Department of Mechanical Engineering

Nalanda College of Engineering Chandi

Laboratory Manual
Theory of Machines Lab

Prepared by

Sonu kumar

(Assistant Professor)
 Preface
Mechanisms form the basis of any machine and it is an assemblage of rigid bodies
so that they move upon each other with definite relative motion.

Objectives of this Theory of Machines lab are to impart practical knowledge on

design and analysis of mechanisms for the specified type of motion in a machine.
With the study of rigid bodies motions and forces for the transmission systems,
machine kinematics and dynamics can be well understood.

Demonstration exercises are provided with wide varieties of transmission element

models to understand machine kinematics. Various experiments with governors,
gyroscopes, balancing machines, gear trains, four bar mechanism, dynamometer,
cam apparatus, journal bearing apparatus and universal vibration facilities are
available to understand machine dynamics.

There are ten experiments in this lab and lab is done in fifth semester under the
curriculum of Aryabhatta Knowledge University under the subject of dynamics of
machinery.
 List of experiments
Sr. No Experiment title
Experiment on brake dynamometer.
1.
Experiment on epicyclic gear train.
2.
Determination of gyroscopic couple using gyroscopic test rig.
3.
Determination of critical speed of rotating shaft.
4.
Determination of natural frequencies of undamped as well as
5. damped.

Experiment on static and dynamic balancing apparatus.

6.
Experiment on journal bearing apparatus.
7.
Performance and characteristics of spring loaded governer.
8.
Experiment on cam analysis apparatus.
9.
Model of four bar mechanism.
10.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 1
AIM: To study the various types of dynamometers.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Models of dynamometer.

THEORY: The dynamometer is a device used to measure the torque being exerted
along a rotating shaft so as to determine the shaft power.

Dynamometers are generally classified into:

1) Absorption dynamometers (i.e. Prony brakes, hydraulic or fluid friction

brakes, fan brake and eddy current dynamometers)

2) Transmission dynamometers (i.e. Torsion and belt dynamometers, and

strain gauge dynamometer)

3) Driving dynamometers (i.e. Electric cradled dynamometer)

PRONY BRAKE: The prony and the rope brakes are the two types of mechanical
brakes chiefly employed for power measurement. The prony brake has two common
arrangements in the block type and the band type. Block type is employed to high
speed shaft and band type measures the power of low speed shaft.

BLOCK TYPE PRONY BRAKE DYNAMOMETER: The block type prony

brake consists of two blocks of wood of which embraces rather less than one half of
the pulley rim. One block carries a lever arm to the end of which a pull can be
applied by means of a dead weight or spring balance. A second arm projects from
the block in the opposite direction and carries a counter weight to balance the brake
when unloaded. When operating, friction between the blocks and the pulley tends to
rotate the blocks in the direction of the rotation of the shaft. This tendency is
prevented by adding weights at the extremity of the lever arm so that it remains
horizontal in a position of equilibrium.

Torque, T = W × l in Nm

Power 𝑃 in N-m/s
 1000 In kW

Where, W= weights in Newton

l = Effective length of the lever arm in meter and

N = Revolutions of the crankshaft per minute.

BAND TYPE PRONY BRAKE DYNAMOMETER: The band type prony

brake consists of an adjustable steel band to which are fastened wooden block
which are in contact with the engine brake-drum. The frictional grip between the
band the brake drum can be adjusted by tightening or loosening the clamp. The
torque is transmitted to the knife edge through the torque arm. The knife edge rests
on a platform or communicates with a spring balance.

Frictional torque at the drum = F× r

Balancing torque = W× l

Under equilibrium conditions, T = F× r = W× l in Nm.

Power = 2πN×T/60 in N-m/s

1000 In kW

ROPE BRAKE DYNAMOMETERS: - A rope brake dynamometers consists of

one or more ropes wrapped around the fly wheel of an engine whose power is to be
measured. The ropes are spaced evenly across the width of the rim by flywheel. The
upward ends of the rope are connected together and attached to a spring balance,
and the downward ends are kept in place by a dead weight. The rotation of flywheel
produces frictional force and the rope tightens. Consequently a force is induced in
the spring balance.

