Radiographic Testing

Md. Ahasanul Habib

Principal Scientific Officer
Non Destructive Testing Division
Atomic Energy Centre, Dhaka
Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission
Principle of Radiography (Contd….):

Radiographic Testing of object employs X-rays or

Gamma rays to penetrate that object and detect any
discontinuities by the resulting image on a recording
or a viewing medium. The medium can be:
a) Radiographic film
b) Sensitized paper
c) Fluorescent screen
d) Electronic radiation detector
A radiograph is a "Shadow" picture produce by the
passage of X-rays or Gamma rays through an object
on to film.
Principle of Radiography (Contd…):

When a test object is exposed to penetrating

radiation, the following three incidents takes places:
a) some of the radiation will be absorbed
b) some scattered and
c) some transmitted through the metal
The amount of rays passing through depends upon
the energy and nature of the radiation and
thickness of the material.
Principle of Radiography:

The following are essential elements of radiographic testing:

1) A source of penetrating radiation, such as an X-ray
machine or a radioactive isotope.
2) The object to be radiographed, such as a weldment.
3) A recording or viewing device, usually photographic (X-
ray) film enclosed in a light tight holder.
4) A qualified radiographer trained to produce a satisfactory
exposure.
5) A means to process exposed film or operate other
recording media.
6) A person skilled in the interpretation of radiographs.
Properties of X-rays & Gamma Rays (Contd….):

1) They penetrate matter

2) They travel in straight line
3) They affect photographic emulsion
4) They make certain chemicals fluorescence
5) They may be scattered
6) They may be reflected, refracted, diffracted
7) They cannot be felt, seen, heard, or be detected in any
other way by human body
8) They damage living tissue
9) They ionize gas
Properties of X-rays & Gamma Rays:

Inverse Square Law:

Intensity of radiation reaching a point
is governed by its distance from the
source. The intensity varies inversely
with the square of this distance.

In this figure we show that as you move

further away from the x-ray source
within the cone that the x-rays fluency,
or the number of x-rays passing
through a given area is reducing as
1/R^2 where R is the distance from
the x-ray source to the image receptor.
Radiographic Equipment and Radiation Sources :
Two of the most commonly used sources of radiation in
industrial radiography are x-ray generators and gamma ray
sources. Industrial radiography is often subdivided into “X-
ray Radiography” or “Gamma Radiography”, depending on
the source of radiation used.

Figure: X-ray & Gamma Ray Facility

 X-ray radiography (Contd….):

Unlike gamma rays, x-rays are produced by an X-ray

generator system. These systems typically include an X-ray
tube head, a high voltage generator and a control console.

Figure: X-ray Tube Head & Control Panel

 X-ray radiography (Contd...):
•The cathode contains a small
filament the same as in a light High Electrical Potential
bulb.
•Current is passed through the Electrons

filament which heats it. The heat + -

causes electrons to be stripped

off. X-ray Generator or

•The high voltage causes these Radioactive Souce

Creates Radiation
“free” electrons to be pulled
toward a target material (usually
made of tungsten) located in the
anode. Radiation
•The electrons impact against the Penetrate
the Sample
target. This impact causes an
energy exchange which causes x- Exposure Recording Device
rays to be created. Figure: Generation of X-ray
X-ray radiography:

The wavelength of the X-ray radiations

Table 1
determined by the voltage applied
between elements in the X-ray tube.
Higher voltages produce X-rays of shorter
wavelength and increased intensities,
resulting in greater penetrating
capability. Typical applications of X-ray
machine for various thickness of steel are
shown in Table 1. The penetrating ability
of the machines may be greater or lesser
with other metals, depending upon the X-
ray absorption properties of the particular
metal. X-ray absorption properties are
generally related to metal density.
 Gamma radiography (Contd….):

•Gamma rays are produced by a

radioisotope.
•A radioisotope has an unstable
nuclei that does not have enough
binding energy to hold the nucleus
together.
•The spontaneous breakdown of
an atomic nucleus resulting in the
release of energy and matter is
known as radioactive decay.
•Although very similar to X-rays,
Gamma rays have a shorter Figure- Spontaneous
wavelength and a greater disintegration of nucleus
penetrating power.
Gamma radiography (Contd…..):

