ADAPTING LEARNER CENTERED APPROACH TO IMPROVE ON THE TEACHING

AND LEARNING OF ICT AT GUAKRO EFFAH SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

BY

MUSAH ABASS
(202136044)
&
AGYEI MAWULI DELIGHT
(202147197)
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

The study of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has become a crucial part of the

school curriculum in Ghana. Recently integrated into Ghanaian schools, ICT is increasingly vital

in the modern era due to the global proliferation of technology. Both private and public business

organizations have expanded their operations significantly through the adoption of ICT.

However, to incorporate digital literacy effectively, innovative pedagogical approaches are

necessary. Traditional methods of teaching ICT, which often focus on memorizing software

details and reproducing information about buttons, menu commands, and dialogue boxes, fail to

provide a deep understanding of ICT concepts. Hence, it is commendable that the government

has integrated ICT into the school curriculum, especially within secondary education programs.

Nonetheless, many students perceive ICT as a challenging subject due to its specialized nature,

which demands a comprehensive understanding of complex concepts and techniques.

Ghana's educational reform strategy aims to produce scientifically and technologically skilled

manpower essential for national development. A significant aspect of this reform is the
introduction and expansion of Technical and Vocational Education (TVED) in the general school

curriculum. This initiative recognizes TVED's crucial role in national development, particularly

in equipping individuals with practical skills for employment. Technical education addresses

human resource challenges and societal needs by developing a skilled workforce, including

craftsmen, technicians, and designers, who contribute to the nation's infrastructural and

economic development. Trained manpower is essential for providing the workforce required for

infrastructural projects and delivering services that foster economic growth and stability. Thus,

investing in technical education yields substantial returns by creating jobs and reducing

unemployment through the efforts of a trained workforce.

Moreover, science and technical education play a critical role in producing technicians who

support scientists in driving inventions, solving problems, and adapting foreign technology for

local use. As Ofori Bruku (2005) aptly stated, "Technology is Power." He emphasized the

importance of training students to develop skills for employment in industries and companies,

teaching in technical and commercial colleges, creating their own businesses, and achieving

higher professional qualifications. To realize these goals, technical courses in Ghanaian schools

must be approached with a renewed seriousness. Educators should shift from traditional, teacher-

centered methods to more student-centered approaches, particularly in the teaching of technical

subjects.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite the various initiatives undertaken at Guakro Effah Senior High School in vocational and

technical education to address the problem of poor student performance, there has been limited

research specifically on the poor performance of students in Information and Communication

Technology (ICT). Currently, students' interest in ICT is notably low. Lemchi (2001) observed

that some students show no interest in the subject, and attitudes associated with vocational skills

negatively impact students' interest and performance in ICT. Additionally, many vocational skills

teachers instruct ICT without adequate instructional materials or workshop facilities (Mberengwa

2004). The quality of teachers, facilities, and laboratories is grossly inadequate and outdated.

Owolabi et al. (1991) highlighted a significant disconnect in ICT training at the junior high

school level due to the teaching methods employed by teachers. Students who do not proceed to

higher education are often found to be incompetent in the workplace due to a lack of practical

group work and the use of a teacher-centered approach in their ICT studies. Reports indicate that

employers often have to compensate for insufficient academic preparation by organizing

remedial courses for new employees at great expense. Consistently poor student performance

suggests that adequate teaching practices in ICT are lacking. Therefore, the problem this study

aims to address is how the implementation of a student-centered approach to teaching and

learning can improve students' skills in ICT at Guakro Effah Senior High School.

1.3 Purpose of the study

This study seeks to examine the problems associated with the teaching and learning of ICT at

Guakro Effah Senior High School. It aims to investigate how selected vocational pedagogical

approaches and strategies can enhance learner activity and participation in ICT classes. By

exploring these innovative teaching methods, the study hopes to improve the learning process and

overall learning outcomes in ICT education at Guakro Effah Senior High School.
1.4 Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to examine the problem with teaching and learning of ICT in

Guakro Effah Senior High School a school in the Techiman-North District. Specifically, this study

sought to:

1. To find out the extent to which students’ attitudes constitute problems to the teaching and

learning of ICT.

2. To find out the possible Learner Centered Approaches that can be used to increase learner

activity and participation in the learning of ICT.

3. To improve on the learner activity and participation during learning process of ICT using

the selected Learner Centered Approaches (group and experiential learning).

4. Find out the extent to which instructional materials constitute problems to the teaching and

learning of ICT.