Effective radius of the brake R = (D+ d)/2

Brake load or net load = (W-S) in Newton

Braking torque T = (W-S) R in Nm.

Braking torque =2πN×T/60 in N-m/s

1000 In kW

D= dia. Of drum

d = rope dia.

S = spring balance reading

Experimental Setup of Rope Brake Dynamometer

FLUID FRICTION (HYDRAULIC DYNAMOMETER): A hydraulic

dynamometer uses fluid-friction rather than friction for dissipating the input energy.
The unit consists essentially of two elements namely a rotating disk and a stationary
casing. The rotating disk is keyed to the driving shaft of the prime-mover and it
revolves inside the stationary casing. When the brake is operating, the water follows
a helical path in the chamber. Vortices and eddy currents are set-up in the water and
these tend to turn the dynamometer casing in the direction of rotation of the engine
shaft. This tendency is resisted by the brake arm and balance system that measure
the torque.

Brake power = W×N/k,

Where W is weight as lever arm, N is speed in revolutions per minute and k is

dynamometer constant.

Approximate speed limit = 10,000rpm

Usual power limit = 20,000kW

BEVIS GIBSON FLASH LIGHT TORSION DYNAMOMETER: This

torsion dynamometer is based on the fact that for a given shaft, the torque
transmitted is directly proportional to the angle of twist. This twist is measured and
the corresponding torque estimated the relation:

T = Ip× C×θ / l

Where Ip = πd4/32 = polar moment of inertia of a shaft of diameter d

θ = twist in radians over length l of the shaft

C = modulus of rigidity of shaft material

APPLICATIONS:

i) For torque measurement.

ii) For power measurement.

 EXPERIMENT No. 2
AIM: To Measure the Epicyclic gear ratio between input shaft & output shaft.

To measure input torque, holding torque & output torque.

REQUIREMENT: Epicyclic Gear Train Apparatus.

THEORY:

INTRODUCTION:
Any combination of gear wheels by means of which motion is transmitted from one
shaft to another shaft is called a gear train. In case of epicyclic gear trains the axes
of the shafts on which the gears are mounted may move relatively to a fixed axis.
The gear trains are useful for transmitting high velocity ratio with gears of moderate
size in a comparatively lesser space. The epicyclic gear trains are used in the back
gear of lathe, differential gears of automobiles, wristwatches.
EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAIN:
When two or more gears are made to contact with each other to transmit power from
one shaft to another, such combination is called gear train or train of toothed wheels.
The nature of train used depends upon the velocity ratio required & the relative
position of axes of shaft. A gear train generally consists of spur, bevel or Spiral
gears. Depending upon the arrangement of wheels gear trains can be classified as
different types. (1) Simple rear train (2) Compound gear train (3) Reverted gear
train (4) Epicyclic gear train. In case of first three types of gear train the axes of the
shaft over which the gears are mounted are fixed relative to each other. But in case
of Epicyclic gear train, the axes of shafts or which the gears are mounted may move
relative to a fixed axis.

Simple gear train:

When there is only one gear fixed on each shaft i.e. is called simple gear train. The
gears are represented by their pitch circle. In this case one driver shaft & one driven
shaft have been attached to the two shafts. It may be noted that the motion of the
driven gear is opposite to the motion of driving gear. Here the speed ratio can be
measured by taking the ratio of the speed of the driver shaft to the speed of driven
shaft.

N 1 T2
Speed ratio  
N 2 T1

N2 T
Train value   1
N 1 T2

Where N1 = Speed of driver pulley in rpm

N2 = Speed of driven pulley in rpm

T1 = No of teeth on driver gear

T2 = No of teeth on driven gear

Compound Gear Train:

When there is more than one gear than on a Shaft. i.e. is called compound gear
train. These gears are useful in bridging over the Space between the driver & the
driven pulley. When distance between driver & driven has to be bridged over by
intermediate gears & at the same time a speed ratio is required. Then advantage of
intermediate gears is intensified by providing compound gears on intermediate
shafts. In this case intermediate shaft has two gears rigidly fixed to it, so that they
may have some speed. Here the speed ratio can be finding out by using following
formula.

speed of first driver

SpeedRatio 
speed of last driven

product of the Number of teeth on driven


product of the Number of teeth on driver

Speed of last driven

Train Value 
Speed of first driver
 The advantage of a compound gear train over a simple gear train is
that a much larger speed reduction from the first shaft to the last shaft can be
obtained with small gears. Usually for a speed reduction in excess of 7 to
1.Compound gear trains are used.

