. The above is only true for normal operation ‘both excitation and three-phase network are balanced and basis. In many power system studies the Sveti mer windings, resistances of transmission lines, line é “neglected. The impedance diagran then the impedance diagram,’ 226 Clectrcal Power Systeme ‘The assumptions are tue in many power system studies. The ratings of line, machines and other equipment are given on the one-line diagram in either actual or per unit values, The information supplied by @ single-line diagram varies according to the requirement. For example, the one-line diagram for load flow Mudies may not include circuit breakers. For ed ae circuit breakers and iy iciaibaisinteeeaes Positions are shown in the one-line diagram, In short-circuit studies three-separate diagrams 10 Neches secrs rie ent Fepresent positive, negative and ze10 nie networks are shown, emis dicate be converted to an impedance diagram and vin yy versa, 8.10 PREPARATION OF IMPEDANCE DIAGRAMS In order to prepare a single-line impedance diagram of a power system one-line diagram anft Specifications of the generators, transformers lines, motors and loads are required. The following. considerations are made while preparing impedance diagram : t |, Base values of voltage and VA are selected in pan of the system Unless othervises mentioned, a given value of base vollage in a three-phase system is the line-torlice Voltage and given value of base VA is the total three-phase VA The base VA is the same in all parts of the system. After selecting @ convenient value of base VA for the whole system the rated value of voltage of a paniculr vction i Chosen a5 the base voltage. The base voltages of other sections asc then assigned according to line-to-line voltage ri of transformers. All impedances in the system before the transformer is reached, including the primary impedance, are expressed in a unit 10 the voltage base chosen for the primary side. All the impedances beyond the transformer including secondary impedance of the transformer are Specified in per unit to a new base voltage. This new base voltage is equal to the primary voltage multiplied by the line-to-line voltage ratio of the uansformer. The base voltages may be shown on! the one-line diagram. f 3. The specified per unit impedance of three-phase transformers are based on their ratings. 4. Sometimes a three-phase rating of the transformer is equal to three times the rating of ch sit phase transformer. The per unit impedance of the three-phase (ransformer is Ie per unit impedance of the single-phase transformer. p Ices of all sections should be calculated on proper base with the n generator delivers 10 MVA at 4 volage of 10.5 KY. ic yoltage drop in the line in per unit and in volts, Wer _—qpaeier 8 wehave Sip=V3 VW VA; 1,5 ; 3 BY Here =10 MVA = 10 108 va Lay Viz 105 kV = 105% 10? v — 10x 108 Y3x105xi0 19864 a Ipn=1= 549.86 A i Voltage drop in the line per phase = 2pn Tpn = 5 x 549.86 = 2749.3 V (b) Now we shall use the per unit method to solve this Problem. We have Sy=10MVA: Ve=11 kV : vi Vu= Vp = yea ice Bes IO» S = (Siig 12 10 ins 2 x 105 =0.8730158 UMVA) 39 (KV Voltage drop in the line per phase in per unit A Vpu = Zpu pu = 0.4958677 X 0.8730158 =0.4329 pu Voltage drop in the line per phase in volts = (A Vp.) x base voltage per phase = 0.4320 x HPO 7749356 V Corrent i, pee unit, Ie = Pt Pei unit impedance of the line, Zpu = Za 04958677 ¥ is 0 be noted that the voltage drop in the line impedance is the voltage per phase, and hence the per unit voltage should be multiplied by the phase value of the base voltage” = ~ "Example 8,6 Assuming S bases of 25 and 60 MVA calculate the through impedance in ohms ] between the generator and the output terminals of the transformer for the system shown in Fig. 85. The specifications of the generators and transformer are given in Table 81 Table 8.1 Generator 2. ‘Transformer 60 MVA IL KY (delta) KY (star)| gale on Por Unt Representation 29 & of impedances (reactances) in ohms 5 The base impedance is given by 2, = kV Cava 2 For 25 MVA base, 2-40 Oe > For 60 MVA base, Z= “UY => 01667 0 ‘Actual impedance in ohms = per unit impedance x base i Actual impedance in ohms on 25 MVA base =/ 0.141679 x 4.84 =j 06857263 2 Actual impedance in ohms on 60 MVA base =j 0.34 x 2.01667 This problem illustrates the arbitrary selection of the S base, provided the value selected is used consistently throughout the network. Example 8.7 For the system shown in Fig. 8.7, determine the generaitr voltage. soma ssRy azoxy sols env : ox 075p0 = wi é Fig. 8.7. con ae Solution © F ory Let S; = 100 MVA and V; = 15 kV at the generator terminals. 