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Engineering science 5th ed Edition W. Bolton Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): W. Bolton
ISBN(s): 9780750680837, 0080477615
Edition: 5th ed
File Details: PDF, 18.04 MB
Year: 2006
Language: english
Engineering Science
This page intentionally left blank
Engineering Science

Fifth Edition

W. Bolton

AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON NEW YORK OXFORD

PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO

ELSmER Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier Newnes

Newnes is an imprint of Elseviet
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803

First edition 1990

Second edition 1994
Third edition 1998
Fourth edition 2001
Fifth edition 2006

Copyright O 2006, W. Bolton. Published by Elsevier Newnes. All rights reserved

The right of W. Bolton to be identified as the author of this work has been
asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recordinh or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher

Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier's Science & Technology Rights
Department in Oxford, W,phone: (+M) 1865 843830; fax: (+M) (0) 1865 853333;
e-mail: permissions@elsevier.co.uk.Alternatively you can submit your request on-line by
visiting the Elsevier web site at http:www.elsevier.comflocate/permissions,and selecting
Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material

Notice
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury andlor damage to persons
or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use
or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material
herin. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent
verification of diganoses and drug dosages should be made

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

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our website at www.newnespress.com

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 Contents

Preface

1 Basics Introduction
Basic terms
Manipulating equations
S1 Units
Measurements
Random errors
Significant figures
Graphs
Problems

2 Statics Introduction
Forces in equilibrium
Resultant forces
Resolving forces
Moment of a force
Centre of gravity
Static equilibrium
Measurement of force
Activities
Problems

3 Stress and strain Introduction

Stress and strain
Stress-strain graphs
Poisson's ratio
Activities
Problems

4 Linear motion Introduction

Straight-line motion
Vectors
Motion under gravity
Graphs of motion
Activities
Problems

Angular motion Introduction

Equations of motion
Relationship between linear and angular motion
vi Contents

Torque
Activities
Problems

6 Dynamics Introduction
Newton's laws
Problems

7 Energy Introduction
Energy transformations
Work
Potential energy
Kinetic energy
Conservation of mechanical energy
Power
Torque and work done
Activities
Problems

8 Heat Introduction
Heat capacity
Expansion
Gas laws
Activities
Problems

9 D.c. circuits Introduction

Kirchhoff S laws
Resistance
Resistors in series
Resistors in parallel
Series-parallel circuits
Resistivity
Basic measurements
Activities
Problems

10 Magnetism Introduction
Electromagnetic induction
Generators
Transformers
Force on a current-carrying conductor
Activities
Problems

11 Engineering systems Introduction

Block diagrams
Measurement systems
Control systems
Closed-loop systems
Problems
 Contents vii

12 Circuit analysis Introduction

Series and parallel resistors
Kirchhoff S laws
Internal resistance
Problems

13 Semiconductors Introduction
Current flow
Junction diodes
Activities
Problems

14 Capacitance Introduction
Capacitor
Capacitors in series and parallel
Parallel plate capacitor
Forms of capacitors
Capacitors in circuits
Energy stored in a charged capacitor
Activities
Problems

15 Magnetic flux Introduction

Electromagnetic induction
The magnetic circuit
Reluctance
Magnetisation curves
Hysteresis
Inductance
Mutual inductance
Force on a current-carrying conductor
Activities
Problems

16 Alternating current Introduction

Sinusoidal waveform
Average value
Root-mean-square values
Basic measurements
Activities
Problems

17 Series a.c. circuits Introduction

Sine waves and phasors
R, L, C in a.c. circuits
Components in series
Series resonance
Subtracting phasors
Power in a.c. circuits
Power factor
Rectification
viii Contents

Activities
Problems

18 D.c. circuit analysis Introduction

ThCvenin's theorem
Norton's theorem
Maximum power transfer
Problems

19 D.c. machines Introduction

D.c. motors
D.c. generators
Problems

20 Transients Introduction
Purely resistive circuit
RC circuit: charging
RC circuit: discharging
Rectangular waveforms and RC circuits
RL circuit: current growth
RL circuit: current decay
Rectangular waveforms and RL circuits
Activities
Problems

21 Parallel a.c. circuits Introduction

Parallel circuits
Parallel resonance
Power in a parallel circuit
Filter circuits
Activities
Problems

Introduction
The three phases
Connection of phases
Power in a balanced system
Induction motor
Problems

23 Structures Introduction
Pin-jointed frameworks
Bow's notation
Method of joints
Method of sections
Problems

24 Beams Introduction
Shear force and bending moment
Bending moment and shear force diagrams
Problems
 Contents ix

25 Components Introduction
Factor of safety
Composite members
Thermal strain
Shear stress
Problems

26 Circular motion Introduction

Centripetal acceleration
Cornering
Centrifugal clutch
Problems

27 Mechanical power Introduction

transmission Law of machines
Examples of machines
Gears
Belt drives
Linkage mechanisms
Activities
Problems

28 Structural members Introduction

Bending stress
Columns
Activities
Problems

29 Frictional resistance Introduction

Laws of fiction
Screw thread
Activities
Problems

30 Angular dynamics Introduction

Moment of inertia
Combined linear and angular motion
D7Alembert'sprinciple
Angular kinetic energy
Problems

31 Oscillations Introduction
Simple harmonic motion
Mass on a spring
Simple pendulum
Energy of SHM
Resonance
Activities
Problems
X Contents

Appendix: Calculus A. 1 Differentiation

A.2 Integration

Answers

Index
 Preface

Aims This book aims to provide a comprehensive grounding in science relevant

to engineers by:

Providing a foundation in scientific principles which will enable the

solution of simple engineering problems.
Providing a platform for firther study in engineering.
Providing the basic principles underlying the operation of electrical
and electronic devices.
Providing the basic principles underlying the behaviour and
performance of static and dynamical mechanical systems.

The breadth of its coverage makes it an ideal course book for a wide
range of vocational courses and foundation or bridging programmes for
Higher Education.