Reverted Gear train

When the axes of the first gear & the last gear are co-axial then gear train is known
as reverted gear train. Here the driver gear drives driven gear in opposite direction.

product of no of teeth of driven

Here the speed ratio 
product of no of teeth on driver

Epicyclic gear Train:

In Epicyclic gear train the axes of the shafts, over which the gears are mounted may
move relative to a fixed axis.

Here gear A & arm C have a common axis O, about which they can rotate.
The gear B meshes with gear A & has its axis on the arm at O2 about which the gear
B can rotate. If the arm is fixed.The gear train is called simple and gear a can drive B
or vice-versa. But if the gear B is fixed & the arm is rotated about the axis of gear A,
then the gear B is forced to rotate upon & around the gear A. such of motion is called
Epicyclic. The Epicyclic gear trains may be simple and compound. The Epicyclic
gear trains are useful for transmitting high velocity ratios with gears of moderate size
in a comparatively lesser space. The Epicyclic gear trains are used is the back gear
of lathe, deferential gears of automobiles, hoists, pulley blacks, wrist watches etc.

Generally a compound Epicyclic gear train consists of three gears i.e. Sun
gear, planet gear & annular gear. It has two co-axial shafts. The annular gear has
internal teeth. The sun gear is co axial with the annular gear and the arm but
independent of them.

The annular gear meshes with the plant gear. Here it may be noted
that when the annular gear is fixed, the sun gear provides the drive & when the sun
gear is fixed, annular gear provides drive. In both cases, the arm acts as a follower.

When the rotating parts of an Epicyclic gear train,has no angular acceleration.

The gear train is Kept in equilibrium by the three externally applied torques.

1) Input torque on the driving shaft (T1)

2) Output torque or load torque on driven shaft(T2)
3) Holding torque on the fixed member (T3)
By taking all calculations we can find out the holding torque

N 
T3  T1  1  1
 N2 

Where N1= speed of driver shaft.

N2= speed of driven shaft.

When the driver shaft & driven shaft rotate in the same direction.Then the input &
output torque will be in opposite direction.
DESCRIPTION:

The experimental setup consists of a motorized unit which has a sun gear
mounted on input shaft. Two plane gear meshes with the annular gear. These planet
gears are mounted on a common arm to which output shaft is fitted. Loading
arrangement is provided for apply load on brake drum to measure holding torque.
Two RPM sensors are provided to measure the RPM of input & output shaft. A DC
motor with variable speed arrangement is provided with the setup to conduct the
experiment at different speed.

PROCEDURE:

1. Clean the apparatus and checkout all connections

2. Switch on the power supply & switch on the motor
3. Increase the speed of the motor with the help of variac & adjust it to a
particular speed.
4. Apply load on driver drum by the arrangement provided with this equipment.
5. Note down the RPM of both driver shaft and driven shaft
6. Respectively apply load on driven shaft and take RPM readings
7. Note down the Voltmeter and ampere meter reading form panel.
8. Repeat the same procedure at different load condition.

OBSERVATION:

DATA:

Diameter of brake drum =200 x10-3 m.

Rope Diameter =14 x 10-3 m.

No of Teeth Sun gear =14.

No of Teeth planet gear =18.

No of Teeth annular gear =50.

OBSERVATION TABLE

Sr.No Voltage Current Load on Load on RPM

driver driven shaft
(V) (I)
shaft

T1 T2 T3 T4 Driver Driven
shaft(N1) Shaft(N2)

CALCULATION:

Speed of the driver shaft N1

Gear ratio = 
Speed of the driven shaft N 2

Voltage(V )  current ( I )  0.768

Input Torque  N m
N1

Dd
Holding Torque  9.81     T1  T2  N  m
 2 

Dd
Output Torque  9.81     T3  T4  N m
 2 

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never switch on power supply before ensuring that all the on/off switches
given on the panel are in off position.
2. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
3. Always use clean water.
 EXPERIMENT No. 3
Aim: To find experimentally the Gyroscopic couple on Motorized Gyroscope and
compare with applied couple.