1.5 Research Questions

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study

1. To what extent do the attitudes of students of Guakro Effah SHS constitute a problem

in the teaching and learning of ICT?

2. What are the possible Learner Centered Approaches that can be used to increase learner

activity and participation in the Learning of ICT in Guakro Effah SHS?

3. How can the selected Learner Centered Approaches (group and experiential learning)

be used to improve on the learner activity and participation during the learning process

of ICT at Guakro Effah SHS?

 4. To what extent do instructional materials pose problems to the teaching and learning

of ICT?

1.6 Significance of the Study

The significance of the study is to identify the pedagogical problems associated with the teaching

and learning of ICT in Guakro Effah Senior High School, which the various stakeholders (i.e.

teachers, researchers, curriculum designers) will attain by considering the following.

▪ Develop and sustain the interest of students’ in the study of ICT.

▪ Help teachers to come out with the best practical and pedagogical means of using learner

centered approach to teaching and learning ICT.

▪ Help students to acquire the skills of learning of ICT by the use experimental group

learning.

▪ Help encourage students to do group project work using activity base learning.

1.7 Limitations of the Study

In spite of the numerous positive impacts of this action research on the performance of students in

ICT, there were other activities that were uncontrollable on the part of the researcher that affected

the outcome of the study.

1.8 Delimitation of the Study

The study was confined to only students of Guakro Effah Senior High School. The conclusion and

generalization would therefore not be applicable to all students in other institutions Guakro Effah

Senior High School was chosen because of its proximity and also due to time and financial

constraint.
1.9 Organization of the Study

The study is organized into five chapters: they are as follows;

Chapter one is the introductory chapter. It covers the background of the study, statement of the

problem, the purpose of the study, significance of the study, limitation of the study, delimitation

of the study and organization of chapters.

Chapter two is the review of related literature. It talks about the different theories and concept of

teaching and learning approaches and its importance to the teaching and learning of ICT. It also

talks about how best to employ the best possible approach that would stimulate the interest of

students in the learning of the subject.

Chapter three is the methodology. It deals with the various methods used in collection of data. It

also covers the research design, population and sampling techniques, data collection instruments,

intervention design and implementation.

Chapter four is the results of the study. It also consists of the pre-intervention results and the post-

intervention results and also the discussion of post-intervention results.

Chapter five consists of the summary, conclusion, recommendations and the suggestion for further

research.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Concept of Learning and Education

Before children enter school, they learn to walk, talk, and use their hands to manipulate toys,

computers, and other objects around them. They utilize all their senses to explore and understand

the sights, sounds, tastes, and smells in their environment. They also learn how to interact with

their parents, siblings, friends, and other significant people in their lives. Once they enter school,

children begin learning basic subjects such as reading, writing, and mathematics. However, their

learning continues outside the classroom as well. They understand which behaviors are rewarded

or punished and develop social skills for interacting with peers. As they grow, individuals must

adapt to various major life changes, such as marriage, raising children, and maintaining

employment. Learning is a lifelong process that influences almost every aspect of our lives,

making the study of learning important across numerous fields.

Teachers need to understand the most effective methods to educate both children and adults.

Psychologists, social workers, criminologists, and other human service workers need to

comprehend how experiences can alter behavior. Similarly, employers, politicians, and

advertisers apply learning principles to influence the behavior of workers, voters, and consumers.
Newsam (2005) describes two contrasting approaches to education: the traditional approach and

the progressive approach. The traditional approach assumes there is a predetermined body of

knowledge that a teacher should impart to students, using testing and competition to evaluate and

motivate them. In contrast, the progressive approach centers on the child rather than on a specific

body of knowledge. Here, the teacher's role is to be mindful of each child's developmental stages

and capacity, emphasizing cooperation over competition. Newsam (2005) suggests that an

effective teaching system can integrate elements of both approaches.

Education, in its broadest sense, refers to the ways people learn skills and acquire knowledge and

understanding about the world and themselves. One useful scheme for discussing education

divides these ways of learning into three types: formal, informal, and non-formal (World Book

Encyclopedia, 1994: 88).

Formal education is instruction provided in schools, often referred to as schooling. In most

countries, individuals enter a formal education system as children, where the school authorities

decide what to teach, and students learn under the guidance of teachers. Successful completion of

formal education usually results in certificates, diplomas, or degrees.

Informal education involves learning that occurs naturally as people go about their daily lives.

This type of education happens when individuals seek information or skills independently, such

as visiting a bookshop, library, or museum.

Non-formal education falls between formal and informal education. Like formal education, it

involves planned and organized programs, but these programs are less strictly controlled than

those in formal schooling.