Characteristics of Gamma ray sources:

 Gamma radiography (Contd…..):

Radioactivity:
The unstable atoms may become stable by emitting
radiation. The process which is followed by the emission of
radiation is commonly known as disintegration and this
phenomenon of disintegration of atoms of (naturally
occurring or artificially produced) elements is called
radioactivity.
Materials exhibiting this phenomenon are termed radioactive
materials, or radioisotopes.
The unit of radioactivity are Curie (Ci) and Bacquerel (Bq).
1 Ci= 3.7x1010d.p.s.(disintegration per second)
1 Bq=1 d.p.s
1 Ci= 3.7x1010 Bq
 Gamma radiography (Contd…..):

Radioactive Decay:
The activity of a radioisotope dies out with the passage of
time. This process of radioactive decay obeys an exponential
law, known as the radioactive decay law. Mathematically this
law is stated as:
 O.693  t
N  N 0 exp[ ] (1)
T1
Where , No = the number of radioactive 2
atoms present at some
reference time t=0.
N = Number of radioactive atoms left after time t has passed.
T1/2 = the half life of the radioisotope i.e. it is the time after which the
number of radioactive atoms will reduce to 50% of their initial value
at t = 0.
 Gamma radiography (Contd…..):
Half Life:
The half-life, t1/2, is the time taken for the activity of a given
amount of a radioactive substance to decay to half of its
initial value.
Equation (1) is graphically shown in the following Figure.

Equation (1), if plotted on a semilog graph paper (Plotting N/No on the logarithmic scale),
gives a straight line (Figure b).
 Gamma radiography (Contd…..):
Half Life:
 Gamma radiography:

Cobalt-60 and Iridium-|92 are more widely used than

Cesium-l37. The appropriate thickness limitations of steel for
these radioisotopes are given in Table 2.

Table 2
Advantages and Limitations of Radiation Sources:
Test Object:

The variations in amount of radiation transmitted

through the metal depend upon:
(1) the relative densities of the metal and any
inclusions
(2) thickness variations and
(3) the characteristics of the radiation itself
Non-metallic inclusions, pores, aligned cracks, and
other discontinuities result in more or less radiation
reaching the recording or viewing medium. The
variations in transmitted radiation produce optically
contrasting areas on the recording medium.
Recording of Viewing Means (Contd…..):

Several different imaging methods are available to display the

final image in industrial radiography:
Film Radiography
Real Time Radiography
Computed Tomography (CT)
Digital Radiography (DR)
Computed Radiography (CR)
Recording of Viewing Means (Contd….):

The commonly used recording mean is

radiographic film. The super coat is a thin
layer of clear hardened gelatin which protects
the underlying emulsion from damage during
normal handling. Other films are coated on
both sides. The emulsion is the most
important layer of the film because it is
sensitive to X-rays, gamma rays, light, heat,
pressure and some chemicals. The emulsion
consists of a large number of minute grains
of silver bromide (silver halide) embedded in Fig.: - Structure of a
Radiographic Film
a supporting medium of gelatin, about
0.025mm thick. The Subbing layer consists
of a mixture of gelatin and a binding
material. It ensures that the thin emulsion
layer adheres firmly to the base during all the
stages of processing.
Recording of Viewing Means (Contd….):

Radiographic films are classified on the basis of:

 speed

 contrast and
 grain size
Film selection depends on:
 nature of the inspection

 thickness and type of metal

 required exposure time, and
 desired sensitivity
Recording of Viewing Means (Contd….):
Film Density :
It is a measure of the degree of blackening of the film. Mathematically
density is expressed as follows:
Density of a film=log10 lo/It
Where, lo= intensity of light incident on the film
It=intensity of light transmitted through the film
Contrast :
It is the relative brightness of two adjacent areas in a radiograph. It is
thus a measure of the difference in film densities produced by radiation
passing through different thickness of absorbing material. The greater
the density difference between the images of the flaws and the sound
materials, the easier it will be to detect the flaws.
Definition:
It is the clearness and sharpness of the line of demarcation between
areas of the different densities.
Recording of Viewing Means (Contd….):
Recording of Viewing Means:

Fluorescent screens or image amplifier systems may be

used for direct viewing by the radiographer.
Electronic devices can enhance the image, or convert it to
electrical signals for further processing, display, or
recording.
However, most radiography of weldments is currently done
with film.
Image Quality Indicators:

Image quality
indicators or
penetrameters is used
in the method of
industrial radiography
to determine the
quality or outcome of
a radiograph.
Radiographic Image Quality:
The radiographic image must provide useful information regarding the
internal soundness of test object. Image quality is governed by
radiographic contrast and definition. The variables that affect contrast
and definition are:
Identification Markers:

Radiograph identification markers of lead alloy are usually in

the form of a coded series of letters and numbers. The
markers are placed on the test piece at marked locations
adjacent to the welded joint during setup.
The view identification and the test piece identification
almost always appear in coded form. View identification is
usually a simple code (such as A, B, C, or 1,2,3)that relates
some inherent features of the weldment or some specific
location on the weldment to the view used.
The location of the view markers is hand written in chalk or
crayon directly on the piece so that correlation of the
radiographic image with the test piece itself can be made
during interpretation and evaluation of the radiograph.
Qualified Radiographer:

Many fabrications codes and specifications require that

radiographers be trained, examined, and certified to certain
proficiency levels. The qualified and certified radiographer is
required to conduct successful radiographic testing. The
qualified radiographer will maintain:
o relative positioning of the source and film with the test
object or weld which affects sharpness, density, and
contrast of the radiograph.
o Selection of the proper type of film, intensifying screen, and
filters.
o Proper safety procedures.
 Radiograph of an Object:

Radiation Source The part is placed between the radiation source

and a piece of film. The part will stop some of the
radiation. Thicker and more dense area will stop
more of the radiation.
Defect Test Item
The film darkness (density) will
vary with the amount of radiation
reaching the film through the test
X-ray film object.

= less exposure
= more exposure
Figure.: Top view of developed film
If the specimen contains a void, for instance, more radiation will pass through the
void than through the surrounding materials. This will produce a dark spot on the
developed film.
Processing of X-ray Films (Contd…):

When an X-ray film is exposed to light, X-rays or gamma rays,

a latent image or invisible image is formed on the silver
halide crystals. By processing, the latent image is made
visible and permanent. The processing is carried inside a
dark room under safe light.
Steps of Film Processing:
 The film is first immersed in a developer solution, which
causes the areas exposed to radiation to become dark;
the amount of darkening for a given degree of
development depends on the degree of exposure.
 After development the film is rinsed in a stop bath, which
stops the action of the developer and washes away
surplus developer from the surface of the film.
Processing of X-ray Films (Contd….):

 The film is next placed into a fixing bath, which dissolves

away the unexposed silver halide grains, rendering the
film insensitive to light.
 Finally, the film is washed to remove the fixing chemicals
and then it is dried in a dryer. After drying, the film is filed
and stored for interpretation.
Film Artifacts:
During film handling and processing steps, cleanliness and
care are essential. Dust, oily residues, finger prints, droplets
of water, and rough handling can produce false indications
or mask real ones. These types of false indications are
generally termed as "Film Artifacts.
Processing of X-ray Films:
Radiographic enlargement (Contd…):

The boundaries between the film densities would be wider

than indicated in the figure, and the density would gradually
change from one condition to the adjoining condition. The film
image is wider (and larger) than the test item. This phenomena
is called radiographic enlargement, and is caused by the
divergence of the radiation from the source. The degree of
enlargement increases with:
 decreasing source to object distance and
 with increasing object to film distance
Radiographic enlargement :

Figure: Radiographic enlargement

Geometric Unsharpness (Contd…..):

(a) Source to Film Distance (SFD):

Increase in SFD Decrease in SFD

Decreases Geometric Unsharpness Increases Geometric Unsharpness

(b) Object to Film Distance (OFD):