2 100 (15) _ For generator, Xcpu=0.15x 45 (i) = 1.0 pu 2 100/220) - 0.20 For transformer, Xpu= 01 * 9 (35 0.20 pa (VAD _ 199 x 1%, = 0.2066 pu 100% cys transmission line, Xip.= Zn290 Electical Power Systems ; Let Ips be taken as the reference phasor Ie = 0.924 +j0= 0.924 /0" fk The per unit impedance diagram is shown in Fig. 8.8. jo2 {02066 j10 ‘Lou Fig. 8.8. “By KVL, voltage drop in the network = Ipu [Rou +) (XGpu + Xipu + Xtpu)] = 0.924 [1.033 +] (1.0 +0.2 + 0.2066)) ; = 0.924 (1.033 +] 1.4066) = 1.6125355 pu ‘Actual generator terminal voltage, Vo = 1.6125355 x 15 = 24.188 kV line-to-line Generator terminal voltage per phase His = 13.965 kV Example 88 A 50 MVA 15 kV three-phase generator has a subtransient reactance of 0.20 per unit. The generator supplies two motors over a transmission line having transformers at both ‘ends, as shown on the one-line diagram of Fig. 8.9. The motors have rated inputs of 30 MVA and 20 MVA, both 30 kV with 0.15 per unit subtransient reactance. The rating of the sending-end transformer 7; is 50 MVA 11 A- 132 Y with leakage reactance of 0.10 per unit Transformer T at the receiving end has three single-phase transformers connected as a three-phase unit. The rating of each individual transformer is 20 MVA, 33/76 kV with leakage reactance of 0.12 per unit. Series impedance of the line is (25 + 75) ohms. Draw the impedance diagram with all impedances marked in per unit. Select the generator rating as the base in the generator circuit. (45.1) kV (15kY) (180kv) 19/132 kV 131.633 kV oN (254775) SONA Zomva ~ TORY, [0.15 uy a 20 MVA jai 30 kV, j 0.15 1Per Unit Representation zy Let us select the base voltage in the ‘rcv 4 re ke tee 1 Th ie 18 Ee Geri & Vo = 15 RV. The base voltage ox 4 transformers the base Vollage changes in a {0 the voltage ratio of the transformer. In of the system we use the following for Base kV on hy side = base kV on Wy side x Vm ie or dase kV on Iv side = base kV on hy side x AVde OV Base voltage ofthe transmission line = base voltage onthe secondary side of T; =15x422~ 150 ky Pe ‘ ex ie : transforma 7 NEE i the motor circuit is determined with 180 KV applied to the primey of Base voltage in the motor circuit = base voltage on the secondary side ofthe transformer Tz ~ = (base KV on primary-of 72) x (tums ratio of 73) = 30x B= 451 KV It is to be noted that for a phase voltage of 76 KV, the line voltage is (¥3 x76) kV. The base voltages are shown in parentheses on the line diagram of Fig. 8.5. Step 2. Calculation of the per unit reactance of the generator No calculation is necessary for correcting the value of the generator reactance because itis given 5 0.20 pu based on 50 MVA and 15 KV. If a different value of S, were used in this problem, then correction would be necessary as shown for the transformers, transmission line, and motors. Step 3 Calculation of the per unit reactance of transformers ‘The per unit reactances of the transformers are found from the formula =7,,(52)(M#) < z,,, VAd [dvr Fan = Dim S| Von | ~ 21 (MVADn | (k¥Do2 Per unit reactance of transformer 7) 2 =j01x2x(72) is 45.1 kV, Total MVA of transfonner. zat Electrical Power Systems ission line Step 4 Cotculation ofthe per unit impedance of the ransmission : ‘Base KV of the transmission line = 180 kV ae OAV) _ 95 4 j 75) os = 0.0385 + 0.1157 po = Pg et Step 5 Calculation of the per unit reactance of motors ae The per unit reactances of the motors is found from the formula given in step 3 > E 50. (30) _, Per unit reactance of motor J, a0 39*(is i) oniee pu é 50 (30) _, Per unit reactance of motor 2, ~015<5>(s1] = 0.1659 pu Step 6 Drawing of per unit impedance diagram — The required per unit impedance diagram is shown in Fig. 8.10. {0.0837 dine 7 100535 8S ——< NANO OSS t T, 4 99385+/0.1157 40.1108 Fig, 8.10. Per-unit impedance diagam. Example 8,9 If the motors of Example 8.8 have inputs of 24 MW and 16 MW respectively at 30 kV operate at unity power factor, find the voltage a! the terminals of the generato: Solution Total input to motors = 24 + 16 = 40 MW : Base MW = numerical value of base MVA = 50 rapit inpar = SUaInp £4059 F : ' base