2.2 Vocational / Technical Education

Vocational education aims primarily at preparing individuals for jobs. According to the World

Book Encyclopedia (1994:88), some senior high schools specialize in vocational programs, while

universities and other professional schools prepare students for careers in fields such as agriculture,

architecture, business, engineering, law, medicine, and teaching. Additionally, many businesses

and industries offer formal vocational training for their employees. The New Encyclopedia

Britannica (2007) defines vocational education as instruction intended to equip persons for

industrial or commercial occupations, which can be obtained formally in trade schools,

technical/senior high schools, and on-the-job training programs, or more informally by acquiring

skills directly on the job (p. 414).

The New Encyclopedia Britannica (2007) also explains that vocational education in schools is a

relatively modern development. Until the 19th century, vocational education, except for the

professions, was primarily provided through apprenticeships. This was partly due to the low social

status associated with vocational instruction compared to the classical curriculum, which was

considered “necessary for a gentleman” (p. 449). However, with the growth of industrialization in

the 19th century, several European countries, notably Germany, began introducing vocational

education in elementary and secondary schools.

Young (cited in Microsoft Encarta 2003) defines vocational education as the type of education that

has a specific relation to working life. While closely related to vocational training, which focuses

on learning specific skills required in particular workplaces, vocational education encompasses a

broader scope. It is distinct from general or liberal education, which is concerned with the

intellectual and moral development of individuals and traditionally associated with access to a

variety of knowledge-based disciplines. This definition clarifies the distinction between

“vocational” and “vocation.” The latter generally refers to someone having a calling or “fulfilling

a moral and intellectual destiny,” often associated with the liberal professions of law, the Church,

and medicine.

On the other hand, "vocational" refers to forms of education that link learning to immediate

employment opportunities. Encarta 2003 reports that in the United Kingdom, this distinction has

emerged primarily as a difference in the status of occupations: higher-status occupations are often

seen as vocations requiring professional education, whereas lower-status occupations are viewed

as requiring vocational education. This perceived link between vocational education and lower-

status occupations has reinforced the connections between vocational education and technical,

commercial, and trade-based education. The professional/vocational distinction also differentiates

forms of higher education such as engineering, accountancy, and pharmacy from the various

alternatives to academic or general education available to students at the end of compulsory

schooling.

2.2.1 Vocational Education in Ghana

As part of the 1987 education reform program, vocational subjects were introduced into the

secondary school curriculum to diversify pre-university education. This initiative aimed to equip
students in Senior High Schools with employable skills, enabling those who could not continue

their education to engage in productive work and integrate into society as useful citizens who

contribute to national development (Evans-Solomon, 2004:24). The vocational program was

designed to provide students with skills that would help them secure better livelihoods for

themselves and their families while also serving society in various ways.

Vocational subjects in secondary education, therefore, offer opportunities for each student to

realize and develop their potential, preparing them to fulfill their national obligations. The

vocational subjects include Business Studies, Agricultural Science, ICT, Technical Skills, Visual

Arts, and ICT. This study focuses on ICT, given the pervasive role of technology in our daily

lives.

2.2.2 Factors That Influence Learning of ICT in School

The studying of ICTs program in schools varies from so many students’ points of view. Firstly,

students must have passion for ICT and its significance to their individual life and the society at

large. Secondly, the skills acquisition of ICT may also stem from the individual’s society, the way

they appreciate ICT, the nature of ICT items and the acquisition and use of ICTs in personal and

family living. The practical experience of designing items for home and personal use is a vehicle

for teaching about ICTs in addition to providing a medium for artistic expression and experience.

Students are exposed to cultural and historical interrelationships, consumer responsibility,

conservation of energy, design principles and job opportunities.

Students’ specific objectives for learning of ICT:

 i. To acquire basic information about ICT’s and its current trends.

ii. To develop an understanding of personal, family, cultural, environmental and economic

factors related to ICT.

iii. To develop skill in the management of human and non-human resources as applied to the

provision of ICT items.

iv. To develop skills in selecting, constructing, and evaluating ICT items.

v. To acquire knowledge and skills for informed decision-making about ICT items and an

appreciation of the impact of these decisions on society as a whole.

2.3 Concept of Teaching, Facilitation and Learning

Teaching has been traditionally known as the management of the learning process by the teacher

which involves such activities like planning, sourcing, designing and preparation of the content

before the lesson. This is then followed by the direct interaction between the teacher and the

learners that finally ends with the summative activities of evaluation and redesigning for further

teaching. In Ghana, generally, it is still the widely-practiced way of handling teaching and learning

in most classrooms.