BTEC National units The content has been carefully matched to cover the latest UK syllabuses,
in particular the new specifications for Engineering in the BTEC National
from Edexcel. It goes beyond the core science to include all the
mechanical, electrical and electronic principles that can be included in
courses at this level. It thus completely covers the units:

Science for Technicians

Electrical and Electronic Principles
Further Electrical Principles
Mechanical Principles
Further Mechanical Principles

The grid that follows shows how the chapters in this book relate to those
units and their content.

Changes from the fourth edition For the fifth edition, the book:

Has been completely reorganised and reset to more closely match the
BTEC Engineering National units and their learning outcomes and
content.
Includes extra material required to give the comprehensive coverage
of all the science and principles at this level.
xii Preface

Chapter 1 includes, not only a discussion of units and measurements,

but also the basic mathematics principles necessary for study of the
science. An Appendix includes the basic elements of calculus which
may be needed for some of the later chapters in this book.

Structure of the book The book has been designed to give a clear exposition and guide readers
through the scientific principles, reviewing background principles where
necessary. Each chapter includes numerous worked examples and
problems. Answers are supplied to all the problems.

W. Bolton
 Preface xiii

Relationship of chapters to the BTEC units

Science for Technicians
Revision of basics and mathematics Chapter 1
Static and dynamic forces Forces Chapter 2
Stress and strain Chapter 3
Motion: linear Chapter 4
Motion: angular Chapter 5
Motion: dynamics Chapter 6
Energy Work, energy, power Chapter 7
Heat Chapter 8
Electrical principles Electrical energy, d.c. circuits Chapter 9
Magnetism Chapter 10
Closed-loop engineering systems Principles, systems and sub-systems Chapter 11
Electrical and electronicprinciples
Circuit analysis D.c. circuit analysis methods, circuits Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Electric field and capacitors Electric fields, capacitors, circuits chapter 14
Magnetic fields and electromagnetic Magnetic fields, electromagnetic induction, circuits Chapter 15
induction
Single phase a.c. waveforms, a.c. circuit Main parameters Chapter 16
theory
Single phase a.c. theory, circuits Chapter 17
Further electrical principles
D.c. circuit analysis D.c. circuit analysis methods Chapter 18
D.c. machines Chapter 19
D.c. transients Charging of capacitors and inductors, discharging a Chapter 20
capacitor, disconnecting an inductor, circuit response
to rectangular waveforms
Single phase parallel circuits Parallel a.c. circuits, filters Chapter 21
Three phase systems Three-phase supply, three phase induction motors Chapter 22
Mechanical principles
Engineering structures Loading systems, pin-jointed framed structures Chapter 23
Beams Chapter 24
Engineering components Structural members, compound members, fastenings Chapter 25
Centripetal acceleration and centripetal Centripetal acceleration and force, centrifugal clutches, Chapter 26
force stabilitv of vehicles
Mechanical power transmission Simple machines, belt drives, linkage mechanisms Chapter 27
Further mechanical principles
Standard section structural members Selection of beams, selection of compression members Chapter 28
Frictional resistance Limiting frictional resistance, motion on horizontal and Chapter 29
inclined planes, friction in screw threads
Linear and angular motion Rotational kinetics, combined linear and angular Chapter 30
motion
Natural vibration Simple harmonic motion, mass-spring systems, simple Chapter 3 1
 l Basics

1.l Introduction In this chapter there is a review of some basic engineering science terms
and, as within this book and your studies you will come across many
equations, the manipulation of equations and the units in which quantities
are specified. Engineers make measurements to enable theories to be
tested, relationships to be determined, values to be determined in order to
predict how components might behave when in use and answers obtained
to questions of the form - 'What happens if?'. Thus, there might be
measurements of the current through a resistor and the voltage across it in
order to determine the resistance. Thus, in this introductory chapter, there
is a discussion of the measurement and collection of data and the errors
that can occur.

1.2 Basic terms The following are some basic terms used in engineering science:

1 Mass
The mass of a body is the quantity of matter in the body. The greater
the mass of a body the more difficult it is to accelerate it. Mass thus
represents the inertia or 'reluctance to accelerate'. It has the S1 unit of
kg.

2 Density
If a body has a mass m and volume V, its density p is:

Density has the S1 unit of kg/m3.

Example
What is the mass of a block of wood of density 750 kg/m3 if it has a
volume of 2 m3?

Mass = density X volume = 750 X 2 = 1500 kg.

3 Relative density
Relative density is by what factor the density of a substance is greater
than that of water and is thus defmed as:

density of a material
relative density =
density of water
2 Engineering Science

Since relative density is a ratio of two quantities in the same units, it

is purely a number and has no units.

Example
If the density of water at 20°C is 1000 kg/m3 and the density of
copper is 8900 kg/m3,what is the relative density of copper?

Relative density of copper = 890011000 = 8.9.

Force
We might describe forces as pushes and pulls. If you pull a spring
between your hands we can say that your hands are applying forces to
the ends of the spring. If there is an unbalanced force acting on an
object it accelerates. Force has the S1 unit of the newton (N).

Weight
The weight of a body is the gravitational force acting on it and which
has to be opposed if the body is not to fall. The weight of a body of
mass m where the acceleration due to gravity is g is mg. Weight, as a
force, has the S1 unit of N.

Example
What is the weight of a block with a mass of 2 kg if the acceleration
due to gravity is 9.8 rn/s2?

Pressure
If a force F acts over an area A, the pressure p is:

It has the S1 unit of Nlm2, this being given the special name of pascal
Fa).

1.3 Manipulating equations The term equation is used when there is an exact balance between what is
on one side of the equals sign (=) and what is on the other side. Thus with
the equation V = IR, the numerical value on the left-hand side of the
equals sign must be the same as the numerical value on the right-hand
side. If V has the value 2 then the value of IR must have the value 2.