input and Ip, denote per unit values of voltage and current at the motor terminals Brace: 30 10° Estes he eB en In= Pe ie 51 7 0-085210" ; pu = Vs” 0.6652 70° = 12021 £0" pa| oars . Example 8.10 Fig. 8.11 shows a two-machine __ Synehronous generator 20 MVA, 11 RV. X"=0.15 pu } Syechronous motor 15 MVA. 11 kV, x” <015 desformer Ti 25 MVA, 135 433 y by Transformer Tz 20 MVA, 132 Y/1] 4 kV Line (200 + j 500) 0 Static oe 5 MVA 08 power factor lagging Draw the impedance di for the system. CI transmission line and a Ge tiince fab VAL meet 2 RY le Tf the motor is a synchronous machine drawin i : ning 15 MVA at 09 power factor (eading) and the terminal voltage 1.1 pu find the gencraior bus voltage Ee ae. EEEVE (132 kv) nen sma zowva 7 yn Ow $200 1500) 91 01s Wkv 4 § te 4 a a BS us jos es 125132 8 132/11 MA oe 08 Ff (lag) Fig. 8.11. Two-machine system, Solution (MVA [ kVo1 Wehave Z:pu= Zin avai, [ | 2 five Per unit reactance of generator referred to given bases =) 0.15 3| 2g | =iON6 i (20) _ | Pernt reactance of motor referred to given bases =J015/ 45) =j0200 pean \(132\ nit reactance of transformer 7} referred to given bases =/(0.10) Bee =j008 i 20. line referred to given bases = (200+) 500) “1327 =0.29+ 0574»234 , Electrical Power Systems: Q=5sin@=50.6=3 MVAr If load is represented as series constant impedance Bisse Wises =Vp 5 Xpe = Vow Row mS oF 5 P+" Here Vpu= 47 =1.0 pu, S»=20 MVA 5: = (1.0)?x20x 4 =32 Ryu =(1.0)* X20 y= 3.2. : ean ae a pie and Xpu = (1.0)? x 20x 25 = 24 pu i Itis a general practice that VAr taken by an inductive load (lagging power factor) is assure positive and VAr taken by a capacitive load (leading power factor) is assumed negaty Consequently, the rule for multiplying phasors of V and / to obtain phasor voltamp: (P+) Q), with @ of correct sign, is to conjugate the current phasor before multiplication. S 13% Vv ste for lagging power factor and 1-FHO for leading power factor (Ee ee Cae < ee ay 5) Sh Vo Current taken by the motor which is operating at leading power factor 0.9 ty = PML OM A _ 15 (cosy + j sin gu) erg Ye 20x11 : cos p= 0.9 : sin gu = 0436 15 0.9 +j0.436) _ : We AD 7 (0-613+ 0.297) pu Current taken by static load which is operating at 0.8 power factor lagging Qu i: = aga y = O1818 -jo1368) pu at 1= ue +t, = 0.613 +)0.297+0.1818 ~j 0.1364 5 +/0.1606 pu = 0.81086 /11.42° pu } talor and motor bases of the line + per unit impedance 4 pu = 0.788 /73.1° puchapter 8 Per Unit Representation = Generator bus voltage = | Vg= Vu + Zt ai ee = (0-81086711.429 ~1.4 + 0.63895 /sas3e A .036= 1.161 «0636 3895 184.53° IWpI= 1113238 1456 py 98*13238728.71" po on IT RV base EXERCISES, 1. Define the terms per unit voltage, per uni é per unit impedance in terms of bate VAR pee to foc pas eee 2, Derive an expression for per unit impedance ofa giv, of new base MVA and new base KY late the per unit leakage impedance ref to _ low-voltage and high-voltage sides of the transformer, Use the irandueair alee the base values. 5._What are the advantages of pet-unit representation? Draw the reactance diagram for the System shown in Fig. 8.12. The Specifications of the components are given in Vable 82 Table 8.2 Generator G Transformer T, Transformer T, Motor | Motor 2 Line BE kV 25 MVA 25 MVA 15 MVA 1OMVA X= 659 25 MVA 13.2/69 kV 69/132 kV 13.0 kV 13.0kY Wpu X,=Ollpu X,=O1lpu X= 0.15 pu 0.15 pu mine the generalor terminal voltage assuming both motors operating at 12 kV, 75% full oad, and unity power Factor. ee OL gl 1-01236 Electrical Power Systems line diagram of a three-p! Ye) generator voltage, as the base voltage per unit reactance diagram. stem is shown in Fig. 8.13. Choose a ergs and 25 MVA as the base MVA. Dag 15 MVA 25 Mv 13.2169 kV 11% ™ 8 Line f 7652 25MVA YA 13BKV 15% Fig. 8.13. dt Draw a per unit reactance diagram for the three-phase system shown in Fig. 8.14. Chea 20 MVA and 66 kV as base values. s0Mva |G) sv 10% R th OR Line eq 10 MVA 4 | _@ ay iieeky 30MVA 40% ess BEATKV | y 18% 15% any | 5, f wm | 25 MYA 166 KV 8% 4 Fig. 8.14, 8. The one-line diagram for a two-generator system is shown in Fig. 8.15. Redraw diagram to show all values in per unit on a 7000 kVA base. re 2 Line 75 (10+)20)0 ‘ 3Mvi 2hva at A AV kV —-Ff0.ASpu, 7 = 005pei ape Per Unt Representaton 237 ; ANSWERS, 4. [0.0826 pu 5. 13.467/26.99° ky 6. Fig. 816 7. Fig. 8.17 8. Fig. 818 Jo312 — jo.101 Fig. 8.16. (0064+) 0129) pu 10.175 pu i Spe —