In most instances, teachers have understood the above task as giving of written material in form

of notes to the learners who sit behind fixed desks copying the material given by the teacher,

expected to memorize and reproduce them at the end of the term or whenever they are subjected

to examinations. Teaching should be seen as an interaction between a teacher, a learner and subject

matter learner where all are involved in the learning process other than the teacher being the only

active party in the classroom. With pedagogical changes that are continuously taking place from
time to time, many scholars have gone contrary to the above understanding and have put forward

several views as follows;

According to Lave, (1996), teaching is a cross-context; facilitative effort to make high quality

educational resources available for communities of the learners, (Jean Lave, 1996, p. 10). Lave

asserts that teaching is a special kind of learning practice that must become part of the identity-

changing communities of the learners ‟practices if it is to have a relationship with their learning.

This implies that teaching should aim at stimulating students learning”. In this view, therefore, the

main role of the teacher is to facilitate learning rather than being a source of all knowledge. This

further implies that teachers have to systematically help learners to construct their own

understanding rather than simply passing on to them things they are expected to memorize. Killen

on the other hand, explains that good teaching is no longer about helping learners to accumulate

knowledge that is passed onto them by the teacher but instead, it should be about helping learners

to make sense of the new information (no matter its source), integrate it with their existing ideas

and apply their new understanding in resourceful, meaningful, helpful and relevant ways, (Killen,

2007).

One of the major ways of achieving the main aims of teaching therefore is to make the learners the

center of learning and thus, they should be actively engaged in the activities that enable them to

learn what they are supposed to learn. With my exposure to various teaching and learning styles,

it is important to use integrated approach and methods if the above aim is to be achieved. This is

because it is not easy to accomplish the above role as a facilitator by use of only one strategy or

approach as each has its strong and weak points and so, the good in each should be utilized and

supplemented by the good in the others. Students need sufficient opportunity to practice and apply
what they are learning and to receive improvement-oriented feedback, (they need to be informed

rather than evaluated) from the teacher which should be aimed at helping them to assess their

progress with respect to the major goals and to understand and clear out any misconceptions.

Activities that students engage in should be varied and interesting to motivate students and engage

them sufficiently, challenging them to build up meaningful learning experience rather than

needless repetition, (Killen, 2007). But care should be taken to make these activities sufficiently

easy to allow students to achieve high rates of success as they invest their reasonable time, asserts

Killen. This implies that to achieve this successfully, the teacher has to first explain the task and

go over it with the students before releasing them to work independently and then ensure that he

or she monitors progress and provide help when and where it is necessary.

Lave & Wenger on the other hand argue that learning is a form of social co-participation. They

say that it is through social engagements that provide the context for learning to take place. They

continue to point out that a student acquires a skill to perform by actually engaging in the process

under the attenuated conditions of legitimate peripheral participation (LPP).

2.4 The Concept of Student Centered Learning

Student-centered learning is that approach to learning that focuses on the student's needs, abilities,

interests and learning styles with the teacher as a facilitator of the learning process. It is a

classroom teaching method that acknowledges student voice as central to the learning experience

for every learner. It is the collective work of constructivists theorists like John Dewey, Jean Piaget

and Lev VyGotsky that focused on how students learn that is mainly responsible for the move to

SCL from TCL, (Rogers, 1983 a).

The Student-Centered Learning approach to learning developed with the advent of progressive

education in the 19th century and with the influence of psychologists, some educators have largely

replaced traditional curriculum approaches with hands-on activities and group work, in which the

student determines on his own what he wants to do in class. Key amongst these changes is the

premise that students actively construct their knowledge; hence own learning, (Weimer, 2002).

Furthermore, Student-centered learning allows students to actively participate in discovery

learning processes from an autonomous viewpoint. Students consume the entire class time

constructing a new understanding of the material being learned without being passive, but rather

proactive. Unique, yet distinctive learning styles are encouraged in a student-centered classroom,

emphasizes Weimer, in (Weimer, 2002). In view of this, it calls for the teacher as the facilitator to

ensure that a variety of hands-on activities are organized for, with the students in order to promote

successful learning. With the use of valuable learning skills, students are capable of achieving life-

long learning goals, which can further enhance student motivation in the classroom.