Increase in OFD Decrease in OFD

Increases Geometric Unsharpness Decreases Geometric Unsharpness

Geometric Unsharpness:

(c) Focal Spot (Source) Size:

Increase of focal Spot Size Decrease of focal Spot Size

Increases Geometric Unsharpness Decreases Geometric Unsharpness

(d) Vibration of Source, Specimen or Film:

If the specimen, source of radiation and film vibrate
relative to each other, overlapping images will be formed.
This will spoil radiographic definition and hence
radiographic sensitivity.
Exposure Techniques (Contd….):

Radiographic film exposures are performed in a number of

different arrangements. The exposure arrangement is
chosen with consideration of the following factors:
1) The best coverage of the weld and the best image quality
2) The shortest exposure time
3) Optimum image of discontinuities that are most likely to
be present in a particular type of weld
4) The use of either multiple exposures or one more
exposures at some angle to fully cover all areas of
interest
5) Radiations safety considerations
6) Whether single- or double- wall exposures should be
used with a pipe weld
Exposure Techniques (Contd…):

The most commonly used different techniques of radiographic

method are discussed below:
Single Wall Single Image Technique (SWSI): A method of
radiographic examination in which the source of radiation is
outside the pipe and the film is close to the inside surface of the
intervening wall, or the source is in the centre of the pipe and the
film is close to the outside wall of the pipe.
In the former case several
exposures are needed for entire
weld by moving the source or
pipe position and putting fresh
film each time. In the latter case,
the entire weld is radiographed in
one exposure.
Exposure Techniques (Contd…):

Double Wall Single Image Technique (DWSI): A method of

radiographic examination in which both the source of
radiation and the film are on the outside of the pipe and
placed diametrically opposite each other. Although the
radiation passing through both walls of the pipe, the wall
closest to the source is so far from the film that it does not
throw a confusing image on to the film.
A useable image of only a part of
the wall adjacent to the film is
recorded. In order to radiograph the
whole weld several exposures are
needed by moving the source or
specimen position and putting fresh
film each time.
Exposure Techniques:

Double Wall Double Image

Technique (DWDI): This is
sometimes called elliptical method
because the resultant weld image
has this shape. The film is in
contact with one side of the pipe
and the source of radiation is
positioned on the other side and
aimed obliquely through the weld.
To ensure full weld coverage, three
exposures are made at 120° each.
This technique is applied to the
small diameter pipes.
Factors Governing Radiograph (Contd….):

A number of factors, which can have an effect on the radiograph

is considerable. All must be accurately determined and
controlled if high radiographic quality is required to be achieved.
1. Exposure Factors:
Factors Governing Radiograph:

2. Effect of Scattered Radiation:

When a beam of X-rays or gamma rays strikes any object, some
of the radiation is absorbed, some is scattered and some
passes through. Any material, whether specimen, cassette, tube
top, walls or floor, that receives the direct radiation, is a source
of scattered radiation. Unless suitable measures are taken to
reduce the effect of scatter, it will reduce contrast over the
whole image or parts of it. Scattering of radiation occurs and is
a problem in radiography with both X-rays and gamma rays.
Scattered radiation is controlled by using lead foils, screens,
filters, masks, cones etc.
Calculation of Exposure Time (Contd….):

It is necessary to work out the exact exposure time to obtain a

radiograph of correct density and sensitivity from the
prepared exposure charts provided the following factors are
known:
a) Activity of the gamma source or kilovoltage used
b) Specimen materials thickness
c) Film type used
d) Source to film distance (SFD)
Calculation of Exposure Time (Contd….):

In case of X-rays:
Exposure = Tube current (mA) × time (sec)
(milliampere-second)
(Tube current is a measure of the X-ray output i.e. the
quantity of radiation emitted by the target)

And for gamma rays:

Exposure = Strength (Ci) × time (hour)
(Ci-hour)
(Strength in curies is a measure of the quantity of radiation
emitted by the radioactive source)
Calculation of Exposure Time (Contd….):

Determination of Radiographic Exposure:

Figure- X-ray Exposure Chart γ-ray Exposure Chart

 Calculation of Exposure Time:

New Exposure Time Determination: By knowing the factors

mentioned in a), b) c) and d) the new exposure time is
obtained by using the following formula:

Where new Source to Film Distance (SFD) indicates the SFD

used in the preparation of the exposure chart for a particular
film, source or kV and the old exposure time means the
exposure time obtained from the exposure chart at a particular
material thickness, film type, kV or source.
Source to Film Distance (SFD):


Interpretation of Radiograph (Contd….):

Interpretation of Radiographic Film requires a skilled film

interpreter who can determine radiographic quality and knows
the requirements of the applicable codes or specifications. The
skills for film interpretation are acquired by a combination of
training and experience, and required a knowledge of:
(1) weld and related discontinuities associated with various
metals and alloys
(2) methods of fabrication and
(3) radiographic techniques
Interpretation of Radiograph (Contd….):

A finished radiograph film must be evaluated or "read" to

determine:
(1) the quality of the exposure
(2) the type and number of discontinuities present and
(3) the freedom of the weldment from unacceptable indications
Interpretation of Radiograph:

The essential steps of radiograph interpretation are as follows:

 Determine the accuracy of the identification of the
radiograph.
 Determine the weld joint design setup and the welding
procedure.
 Verify the radiographic setup and procedure.
 Review the film under good viewing conditions.
 Determine if any false or irrelevant indications are present
on the film. (Re-radiograph if necessary.)
 Identify any surface irregularities and verify their type and
presence by visual or other NDT methods.
 Evaluate relevance of discontinuities with code or
specification requirements.
 Prepare radiographic report.
Viewing Conditions:

Film viewing equipment must be located in a space with

subdued lighting to reduce interfering glare. A masking
arrangement should be provided so that only the film itself is
illuminated and the light is shielded from the viewer's eyes.
Variable intensity lighting is usually desirable to
accommodate film of various average densities.
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd…..):

Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a

material. These interruptions may occur in the:
 base metal
 weld material or
 "heat affected" zones
Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the
codes or specifications used to invoke and control an inspection,
are referred to as defects.
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Radiographic testing can produce a visible image of weld

discontinuities, either surface or sub-surface, when the
discontinuities have significant differences in radiographic
density from the base metal and adequate thickness parallel to
the radiation. The process will not reveal very narrow
discontinuities, such as cracks, laps, and laminations that are
not closely aligned with the radiation beam. Surface
discontinuities are better identified by visual, penetrant or
magnetic particle testing unless the face and root of the weld are
not accessible for examination.
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Cold lap:
This is a condition where
the weld filler metal does
not properly fuse with the
base metal or the previous
weld pass material
(interpass cold lap). The arc
does not melt the base
metal sufficiently and
causes the slightly molten
puddle to flow into the base
material without bonding.
Figure: Cold Lap
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Porosity:
It occurs due to gas entrapment in the solidifying metal.
Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but often
appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing
singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is
elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of
gas attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid
state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in
the material and it will have a higher radiographic density
than the surrounding area.
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Figure: Porosity

Figure: Cluster Porosity

Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Slag inclusions:
Nonmetallic solid material
entrapped in weld metal or
between weld and base
metal. In a radiograph,
dark, jagged asymmetrical
shapes within the weld or
along the weld joint areas
are indicative of slag
inclusions. Figure: Slag Inclusions
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Tungsten inclusions:
Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in
the electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper
welding procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in
the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than
aluminum or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area
with a distinct outline on the radiograph.

Figure: Tungsten inclusions

Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP):

It occurs when the weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is
one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of
penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack
may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark
area with well-defined, straight edges that follows the land or
root face down the center of the weldment.
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Figure: Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP)

Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Incomplete fusion:
This is a condition where
the weld filler metal does
not properly fuse with the
base metal. Usually
appears on radiograph as a
dark line or lines oriented
in the direction of the weld
seam along the weld
preparation or joining area.
Figure: Incomplete fusion
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Internal concavity or suck back:

This is a condition where the weld metal has contracted as
it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On
a radiograph it looks similar to a lack of penetration but the
line has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the
center of the weld image.
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Internal or root undercut:

Erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In
the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line
offset from the centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is
not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow a
ground edge.
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

External or crown undercut:

Erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the weld. In
the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the
outside edge of the weld area.