1.3.1 Basic rules for manipulating equations

1 Adding the same quantity to, or subtracting the same quantity Pom,
both sides of an equation does not change the equality.
Thus if we subtract 12 from both sides of the equation x + 12 = 20,
thenx + 12 - 12 = 20 - 12 and so x = 20 - 12 = 8. We might
consider this rule as being: when you move a quantityfrom one side
of the equals sign to the other side you change its sign. This is
termed transposition.
 Basics 3

2 Multiplying, or dividing, both sides of an equation by the same

non-zero quantity does not change the equality.
If we have the equation:

then we can multiply both sides of the equation by 3 to give:

and so

We can then divide both sides of the equation by 2 to give:

You might like to think of this rule as being: when you move a
numerator fiom one side of an equation to the other, it becomes a
denominator; when you move a denominator from one side of an
equation to the other, it becomes a numerator. This is termed
transposition.

In general, whatever mathematical operation we do to one side of an

equation, provided we do the same to the other side of the equation then
the balance is not affected. Thus we can manipulate equations without
affecting their balance by, for example:

1 Adding the same quantity to both sides of the equation.

2 Subtracting the same quantity from both sides of the equation.
3 Multiplying both sides of the equation by the same quantity.
4 Dividing both sides of the equation by the same quantity.
5 Squaring both sides of the equation.
6 Taking the square roots of both sides of the equation.
7 Taking logarithms of both sides of the equation.

The term transposition is used when a quantity is moved from one side
of an equation to the other side. The following are basic rules for use with
transposition:

1 A quantity which is added on the left-hand side of an equation

becomes subtracted on the right-hand side.
2 A quantity which is subtracted on the left-hand side of an equation
becomes added on the right-hand side.
3 A quantity which is multiplying on the right-hand side of an equation
becomes a dividing quantity on the left-hand side.
4 A quantity which is dividing on the left-hand side of an equation
becomes a multiplying quantity on the right-hand side.
4 Engineering Science

Example
The voltage V across a resistance R is related to the current through it
by the equation V = IR. When V = 2 V then I = 0.1 A. What is the
value of the resistance?

Writing the equation with the numbers substituted gives:

Multiplying both sides of the equation by 10 gives:

Hence 20 = 1R and so the resistance R is 20 R.

Alternatively we might consider the manipulation of the equation
2 = 0.1R as: moving the numerator 0.1 from the right side to the left
gives 210.1 = R and so R is 20 R. We can check the result by putting
this value back in the original equation and confirm that it still
balances: 2 = 0.1 X 20.

Example
Determine L in the equation 2 = E.
Squaring both sides of the equation gives us the same as multiplying
both sides of the equation by the same quantity since 2 is the same as
d(~l10):

Hence, we have L = 40. We can check this result by putting thc value
in the original equation to give 2 = d(40110).

1.3.2 Brackets
Brackets are used to show terms are grouped together, e.g. 2(x + 3)
indicates that we must regard the x + 3 as a single term which is multiplied
by 2. Thus when removing brackets, each term within the bracket is
multiplied by the quantity outside the bracket, e.g.

1 Adding and subtracting bracketed quantities

When a bracket has a + sign in front of the bracket then effectively
we are multiplying all the terms in the bracket by + l , e.g.
 Basics 5

When a bracket has a - sign in front of the bracket then we are

multiplying all the terms in the bracket by -1, e.g.

2 Multiplication of two bracketed quantities

When we have (a + b)(c + d)then, following the above rule for the
removal of brackets, each term within the first bracket must be
multiplied by the quantity inside the second bracket to give:

Example
Determine the value ofx in 4(2x + 3) = 3(x + 1).

Removing the brackets gives 8x + 12 = 3x + 3 and hence 5x = -9 and

SO X = -915.

1.3.3 Manipulation of algebraic fractions

Consider the addition of two fractional terms alb and cld.

We proceed by multiplying the numerator and denominator of each

fraction by the same quantity; this does not change the value of a fraction.
The quantity is chosen so that both fractions end up with the same
denominator. Thus:

-aX - d + -cX - = -b ad+&

b d d b bd

Example
Express the following as single fractions:

This can be written as:

1.3.4 Rearranging equations

Suppose we have the equation F = kx and we want to solve the equation
for X in terms of the other quantities. Writing the equation as kx = F and
then transposing the k from the left-hand side to the right-hand side (or
dividing both sides by k) gives
6 Engineering Science

As another example, consider the following equation for the variation of

resistance R of a conductor with temperature t:

Rt = Ro(l + at)

where R, is the resistance at temperature t, R0 the resistance at P C and a a

constant called the temperature coefficient of resistance. We might need
to rearrange the equation so that we express a in terms of the other
variables. As a first step we can multiply out the brackets to give:

Transposing the R0 from the left-hand to the right-hand side of the

equation gives:

Reversing the sides of the equation so that we have the term involving a
on the left-hand side, we then have

Transposing the Rot from the left-hand to the right-hand side gives

a=- Rt -R0
Rot

Example
Rearrange the following equation for resistances in parallel to obtain
RI in terms of the other variables:

Transposing 1IRz from the left-hand side to the right-hand side of the
equation gives:

Arranging the fractions on the right-hand side of the equation with a

common denominator, then:

We can invert the fractions provided we do the same to both sides of

the equation. Effectively what we are doing here is transposing the
numerators and denominators on both sides of the equation. Thus:
Another Random Scribd Document
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The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.55%
accurate

HOUSEHOLD LINENS 335 SIZES OF SHEETS,

PILLOWCASES, AND BLANKETS SHEETS SIZE OF BED WIDTH
LENGTH Single .... Three-quarter . Double ... 63 inches (7 quarters)
72 inches (8 quarters) 72 inches (8 quarters) 81 inches (9 quarters)
81 inches (9 quarters) 90 inches (10 quarters) 96, 99, 108 inches
96, 99, 108 inches 96, 99, 108 inches 96, 99, 108 inches 96, 99, 108
inches 96, 99, 108 inches PILLOWCASES WIDTH LENGTH 21 inches
22^- inches (regulation size) 25 inches 27 inches 36 inches 36
inches 36 inches 36 inches BLANKETS SIZE OF BED WIDTH LENGTH
Single. . . . 60 inches 80 inches 60 inches 84 inches 60 inches 90
inches Three-quarter . 66 inches 80 inches 70 inches 80 inches
Double . . . 72 inches 84 inches 72 inches 90 inches 80 inches 90
inches Activity. — Make a list of the household linens, including the
cost, which you think would be needed for a family consisting of a
father, mother, two daughters, one twelve and one sixteen, and a
son, eight years old.
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.14%
accurate