A substantial body of literature has identified the notion of student-centered learning as important

to the promotion of individual communication abilities, especially through students’ construction

of social meaning and their development of self-awareness and social identities (Herbert (1986);

Price (1996); Nemeth and Kolozsi (1999); Harkin, Turner and Dawn (2000); Gillies (2007) all

cited in, (Hua, Harris, & Ros, 2011). Hua et al asserts that such Research implies a link between

student centered learning and the development of communication skills because human

communication forms a layered and overlapping process which is said to be underpinned by a

complex of perceptual, cognitive, affective and performative factors operating within a person-

situation framework, (Hua, et al., 2011).

2.4.1 Teachers’ Role in Student-Centered Learning

Most often, teachers’ role is described metaphorically. Deshler (1985) cited in Weimer says that

metaphors are stuff with which we make sense of the world. In this respect therefore, Weimer has

described the teachers’ role in S-C-L (Student Centered Learning) using a number of metaphors

as used by different scholars as follows, (Weimer, 2002, pp. 74-77);

Ayers (1986) in Weimer (2002), describes Learner-centered teachers as midwives. The author

further notes that;

1. Good teachers, like good midwives, empower.

2. Good teachers find ways to activate students for they know that learning requires

engagement between the subject and the object matter

3. They know that learning requires discovery and invention and, in this respect, good

teachers know when to hang back and be silent, and when to watch and wonder at what

is taking place all around them.

4. They can push and pull, when necessary, just like midwives.

5. Significantly, they also know that they are not always called because sometimes, the

performance is and must be elsewhere.

Hill (1980) also in (Weimer, 2002) on the other hand compares the Learner-centered teaching role

to that of a guide. The author eloquently describes the shared vulnerabilities when teachers and

students climb together. The teacher as mountaineer learns to connect and makes the guiding rope

which links mountain climbers together so that they may assist one another in the act of rising up.
This implies that it is the role of the teacher to facilitate the learning process by providing the

necessary resources and ensuring conducive environment for learning just like the mountaineer

who is responsible for taking care of those under him by making the rope for supporting himself

and the others.

Furthermore, Eisner (1983), as cited in Weimer (2002), compares a teacher to the maestro before

an orchestra, offering insights on the role from yet another perspective. Meanwhile, King (1993)

describes the teacher’s role in Student-Centered Learning (SCL) as transitioning from the Sage

on the stage to the Guide on the side, a metaphor commonly used for teachers in SCL. In this

context, the teacher offers advice and guidance, but the real action lies with the students and their

learning endeavors. Just as a traveler with a guide feels confident, they won't get lost, the

presence of a facilitator reassures students that guidance is available if needed, boosting their

motivation to learn.

Tron Inglar likens the role of the teacher in counseling to that of a legal advisor or museum

guide, who shows people the right way and guides them to important objects. Here, the facilitator

guides students in reasoning, acting, and providing advice based on their knowledge,

experiences, and values (Inglar, 2002). However, the teacher assuming the role of a guide in SCL

must be knowledgeable and well-informed about the learning task to avoid embarrassment or

inadequacy, as one cannot guide others without knowing the way.

2.5 Experiential Learning

Experiential learning is the process of making meaning from direct experience, as Aristotle once

put it that, "For the things we have to learn before we can do them, we learn by doing them",
(Aristotle, 2007, p. 29). This implies therefore that with Experiential Learning approach, learners

have to get involved during the learning process as indicated by the above evidence that things

have to be learned by doing them. It can then be realized that learning needs one to be involved

and active in the process and draw from one’s own experiences in order to absorb better and retain

what has been learned since experience is said to be the highest authority in anyone’s life including

learning. In relation to this statement, Carl Rogers asserts: “Experience is, for me, the highest

authority. The touchstone of validity is my own experience. No other person's ideas, and none of

my own ideas, are as authoritative as my experience. It is to experience that I must return again

and again, to discover a closer approximation to truth as it is in the process of becoming in me,

(Rogers, 1983 a).

Bjerknes on the other hand, points out that experiential learning is a type of learning that demands

a combination of action and reflection, (Bjerknes, 2002, p. 8). According to this author, learning

by doing is therefore looked at as the basis for experiential learning where knowledge is built in a

process of action and reflection. This type of learning embraces all the three dimensions of learning

i.e. cognitive, emotional and social dimension in a sense that as someone acts in a social

environment he or she is dealing with the social dimension. Bjerknes further asserts that a single

experience must be understood as a constant interaction between the individual’s active influence

on the environment and the social and substantial influence of the environment on the individual

that constitutes the experience (Bjerknes, 2002, p. 8). This is probably due to the fact that

individuals do not act or operate in isolation; most often they operate or act with others or at least

in a social context.
Bjerknes further asserts that as the learner thinks and reflects upon his/her actions, he/she puts into

use both the cognitive and emotional domains. This implies that facilitators need to use approaches

that allow learners the democracy to use all aspects of their being be it cognitive, emotional or any

other. Such methods as experiential learning can be utilized during the learning process so that

learners come out of school as all-round individuals also referred to as integrated human being as

termed by the Norwegian core curriculum, (Education, 1997, p. 39). If graduates of the school

system are to come out as integrated human beings, then there is the need to engage them in an

integrated manner while still at school.