REQUIREMENT:

Motorised Gyroscope Apparatus, weights, tachometer.

THOERY:

When a body moves along a curved path with a uniform linear velocity, a force in the
direction of centripetal acceleration has to be applied externally over a body. So, that
it moves along a curved path. That external force is known as active force. When a
body itself, is moving with uniform linear velocity along a circular path, a centrifugal
force is acted towards outside. That is called reactive force.

Consider a disc, revolving or spinning about the axis ox (known as axis of spin) in
anticlockwise direction with an angular velocity ω in a plane at right angles. After a
short interval of time dt, let the disc be spinning about new axis of spin ox' with an
angle dθ & angular velocity (ω+dω). By using the vector diagram, we can find out the
total angular acceleration of disc


  . p
t

 
  .
t t


Where is the angular velocity of the axis of spin about a certain axis, with
t
perpendicular to the plane, in which the axis of spin is going to rotate, this angular
velocity is known as angular velocity of precession & it is denoted by ωp. That axis is
called the axis of precession. Generally the motorized gyroscope consists of a rotor
which can free to rotate about Its own axis i.e.
  Axis of spin
 Axis of precession
 Axis of gyroscopic couple

Consider a disc spinning with an angular velocity is ω rad/sec about the axis
of spin ox, since the plane in which the disc is rotating is parallel to the plane YOZ,
therefore it is called plane of spinning. The plane XOZ is a horizontal plane & the
axis of spin rotates in a plane parallel to the horizontal plane about an axis OY. At
that condition the axis of spin is said to be rotating or processing about an axis OY,
which is perpendicular to both axes OX & OZ at an angular velocity ωP rad/sec. This
horizontal plane XOZ is called plane of precession & OY the axis of precession

Let I = mass moment of Inertia of disc about OX.

ω = angular velocity of disc.

Angular momentum of disc = Iω

Since angular momentum is a vector quantity, by plotting the vector diagram we can
find out

Rate of change of Angular momentum


 i..
t

Since the rate of change of angular momentum will result by the application, a
couple to the disc, therefore couple applied to the disc causing precession.

Torque τ = i.ω.ωp.

Where τ = ------------ Nm

i = --------- Kg m2

The couple I.ω.ωp in the direction change in angular momentum is the active
gyroscope couple, which has to be applied on the disc, when the axis of spin is
made to rotate with angular velocity ωp about the axis of precession. When the axis
of spin itself moves with angular velocity ωp, the disc is subjected to reactive couple,
whose magnitude is same but opposite in direction to that of active couple. This
reactive couple to which the disc is subjected when the axis of spin rotates about the
axis of precession is known as reactive gyroscope couple. The gyroscopic couple is
usually applied through the bearings which support the shaft. The bearings will resist
equal opposite couple. The instruments which follow above principles are known as
gyroscope. The gyroscopes are installed in ships in order to minimize the rolling and
pitching effects of waves. It is also used in aeroplanes, rail cars etc.

DESCRIPTION:

The setup consists of a heavy stainless steel disc mounted on a horizontal shaft,
rotated by a variable speed motor. The rotor shaft is coupled to a motor mounted on
a trunion frame having bearing in a yoke frame, which is free to rotate about vertical
axis. A weight pan on other side of disc balances the weight of motor. Rotor disc can
be move about three axis. Torque can be applied by calculating the weight &
distance of weight from the centre of rotor.

Experimental Setup
PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the power supply & start the motor.

2. Adjust the speed of motor to a particular mark with the help of variac.
3. Apply the weight on weight pan.
4. Measure the Angular distance covered by the rotor with the help of needle
provided at the bottom.
5. Repeat the experiment at different load on weight pan & RPM of motor.

OBSERVATION:

Weights W= 0.5,1 Kg.

Distance from centre of disc=0.20 m.

Mass of the disc = 6.8 Kg.