336 THE HOME ITSELF FABRICS MOST SUITABLE FOR

HOME FURNISHINGS NAME OF FABRIC KIND OF FIBER FROM
WHICH FABRIC Is MADE TYPE OF FURNISHING FOR WHICH FABRIC
Is SUITED Armure . . . Silk, rayon Couch covers drapes Art Linen .
Linen Lunch cloths napkins Art Ticking .... Artificial Leather . .
Austrian Shade Cloth Axminster .... Blanket Cotton Cotton coated
with a nitro-cellulose preparation Cotton, rayon, silk, cotton and
rayon Cotton back, wool facing Cotton wool cotton and doilies,
towels, runners Mattresses, pillow covers Upholstering Window
shades, bedspreads Carpets, rugs Bed covers wool Silk, rayon,
cotton and Draperies Brussels . rayon Cotton back wool facing
Carpets rugs Canton Linen Casement Cloth . . Chintz Cotton, ramie
Silk, silk and cotton, rayon, cotton and rayon Cotton (plain or glazed)
Lunch cloths, doilies Curtains Draperies furniture covCrash . . .
Cotton linen, cotton erings Draperies, upholstering, Cretonne and
jute, jute and linen Cotton, linen pillows, table runners Hangings,
upholstery Damask Wool silk rayon, cotUpholstery, draperies ton, or
combinations of these Cotton Slip covers, drapes Dimity .... Cotton
Glass curtains, bedFortuny Print . . . Gauze Cotton Cotton, linen
spreads Curtains, table covers Glass curtains Gingham Glass
Toweling . . . Grenadine .... Cotton Cotton, linen Cotton, linen
Curtains Towels, dish cloths Glass curtains
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.21%
accurate

HOUSEHOLD LINENS 337 NAME OF FABRIC KIND OF FIBER

FROM WHICH FABRIC Is MADE TYPE OF FURNISHING FOR WHICH
FABRIC Is SUITED Indian Head .... Lawn . . Cotton Cotton Towels,
lunch cloths Glass curtains Leno Cotton Glass curtains Marquisette
.... JVIohair Cotton, silk, rayon, wool Cotton and wool Curtains
Upholstery, draperies Monk's Cloth . . . Napery Net Cotton, cotton
and linen or jute Linen, cotton Cotton silk rayon Draperies, couch
covers, upholstery Table linens Glass curtains Oilcloth Pongee Cotton
coated with a preparation of linseed oil and paints Wild silk Table
and shelf coverings Art needlework, curtains Poplin Cotton silk rayon
Curtains Rep Cotton, silk and cotton, Draperies, upholstery Sateen,
or Satine . Scrim wool and cotton Cotton Cotton Comforters Glass
curtains Seersucker .... Sheeting Silence Cloth . . . Silkaline Cotton
Cotton, linen Cotton Cotton Bedspreads Sheets, pillowcases Table
padding Curtains comforters Soisette Swiss (Dotted) . Table Damask
. . . Taffeta Tapestry Cotton Cotton Linen Silk Wool, cotton, silk
rayon, Curtains Curtains Tablecloths, napkins Draperies, bedspreads
Upholstery draperies Terry Cloth .... Theatrical Gauze . . Ticking .
and combinations Cotton Cotton Cotton Draperies, pillows Glass
curtains Pillows mattresses Velour Venetian Cloth . . . Voile Cotton,
mohair, rayon, silk Cotton Cotton Draperies, upholstery Pillows, table
covers Glass curtains Wilton Cotton, hemp, or jute Glass curtains
carpets back ; wool facing rugs
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338 THE HOME ITSELF Furniture. — It is always an

excellent plan to buy the best quality of furniture that one can afford
because of its more lasting style. Every piece of furniture, if correct,
in a home has been selected to serve a definite purpose. Besides
being useful, good furniture is beautiful in line and design,
construction, and made of the best wood in an attractive finish.
FURNITURE ARRANGEMENT A good rule to observe in arranging
furniture is to place the large pieces parallel to the wall. Apply the
art principles of design to each piece of furniture. Each piece must
be built of strong structural lines, and ornamentation is used only to
beautify structural lines and should not be just "stuck on," as fussy
handles. Upholstery, so much in vogue today, needs to be selected
with care. Review the list of materials for home furnishings on pages
336 and 337 for suggestions. Avoid designs too large for the spaces,
or colors too bright in upholstery. Whether furniture is varnished or
painted, select a hard wood, as walnut, oak, and mahogany. Before
buying furniture it is most helpful to visit a furniture factory, local
stores, and repair shops so that you can see how furniture is made.
Examine the
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THE RIGHT ACCESSORIES 339 furniture carefully as you

buy it or help in the selection, and consider these questions : 1. Is
the furniture useful and appropriate for its use? 2. Is its construction
strong and of the best ? 3. Is its design pleasing and beautiful ? 4. Is
the decoration a part of the structural design and not just extra ? 5.
Is the wood and finish of a good quality? 6. Is the upholstering of an
interesting design and good quality? 7. Will it harmonize with the
other furnishings ? 8. Is the price reasonable for the quality ?
Activity. — Make a list of the pieces of furniture needed to furnish a
5-room bungalow. What kind of wood and upholstering would you
use ? Find out an average price for each piece. LIGHTING A lamp is
often needed to complete a group of furniture, and makes the
grouping more interesting and useful. The Right Accessories. —
Accessories, the smaller articles of home furnishings, such as lamps,
pictures, pillows, pottery, and table covers, add much to the livable
atmosphere of a home. Without some ornaments a home seems
rather barren, yet too many make a room seem cluttered. Be certain
that the pieces chosen are useful, beautiful in themselves, and in
harmony with the rest of the room. Avoid over-decoration in all
furnishings. Lamps and Lighting. — A simply furnished room may be
made most homelike by the use of well-selected and well-placed
lights. Lights should be distributed so there is fairly even lighting in
the room, and arranged at those places where one wishes to call
attention to a group of furniture or where such close work as
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340 THE HOME ITSELF reading, writing, or sewing is done.