Several Researches coupled with the kind of pedagogical approaches have confirmed that Learning

occurs when new information is interpreted from the known - the concepts one already

comprehends determine what one can click‟ and grasp. Knowledge, skills and attitudes develop in

the interplay between old notions and new impressions. Education should therefore be directed to

the pupil’s own observations and experiences in relation to present situations. This is supported by

Bjerknes assertion that the meaning of the experience is partly determined by past individual’s

learning, (Bjerknes, 2002, p8). For Dewey as explained in his book called Democracy and

Education, to learn from experience is to make a backward and forward connection between what

we do to things and what we enjoy from things in consequence. He continues to point out that

under such conditions, doing becomes a trying; an experiment with the world to find out what it is

like and the undergoing becomes instruction which in turn leads to discovery of the connection of

things, (Dewey, 2007, p. 37). This further could mean that learning can also be through discovery

which necessitates the facilitator to avail the students with opportunities where they can explore

and discover new knowledge as they discover on their own. The concept of Learning by discovery
is also promoted by Bjerknes. This author notes that learning by discovery means to see and

experience new things, to gain new experiences and to experience life in new ways which

challenges the learners’ personal involvement and experience, (Bjerknes, 2002, p. 11).

Kolb also supports the view that people learn from their experiences, but for his case he goes ahead

to says that the results of that learning can be reliably assessed and certified for college credit,

(Kolb, 1984, p. 3). This calls for assessing of the learners in all activities done at school whether

it is in or out of the class which has not been the case in Ghana before. Currently in Ghana, students

are taught for one term and at the end of it then, they are given examinations where they are

required to reproduce whatever the teacher taught them regardless of what they learned out of it.

With this kind of assessment, it is most likely that there some important aspects that the learners

experience at school and go unnoticed and not credited which is not good and can jeopardize the

creativity capacities of such learners. To move away from such as well as various other teacher -

centered tendencies, it is important to consider using the Relations model of didactics while

planning and facilitating the learning process and activities.

2.5.1 The Relations Model of Didactics

The model of didactics used for planning and evaluating pedagogical work is useful when any

other planning a project to improve practice because it could be used to improve learning processes

in both SCL and TCL (Tobiassen, 2002, pp. 42-47). The model emphasizes the relations between

six phenomena which are;

i. The learning experiences: These include; knowledge, skills, attitudes and values: among

these are also learner‘s physical abilities to see, hear, walk, etc. This element also includes
 Psychological i.e. knowledge, motivation and attitudes and finally, the social ability to

work in a group, and other conditions to learn. It is an inspiring resource for change because

it is all these resources that tap from by teacher as they improve upon their practice and at

the same time giving the learners opportunity to fully exploit their resources and develop

their capabilities.

ii. Resources: They include how large the classroom is, time at one’s disposal, textbooks,

learning materials, teaching equipment and curriculum. The teacher’s qualifications,

knowledge, skills, pedagogical experiences and enthusiasm are also looked at under

resources. Some of these elements facilitate learning while others constrain it. For purposes

of this Research, these have been split into work functions (learning aids, textbooks and

group discussions, and educational frames (timetabling). In the Ghanaian setting, it has

been that the teacher selects the learning aids alone, and not with the learners. The

challenge with this practice is that the students may need different learning aids according

to their capabilities and prior experiences. This makes it a complex task for the teacher to

meet each student’s needs when they are not with him or her to express their interests and

needs and how they want to attain them.

iii. Objectives (Learning Goals): They are descriptions of the intentions of the learning

activity. These may either be short-term for a specific lesson or task and long-term for a

specified training period or goals for knowledge, skills, attitudes or values. In a situation

where the teacher wants the students to be responsible for their learning, they should be

involved in setting objectives for their learning.

iv. Learning processes: Being the main part of the plan, it includes the pupil‘s actions, the

teacher’s actions, the teaching or learning methods and classroom atmosphere as processes

leading to learn.