Figure: External or crown undercut

Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Offset or mismatch:
Associated with a condition where two pieces being welded
together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image
shows a noticeable difference in density between the two
pieces. The difference in density is caused by the difference
in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by
the failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Inadequate weld reinforcement:

An area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It
is very easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has
inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in
the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker)
than the image density of the surrounding base material.

Figure: Inadequate weld reinforcement

Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Excess weld reinforcement:

An area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of
that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The
appearance on a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in
the weld. A visual inspection will easily determine if the
weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the
engineering requirements.

Figure: Excess weld reinforcement

Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Cracks :
Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are
propagating in a direction that produces a change in thickness
that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged
and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes
appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
Discontinuities in Weld (Contd….):

Oxide inclusions:
Usually visible on the surface of material being welded
(especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than
the surrounding material and, therefore, appear as dark
irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph.

Figure: Oxide inclusions

Discontinuities in Weld:

Burn-Through:
It results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to
penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through
the weld, creating a thick globular condition on the back of the
weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a
radiograph, burn-through appears as dark spots, which are
often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).

Figure: Burn-Through
Casting, Rolling and Forging defects:

Casting defects:
The major defects found in casting are cracks and hot tears,
gas cavities, shrinkage cavities, inclusion, segregation, cold
shut etc.
Rolling and Forging defects:
The typical defects associated with rolling and forging
processes are laminations, stringers, seams, forging laps,
cracks. As a defect the crack is potentially the most serious
defect and is always unacceptable under any code and
standard. Other defects/ discontinuities are acceptable/
rejectable depending on the codes and standards used for a
particular job.
Safe Practices (Contd…..):
Radiation Protection:
National Licensing Authority issues licenses for the
operation of radiographic facilities. The licensing program is
concerned mainly with those companies that use radioactive
isotopes as sources.
The amount of radiation that is allowed to escape from the
area over which the licensee has direct and exclusive control
is limited to an amount that is safe for continuous exposure.
In most instances less than 10 µSv/hr, 500 µSv in seven
consecutive days and 20 mSv in a calendar year can be
considered safe.
Safe Practices (Contd….):
Radiation Monitoring:
A radiation safety program must be controlled to ensure that
both the facility itself and all personnel subject to radiation
exposure are monitored.
Calibrated instruments i.e, Survey Meter (Area Monitoring
Device) can be used to measure radiation dose rates at
various points within the restricted area. and at various
points around the perimeter of the restricted area.
Devices such as pocket dosimeters and film badges are the
usual means of monitoring. Often both are worn. Pocket
dosimeters may be direct reading or remote reading.
Safe Practices (Contd….):
Access control:
Permanent facilities are usually separated from unrestricted
areas by shield walls.
Sometimes, particularly in one-site radiographic
examination, access barriers may be only ropes or
sawhorses.
In fact, no interlock, no radiation alarm, and no other safety
device should be considered a substitute for constant
vigilance on the part of radiographic personnel.
Safe Practices (Contd….):

Use of radiation sources in industrial radiography is heavily

regulated by regulatory body of the state due to potential
public and personal risks.
Safe Practices (Contd….):

Technicians who work with radiation must wear

monitoring devices that keep track of their total
absorption, and alert them when they are in a high
radiation area.

Survey Meter Pocket Radiation Alarm Radiation

Dosimeter Badge
Safe Practices (Contd….):

There are three means of protection to help reduce

exposure to radiation:
Advantages of Radiography:

•Technique is not limited by material type or density.

•Can inspect assembled components.
•Minimum surface preparation required.
•Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks, and
material density changes.
•Detects both surface and subsurface defects.
•Provides a permanent record of the inspection.
Disadvantages of Radiography :

•Many safety precautions for the use of high intensity radiation.

•Many hours of technician training prior to use.
•Access to both sides of sample required.
•Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical.
•Determining flaw depth is impossible without additional angled
exposures.

•Expensive initial equipment cost

 Thank you all for
your kind attention.