Proper shading concentrates the light and throws it down upon the
objects one wishes to light and not into the eyes of the reader.
Pictures. — Try to select pictures that are of worthwhile subjects and
of interest to the people who use the room. The size of the picture
should be in keeping with the wall space it is to occupy. Remember
that one good picture is more worth while and in better taste than a
few cheap ones. Generally pictures are hung so they appear flat
against the wall and so the eye of the average person, while
standing, will be about opposite the center of the picture. Small
pictures may be grouped together, but do not have too many groups
in a room. In any grouping keep the centers of the pictures on the
same level and hang them about two or three inches apart, so they
seem to form one decorative spot. Pillows. — Select pillows which
are attractive but always practical. A fancy pillow which cannot be
used has no place in a home. Flowers and Vases. — Natural flowers,
attractively arranged to look as natural as possible, form an
interesting interior decoration because they add color and cheer to a
room. Select a proper vase; remember that the holder is the
background and the flowers the center of interest. Generally, short-
stemmed flowers look better in low vases and long-stemmed flowers
in tall vases. Do not use too many flowers in one place, but place a
flower arrangement in relation to its surroundings. Tablerunners and
Textile Covers. — All correct tablerunners and covers are for the
purpose of protection and not as ornamentation. Buy fabrics of good
quality, as they will wear better, and keep the design simple and
conventionalized. Good Arrangement Makes an Attractive Home. —
Although there can be no set rule governing the placing of furniture
in a room, there are some helpful general suggestions. Each home is
individual and must be so treated in order to express the person 
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GOOD ARRANGEMENT MAKES AN ATTRACTIVE HOME 341

ality of the occupants. As every object in a room is useful, it must be
so placed that it will be convenient and comfortable for the user. To
illustrate, lamps should be placed near chairs to be useful in reading
and working. Arrange a room so that from the entrance it appears
inviting; not the back of a sofa appearing first, nor 'an obstruction to
walk around, but an open center space. Place large pieces of
furniture with long, straight lines parallel to yet not touching the wall
; never put them across the corner. Arrange the furniture in a room
so that it is perfectly balanced, as this gives a restful effect. Each
room is more interesting if there is a center of interest. What a
pleasing grouping can be made around the fireplace, the radio, or a
large window. If the furniture is grouped in a room as it is used
naturally, an arrangement usually results which is pleasing and most
useful. After you arrange or rearrange the furnishings in a room,
stand and view it critically from different positions in the room.
Judge its appearances by thinking of such questions : 1. Does the
room express homelikeness and hospitality? 2. Does the room serve
its purpose ? 3. Do the furnishings harmonize with the near-by
rooms ? 4. Is there a feeling of rest? Does the room naturally
express the art principles of design ? 5. Is the arrangement of the
furniture correct, convenient, and comfortable ? 6. Are the curtains
hung correctly ? 7. Are the pictures arranged and hung right ? 8. Are
there just enough accessories or does the room appear cluttered?
Activity. — Find pictures of living rooms, dining rooms, and
bedrooms which you think are most livable. What qualities
determined your selection ?
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342 THE HOME ITSELF Your Own Room. — Everyone

enjoys a cheerful attractive bedroom. Your bedroom is the one room
in the house which is really your own room, and thus it can be made
to express your ideas. If you are one of the many girls who cannot
have a room alone, you can still express your own ideas. If two are
to occupy a room, it is, of course, only fair that both should be
considered and the furnishings selected by both. Plan the room so it
will be attractive, cheerful, comfortable, convenient, and sanitary. It
is the careful planning that saves the most time and money, as we
learned in Chapter II. As a bedroom is primarily for rest and sleep,
proper ventilation is important. This means that there should be
plenty of fresh air both day and night. CARELESSNESS VERSUS
NEATNESS SUGGESTED CLASS PROBLEMS 1. Make a booklet on the
subject, " Ideal Furnishing for a House." Design an attractive cover.
Plan each room, including the following topics, for which select
illustrations from magazines or catalogues and samples. (a) Color
scheme. (6) Walls. (c) Woodwork. (d) Floors. (e) Floor coverings. (/)
Curtains and draperies. (g) Furniture. (h) Arrangement of furniture.
Draw an outline of each room
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HOME PRACTICE 343 (using a scale), showing the

arrangement of the windows, doors, and furniture. (i) Accessories. 2.
Discuss the combination of woodwork and wall finishes that would
look well in dark rooms, in light sunny rooms, and medium light
rooms. 3. Have the class collect as many samples of wall finishes as
possible. Discuss these as to their use for appropriate backgrounds.
4. Visit a store where rugs and carpets are sold. Learn the names,
chief characteristics, and average price of each. 5. List the
measurements of standard-sized rugs. 6. Visit a furniture store.
Study the different types, woods, finishes, and prices of furniture. 7.
Make a class report on the history of furniture from information
obtained from reference books. 8. Bring pictures of accessories for
the home to class. Discuss each as to appropriateness and
usefulness. 9. Name as many of the masterpiece pictures as you
can. 10. Examine samples of linens for the home. Learn the names
and uses of each. 11. Study furniture catalogues. Criticize the line
and design of the pieces. 12. Criticize the background and
arrangement of furniture in your classroom. 13. Make an article to
furnish your bedroom. 14. Write a description of a bedroom which
you like. 15. Bring to class all kinds of pieces of bed linens. Discuss
the size, quality, and price of each. 16. Make a list of beddings and
linens needed for two bedrooms. HOME PRACTICE 1. Perhaps your
father can tell you about the different kinds of woods used for
woodwork and floors ; and varnishes and paints. 2. Learn the names
of the rugs and carpets and of the materials of the curtains in your
home.
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344 THE HOME ITSELF 3. Help your mother to arrange the