v. Subject matter (content): It may be what is written in a book or said by a lecturer; contents

of a film or experiences from an excursion; what students experience when they perform

role plays, critical comments from observations. In vocational education, it includes textual

& experiential matters of touching equipment, well-functioning motor, threading of a

sewing machine etc. The experience is that the teacher determines the subject matter for

the students without consideration of its relevance to each individual student.

vi. Evaluation (assessment): this can be referred to as the means to control or measure

learning and teaching. In the traditional way of learning facilitation, only the subject matter

is evaluated by the teacher. The model emphasizes the relationship between the six

phenomena and this implies that all should be evaluated with a holistic approach that is;

the learning experiences, the content, objectives and the learning processes. The evaluation

should be done by both the student and the teacher using logs, pupils’ final results,

individual& group talks to enhance an improved learning process. Below is an illustration

of the Relation model of didactics.

2.6 Cooperative (Group) Learning

Cooperative learning is an approach to organizing classroom activities into academic and social

learning experiences where students must work in groups to complete sets of tasks collectively.

Cooperative learning, as defined by The Johnsons, involves small groups of students working

together to enhance their own and each other's learning. This collaborative approach encourages

students to share tasks and support each other in the learning process.

Various terms have been used to describe this form of learning, including cooperative learning,

collaborative learning, and peer teaching, among others. Despite the different names, they all share

the common element of individuals coming together to support each other in knowledge creation

and understanding.

Research indicates that groups often outperform individuals, especially when tasks require

multiple skills and experiences. Cooperative learning fosters desirable characteristics such as

leadership, decision-making, trust-building, effective communication, and conflict management.

Senge et al. emphasize the importance of teamwork in learning, noting that while individuals retain

their individuality, their efforts naturally align in a common direction. Similarly, John Dewey

highlights the role of collaboration in learning, stating that social life itself demands teaching and

learning for its continuity.

Studies have shown that students working in small groups tend to learn more and retain

information longer compared to other instructional formats. Bjerknes also acknowledges the
significance of group interaction in learning, noting that experience is developed through

interaction with the environment and others.

Overall, learning is a social process that occurs in environments where individuals can associate,

collaborate, and interact with others. This understanding underscores the importance of exploring

closely related concepts such as the social practice of learning.

2.7 The Social Practice of Learning

It refers to life-long learning, deep reflection and dialogue in the community and these three

elements form a cyclical manner in which its members learn through practice. The Social Practice

of Learning (SPL) makes it possible for the community members to be involved in “cross

perspectival” and “meta learning”. This allows opportunity for the community members to be in a

state of awareness of and taking control of one’s own learning. It is equally appreciated whereby

individuals choose what is relevant to their learning and what knowledge they consider significant

for their practice which according to research should be a part of everyone‘s learning process. In

connection to this, Researchers have noted in Hung et al that schools should be places where

members of the community are engaged in learning and Meta learning both individually and

collectively, (Hung, Tee, Thiam, & Lim, 2009).

2.7.1 Communities of Practice (CoP)

Wenger et al (2002) in Hung et al refers to Communities of Practice (CoP) as groups of people

who share a concern or a passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact

regularly, (Hung, et al., 2009, p. 206).CoPs can be compared to learning in a group where students

interact regularly and learn together as they share experiences and develop own knowledge but
supported by the group. Also, they have a common concern and a common problem they aim at

solving or developing knowledge and skills to solve it. In communities of Practice (CoP), since

the members share similar concerns and passions, they collectively evolve the necessary structures

and processes to deepen their expertise and knowledge through engaging one another on an

ongoing basis, which Gee (1997) in Hung et al refers to as discourses. Senge et al similarly calls

it shared vision whereby and also emphasize that people with a common purpose (e.g. the teachers,

administrators, staff and students in a school) can learn to nourish a sense of commitment in a

group by developing shared images of the future they seek to create, (Senge, et al., 2000).