furniture and furnishings of your home. 4. Make at least one
accessory for the home. Bring it to class. SELECTED REFERENCES
Fales, Winnifred A., A Simple Course in Home Decorating, Small,
Maynard and Company. Goldstein, Harriett and Vetta, Art in
Everyday Life, The Macmillan Company. Hunter, Lucretia P., The Girl
Today: Tfie Woman Tomorrow, Allyn and Bacon. Justin, M. M., and
Rust, L. O., Problems in Home Living, J. B. Lippincott Company.
Matthews, Mary L., The House and Its Care, Little, Brown and
Company. Moore, Bernice Starr, People and Art, Allyn and Bacon.
Parsons, Frank Alvah, Interior Decoration, Doubleday, Doran and
Company. Post, Emily, The Personality of a House, Funk and
Wagnalls Company. Rolfe, Amy, Interior Decoration for the Small
House, The Macmillan Company. Trilling, Mabel B., and Williams,
Florence, Art in Home and Clothing, J. B. Lippincott Company.
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CHAPTER XIX SUCCESSFUL LIVING ON THE FAMILY'S

INCOME In Chapter II, we learned that a budget was invaluable for
planning and spending your allowance or earnings. The same is true
for the family, as one of the most important activities for a family is
the spending of the income. Sometimes it is difficult for boys and
girls who have not learned the value of money to understand why
there is just so much money to spend in a family and so many things
for which the money must be spent. As we have learned throughout
this book that it is necessary to plan for all useful and successful
things in life, we find now that we must know how to spend the
family income intelligently. ^The Family Income. — The family
income consists of all the money which comes into the home from
various sources. The chief source is generally the salary or wages of
the father or the profit made in a business or in operating a farm.
Other sources of income for the family may be from investments
such as stocks or bonds or rentals. Another important source is the
work which the mother does in the home. If the mother did not do
the work of managing and keeping the home and caring for the
children, someone else would have to be paid for this. Estimate this
cost for one month at the wages usually paid for such work in your
community and you will see that the mother earns rather a large
income. Any work which a child does in the home is a source of
income. 345
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346 SUCCESSFUL LIVING ON THE FAMILY'S INCOME In

order that a family may know just how much money they will have
to spend during the coming year, it is necessary to estimate the
income for one year somewhat as follows : Income from father's
salary $1800.00 Income from interest on savings account . . . 40.00
Income from a $700.00 loan 42.00 Cash on hand 125.00 Total
$2007.00 *" The Benefits of a Budget. — What progressive business
can operate without a systematic scheme of expenditures based
upon its income? The need for a budget, a plan for spending money,
is generally recognized throughout the business world and in
government. Can the family limited to a comparatively small income
afford to be careless in its expenditures ? The family must know how
to spend its income to enable each member to attain a maximum of
health, comfort, recreation, and financial protection without needless
effort and MOTHER EARNS A LARGE INCOME worry. A budget
always precedes the spending of money and may be made for a
month, a half year, or a year in advance. Careful planning of the
family expenditures means a successful use of Have you ever
stopped to think what it would cost to hire all of the work done
which most mothers do in a home every day ?
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DIVIDING THE FAMILY INCOME 347 the income. Wise

spending is more important than the most diligent saving. The
responsibility for spending the income belongs to each member of
the family. Each one must be willing to do his share in making the
budget and following it in order that the whole family may receive
the most benefits by living within its income. Activity. — Mr. and Mrs.
Atkins have an income of $135 a month. They have two children,
sixteen and twelve years of age, and are paying for their home.
Often before a month is gone, they have spent the entire salary and
have not met all of the regular family expenses. What can they do to
make their income meet their expenses ? ^Dividing the Family
Income. — In planning the budget, six divisions are usually made.
Expenditures are grouped under these headings: food, shelter,
clothing, operating expenses, advancement, and savings. By careful
observation and study, experts have planned certain percentages as
a successful average division of the income for the normal family.
These percentages vary with the different incomes and the size of
the families. The percentages for the various divisions THE DIVIDED
DOLLAR are given below. Food. — Twenty-five per cent of the
income includes all grocery, meat, fresh fruit and vegetable bills. All
meals eaten out of the home for which you pay money must be
included. Shelter Expense. — Twenty per cent of the income is the
amount paid for rent. If the family owns the home, this includes the
taxes, insurance, and house repairs. Furthermore, if the home is not
entirely paid for, there are interest and payments. Clothing Expense.
— Fifteen per cent of the income includes all articles of wearing
apparel and accessories for every member
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348 SUCCESSFUL LIVING ON THE FAMILY'S INCOME of the

family. This must include the cost of clothing made by a tailor or
dressmaker. Operating Expenses. — Twenty per cent of the income
includes heat, light, telephone, water, refrigeration, laundering and
cleaning, operating an automobile or carfare, household furnishings
and repairs, personal property and income tax, extra help, personal
gifts, household and personal supplies, as stationery, postage, and
cosmetics. Advancement. — Ten per cent of the income is the
amount which is spent for personal improvement, such as education,
travel, church, charity, vacations, entertainments, and dental, doctor,
and hospital service. Savings. — Ten per cent of the income is the
money which is invested in real estate, life insurance, or a business.
It is also the amount you put in a savings account either in a bank or
building and loan organization, government securities, stocks, or
bonds. The following division of the income at various amounts has
been suggested by Dr. B. R. Andrews of Columbia University. Some
changes have been made for the moderate or average income.
ADVANCEMENT INCOME YEARLY FOOD SHELTER CLOTHING
OPERATING Savings Personal and Insurance Minimum : $1200-
11500 . . 40^5% 16-17% 12-13% 10% 11-15% 1-3% Comfortable
: $1800-12200 . . 35-40% 18% 13-15% 12% 16-20% 2^%
Moderate : $2500-$5000 . . 25% 20% 15% 20% 10% 10% Liberal :
$6000-$20,000 . 20-25% 20% 17-18% 15% 25% 6-15% Super-
Liberal : $25,000 and above 15-20% 20% 18-20% 20% 25% 10-
25%
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MAKING THE BUDGET 349 ^Making the Budget. — To

make a budget, it is advisable first to know exactly what you owe
(liability) and what is owed to you (asset). Secondly, estimate the
total income for the year, such as salary and other income. Third,
estimate what per cent you may spend for shelter, food, clothing,
operating expenses, advancement, and savings according to the
divisions already suggested. Remember that no budget can be
worked out that would suit the needs of more than one family as
each family has a right to live its own life in its own way. Two
families may have the same income and the same number in the
family, but their living conditions may differ greatly, due to the
location of the home, the climate, the social standing of the family,
and the educational advancement. It generally costs more to live in
a city than in the country. As the income increases because of good
investments, added salary, or inheritance, living expenses may
increase. The amount spent for advancement and savings should
increase more with increasing income because food, shelter, and
clothing should never be slighted, even when the income is small.
The budgets shown here are suggested for a family varying in
members from two to five on an income of $150 a month or $1800 a
year. NUMBER IN FAMILY J l 1 l 4 L 1 I Items % Am't % Am't %
Am't % Am't Food . 233 $35 30 $45 33 3 $50 36 6 tt^ Shelter 25.5
$38 25.5 $38 25.5 $38 25.5 $38 Clothing .... 16.6 $25 16.6 $25 18.6
$28 30 $30 Operating .... 10 $15 10 $15 10 $15 10 $15
Advancement 10 $15 8 $12 6.7 $10 4.6 $ 7 Savings .... 14.6 $22 9.9
$15 5.9 $ 9 3.3 $ 5
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350 SUCCESSFUL LIVING ON THE FAMILY'S INCOME

Activity. — Make a budget for a family. You may choose the size of
the family and the amount of the income. How would a budget differ
for a family living on a salary than for a family living on a farm ?
Why ? Keep a budget and follow it. A budget may be planned most
carefully and with the best intentions to live up to it but how will it
compare with the actual expenses of the family? There is only one
way to know and that is to keep an account of all money spent. It is
not difficult to keep a budget. It is really a simple procedure and
most interesting after you once form the habit. To make this habit
one easily acquired, keep a budget book. You may buy one or make
your own by dividing blank pages into columns and heading each
column with the divisions listed on page 348. In this book keep a
record of all expenditures, and at the end of the month add the
totals of each column. In this way you can easily see if you have
lived within the budget allowance. If your mother keeps a budget,
perhaps she will let you do this for a month. If she does not keep a
budget, she may be pleased to have you keep one, and she will be
interested in talking to you about it. The Clothing Budget. — Every
family should plan to divide the money for clothing so that each
member may be as well dressed as the other members. If a family
of three, a father, mother, and child, has an income of $1800, the
allowance for clothing (15%) is $270. The father and mother would
probably have about $100 each and the boy or girl would have $70.
In a family of five with an income of $1800, 18% may be spent for
clothing. This means $324 for clothing for one year. Would the
following division of the $324 clothing budget be fair : $80
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GETTING THE MOST FOR YOUR MONEY 351 for the father,
$80 for the mother, $70 for the daughter in high school, $60 for the
boy in junior high, and $34 for the son in the kindergarten? Activity.
— What is wrong in the following situation ? A family of four with
two girls in high school spend their monthly $150 income as follows
: Food, $40, Shelter $30, Clothing $50, Operating, $10,
Advancement, $10, and Savings, $10. —Getting the Most for Your
Money. — In order to make the family income buy the things which
a family needs and desires and to save some money, each member
must be an intelligent buyer. The problem of everyone is to buy the
best possible goods for the least money. Another way for a family to
make their income go farther is to make or produce things in the
home. For example, if one can sew, the same money paid for a
readymade dress is generally sufficient to buy the material for two
dresses. Oftentimes one is influenced to buy against his better
judgment because of a sales talk by a so-called "high-pressure"
salesman, or by advertisements. If we are to get the most for our
money, we must be most careful and critical in our buying and
acquire a true knowledge of products. This information may be
obtained through bulletins from the government, and books from
our libraries and magazines. The government has done much for the
purchaser of foods through the Pure Food and Drugs Act, which
requires accurate labeling of all canned goods. Learn to read the
labels, and unless a product has been inspected and certified by a
reliable agency, it is best not to buy it. GETTING THE MOST FOR
YOUR MONEY A careful buyer and consumer knows what she needs
and the price which she should pay for the products.
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352 SUCCESSFUL LIVING ON THE FAMILY'S INCOME

Activity. — Give reasons why you think every family should allow for
some amusement when planning a budget. ^Savings. — Saving
really means going without something at the present time so that
greater happiness may be had later. It does not mean doing without
things just to put money in the bank. There is a need for systematic
saving so that a family may safeguard itself against reverses. It is
said that if one would save ten per cent of his income, he could
safeguard his future. By savings, it is possible for a family to own its
home, one of the greatest joys in life. Savings give a family a
security against financial reverses such as business depressions,
unemployment, and meeting emergencies such as accidents and
illness. Since the demand for education for children is greater now
than ever before, parents and children start savings accounts for the
education of the children. When investing money, investigate. Safety
should ^Investing Your Savings. — Savings be the first and foremost
should be invested and should be kept inconsideration. . TIT vested
in such things as bring added income and enjoyment to the family.
Just how to invest savings is an individual problem with a family or
each member of the family. It is really a wise plan when a family has
little or much money to invest to diversify the investments for safety.
Some suggestions for investments are as follows : Savings accounts
in banks bring about three per cent and are considered safe and
conservative. Make sure the bank is safe and reliable. Insurance
policies are of many types, some giving protection during life, as
sickness and accident, some paying a sum to a beneficiary after
death, and some paying a monthly income to the insured after a
certain age. Before taking out a policy,
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INVESTING OUR SAVINGS 353 investigate the different