2.7.2 The concept of Dialogue Learning

Dialogue is an important concept for Social Practice of Learning (SPL) because it can facilitate

meta-learning which is vital in SPL. According to Bohm, Dialogue can be considered as a free

flow of meaning between people in communication, in the sense of a stream that flows between

banks, (Bohm, 1996). These “banks” can be understood as representing the various points of view

of the participants in the dialogue. Today, dialogue is used in classrooms, community centers,

corporations, federal agencies, and other settings to enable people, usually in small groups, to share

their perspectives and experiences about difficult issues. It is used to help people resolve long-

standing conflicts and to build deeper understanding of contentious issues. Dialogue is not about

judging, weighing, or making decisions, but about understanding and learning. Dialogue dispels

stereotypes, builds trust, and enables people to be open to perspectives that are very different from

their own. Similarly, in the learning process, learners can through dialogue build deeper

understanding of contentious issues as well as trust for one another which I find useful as a

facilitator.
Researchers have maintained that dialogue goes beyond understanding held by each member of a

group, and this leads to a diversified understanding (larger, expanded perspective) which enables

innovations to flourish. Bohm however observes that it is a difficult and challenging situation and

suggests that to achieve this, participants need to suspend their judgments so that deeper levels of

listening, synthesis, and meaning evolve, (Bohm, 1996, p. 22). Ng (2005) in hung et al on other

hand, points out the need to have guidelines relevant to this process, which I appreciate as a good

idea. He suggested speaking openly, freely, and constructively (voice); paying close attention to

others, with heart and mind (listen); value the views of others, not being discouraging or hurtful

(respect); and refraining from quick judgments and keep an open mind, (Hung, et al., 2009).

Senge on the other hand, maintains that it is necessary for people to come together, experience

conflict, and change in personal values, beliefs, or behaviour. He also suggests having a trained

facilitator who acts as a skilled outsider who draws back the group back to its purpose in case the

process is being side- tracked into debate, argument or manipulative consensus building, (Senge,

et al., 2000). The Johnsons on the other hand highlight the guidelines to a good dialogue as:

• A dialogue uses the give and take principle and not a one-way communication

• All participants obliged to help each other participate

• All participants to be concerned about the issue under discussion

• All participant having equal rights/ same status in the group

• Appreciating that some participants‟ arguments may be better than theirs

• A dialogue being able to create a degree of disagreement, different points of views creating

dynamics, discussions and possibilities of improvement and change

 • A dialogue needs to be able to generate decisions, which consequently became basis for

joint action, (Johnson & Johnson, 2008).

2.8 Action Research (AR)

Action Research (AR) is that form of Research approach that seeks to understand and improve the

world through collective, self-reflective inquiry that the Researchers and participants undertake

and improve upon the practices in which they participate and the situations in which they find

themselves. The reflective process is directly linked to action, influenced by understanding of

history, culture and local context that is embedded in social relationships, (Baum, MacDougall, &

Smith, 2012). Whitehead and Mcniff refer to AR as a common-sense approach to personal and

professional development that enables practitioners everywhere to investigate and evaluate their

work, and to create their own theories of practice, (Whitehead & McNiff, 2005).

Reason and Bradbury also emphasize how, AR is increasingly becoming used by many people

involved in development Research in the 21st century. They continue to say that by contrast, in

the 1980s and earlier decades, very little Researchers were using AR and through the 1990s, more

participatory Research was reported and textbooks including AR have become more common,

(Reason & Bradbury, 2006).

The essences of undergoing through the AR process should be to gain empowerment which in turn

should leave the participants with increased control over their lives and more understanding of self

and practice. This is also in line with the living theory of Action Research because the participants

have lived it, experienced and walked the walk and amidst all this process, the various individual

or collective values, knowledge, attitudes and capacities impact greatly on how they proceed.
Greenwood and Levin acknowledged the fact that there are powerful differences among AR

practitioners but however appreciated the fact that Research, participation and action are the

balance elements that must exist to qualify an AR, (Greenwood & Levin, 1998). They went ahead

to explain the three elements as;

Research: The involved people have to believe in Research as a powerful means to generate new

knowledge and value of knowledge in development.

Participation: Action Research must have an element of participation which places a strong value

on democracy and control over one’s own life situations. This value in turn creates a strong

commitment to make the whole knowledge generation process democratic but however, AR

requires involvement of a trained social Researcher(s) who serves as the facilitator of the local

community or organization depending on the settings where the AR is taking place.

Action: Because AR is aims at altering an existing situation of the group/community/ organization

in the direction of a more self-managing liberated state, it must be action oriented i.e. an action

must take place to change or improve the existing situation. AR draws heavily on Paulo Freire’s

epistemology that rejects both the view that consciousness is a copy of external reality and the

solipsist argument that the world is a creation of consciousness. According to Freire, human

consciousness brings a reflection on material reality whereby he says that critical reflection is

already action itself; reflection and action on the world in order to transform it, (Paulo Freire,

1972). It is from this position probably that Freire derives his famous quote that: reflection without

action is sheer verbalism or armchair revolution and action without reflection is pure activism,

or action for actions sake.