kinds and select the one from a reliable company which is most
desirable in your case. Real estate investments give rent but there is
upkeep and depreciation of property. Lending money on real estate
mortgages is considered wise. The Postal Savings System gives
certificates which pay two to two and one-half per cent interest,
according to the amount invested. Building and loan associations
provide a regular systematic savings plan whereby people may
purchase shares of capital stock and pay for them a little at a time
either weekly or monthly. Be sure that the company is on a sound
financial basis. Stocks and bonds are bought outright. When we buy
stock, it means that we have purchased part ownership in the
company which sells the stock. If the company makes money, then
the stockholders receive dividends or their share of the profit. When
we buy bonds, it means that we lend money to be used by the
government or a company which has security for our investments.
Government bonds are quite safe but pay a low rate of interest.
Before the family makes any kind of an investment, know the
investment plan thoroughly and secure advice from some reliable
source. An Education. — Money may be invested in a college
education or educational training. Household Capital. — Money may
be invested in things such as good rugs, paintings, furniture, and
labor-saving devices. Consider what household investments will
bring the most satisfying returns. Activity. — List several reasons
why the average family should save 10% of their income. How much
life insurance is considered about the right amount for a family of
four with an income of $1800 to carry? Which member or members
should carry the insurance ? Why ?
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354 SUCCESSFUL LIVING ON THE FAMILY'S INCOME

Sharing in the Economics (e-ko-nom'iks) of the Family. — Every
member should be made to feel his or her part of the household and
part of the expenditures of the family. It is a wise plan for a family to
devote one evening a month to adding bills, paying bills, and
determining whether they are living within PLANNING THE BUDGET
A wise plan is for a family to their budSet lt wil1 helP eV67 devote
one evening a month to member to be more careful in checking the
budget to determine if spending money. If you budget they are living
within their means. & t at home, it will help you at school. To be
economically independent gives every member of the family a
feeling of self-respect and importance in the family and in the
community. SUGGESTED CLASS PROBLEMS * 1. What work should
you do without pay in the home? For what work should you be paid
? 2. Explain how a budget may make a home a happier place. 3.
Write a composition telling how your family could get the most
enjoyment from a hundred dollars. 4. Discuss the advantages of
planning in advance how to spend one's money. 5. Explain how a
budget is used by the United States government. 6. Let the class
demonstrate and discuss any method of keeping expense accounts
that has been useful. 7. Plan the ideal expenditure of your family for
a week. Compare this plan with the one used. *8. What plans can
you suggest to enable a family to have a vacation once a year? ^9.
Discuss the contribution which the mother makes to the family
income.
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SELECTED REFERENCES 355 10. Make a study of the

operating expenses of an average family. List those which are
necessities and those which are luxuries. i41. To how many
organizations can the average family afford to belong ? 12. Show by
actual figures how the family can increase its income by making
garments, making over garments, canning fruit, baking, and making
gardens at home. 13. Make the correct divisions of these family
yearly incomes : $1000, $1500, $2000, and $2500. 14. In the case
of each of the above incomes, how would you divide the 15%
clothing budget for a family of a father, a mother, a girl in the twelfth
year high school, a boy in the sixth grade, and a girl in kindergarten.
t/ 15. Give reasons why each member of a family should cooperate
by keeping personal accounts and by helping to keep the family
budget. HOME PRACTICE 1. Help to plan and keep a budget for the
family for a month. 2. Study with the family different kinds of saving
investments. SELECTED REFERENCES Abel, Mary H., Successful
Family Life on the Moderate Income, J. B. Lippincott Company.
Donham, S. Agnes, Spending the Family Income, Little, Brown and
Company. Friend, Mata R., Earning and Spending the Family Income,
D. Appleton-Century Company. Hunter, Lucretia P., The Girl Today:
The Woman Tomorrow, Allyn and Bacon. Justin, M. M., and Rust, L.
O., Problems in Home Living, J. B. Lippincott Company. Trilling,
Mabel B., and Nicholas, Florence W., The Girl and Her Home,
Houghton Mifflin Company.
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CHAPTER XX HELPING AT HOME You have been learning

how to plan and finance a home in order to make it attractive and a
pleasant place. Regardless of how well-planned and well-financed
the home may be, it will not remain attractive and give rest and
comfort if it is not well-kept. The care of a home is really interesting
and not difficult if you take the right attitude and each member of a
family is willing to do his or her share and does it. What Care Does a
Home Need?Did you ever stop to think what daily, weekly, and
occasional housekeeping duties must be done by someone to keep
your home clean and in order? Suppose you write them down under
the three headings : daily, weekly, and occasional care. Under daily
care you will include cleaning and dusting the rooms, caring for the
bathroom, preparation and serving of meals, washing and drying
dishes, and making beds ; weekly care includes the weekly cleaning,
taking care of cleaning tools, and laundering; occasional care
includes extra cleaning, waxing floors, washing windows, washing
bedding, and innumerable other tasks. Just as we learned in Chapter
XIX that large organizations budgeted their money to operate
efficiently, so they plan their time to take care of every activity to
conserve their time and movements. Likewise the family, to
accomplish all the daily, 356
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SHARING THE WORK 357 weekly, and occasional work,

requires the same kind of efficiency and skill from every member in
the management of the home. The home may be kept attractive and
clean without its care being a burden if each cooperates. The care of
the home should not fall upon any one member. Have you ever
thought of the work which your mother, as manager of the home,
must do each day in the home ? Do you think that it is fair for a
mother to have to assume the entire responsibility of managing the
home ? Every member should have a share in caring for the home.
When each member does a part with a cheerful and helpful attitude,
the care of the home becomes a pleasure. Activity. — Explain how
the idea used by the modern high school, operating on a schedule,
could be applied to a home? List its advantages and disadvantages.
Sharing the Work. Every girl and boy can share in the housekeeping
responsibilities with the mother by caring for his or her own room
and assuming a responsibility for other duties. When you are going
to school, of course you must start from home at a certain time. You
learned in Chapter II, Spending Your Time and Money, that you
should have a definite time for rising in order to keep yourself
attractive and wellgroomed and to help with certain household
duties in order to avoid rushing and wasting time. Your chief duty
will probably ANOTHER KIND OF HOMEWORK
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