Radius of disc = 0.15 m.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr.No W Dθ dt

CALCULATION:

Theoretical toque τ = i.ω. ωp

1 2
Moment of inertia i mr
2
Where m = mass of Disc.

r = radius of disc.

2 N
 rad / sec (Angular velocity of disc)
60

N=RPM of disc.

 
p  X (Rate of change of angular momentum)
t 180

Actual Torque τa = mgl

m = Applied mass.

g = Acceleration due to gravity=9.81m/sec2.

l = Distance between centre of disc & point of applied weight.

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if the power supply is less than 180 volts and
above 230 volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
4. Always apply the weight slowly.
 EXPERIMENT No. 4
Aim:

 To observe the modes of vibration.

 To determine the critical speed of the given shaft with the given end
conditions.

Requirement:

 Whirling of shaft Apparatus, tachometer, and shafts of different diameters.

THEORY:

When any elastic body such as spring .beam & shaft are displaced by the
application of external forces & then released. They execute a vibratory motion.
When the particles of the shaft or any disc move approximately perpendicular to the
axis of shaft. Then the vibrations are known as transverse vibration. In this case, the
shaft is straight & bends alternately & bending stresses are induced in the shaft.
When a shaft is fixed at both ends, normally the centre of gravity will displace from
the axis of rotation at a very lower amount. As a result of this displacement, the
centre of gravity is subjected to a centripetal acceleration as soon as the shaft
begins to rotate.

The inertia force acts radially outwards & bends the shaft. The bending of
shaft is not only depends upon the value of eccentricity. But also depends upon the
speed at which the shaft rotates. Consider a shaft AB of length L, carrying a load at
any point of shaft. When some amount deflection will be given to it then released, it
will make transverse vibration. The deflection of the shaft is proportional to load W &
if the beam is deflected beyond the static equilibrium position, then the load will
vibrate with some harmonic motion. If σ is the static deflection due to load W, then
the natural frequency of free transverse vibration is.

1
Fn  g
  0 .4985
2 
Then for simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load of W per unit
length, σ can be finding out by using formula

  5
384
X WL 4
EI

Where, W = weight / unit length (Nm)

Then for fixed beam with a uniformly distributed load of W per unit length

σ can be find out by using following formula

 WL4
384 EI

In actual practice, a rotating shaft carries different mountings & accessories in the
form of gears, pulleys etc. when the gears or pulleys are put on the shaft, the centre
of gravity of the pulley or gear does not coincide with the centre line of the bearing or
with the axis of the shaft, when the shaft is stationary. This means that the centre of
gravity of the pulley or gear is at a certain distance from the axis of rotation and due
to this, the shaft is subjected to centrifugal force. This force will bent the shaft, which
will further increase the distance of centre of gravity of the pulley or gear from the
axis of rotation. This correspondingly increases the value of centrifugal force, which
further increase the distance of centre of gravity from the axis of rotation. The
bending of shaft is not only depends upon the value of eccentricity but also depends
upon the speed at which the shaft rotates. So that the additional deflection of the
shaft from the axis of rotation becomes infinite, is known as critical or whirling speed.

If Nc is the critical or whirling speed in r.p.s

Then

2N C  g


1 g
NC  rps
2 

The critical or whirling speed is same as the natural frequency of transverse

vibration, but its unit will be revolutions per second. Dunkerley’s method is used to
determine the critical speed of a shaft, which may be subjected to uniformly
distributed load, a shaft supported with short bearings is assumed to be a simply
supported shaft, while shaft supported with long bearings (or journal bearings)
assumed to have both end fixed.

When a shaft rotates, it will go in to transverse vibration .If the shaft is out of balance,
the resulting centrifugal force will induce the shaft to vibrate. When the shaft rotates
at a speed equal to the natural frequency of transverse oscillations, this vibration
becomes large and shows up as a whirling of the shaft. It also occurs at multiples of
the resonant speed. This can be very damaging to heavy rotary machines such as
turbine generator sets and the system must be carefully balanced to reduce this
effect and designed to have a natural frequency different to the speed of rotation.
When starting or stopping such machinery, the critical speeds must be avoided to
prevent damage to the bearings and must be avoided to prevent damage to the
bearings and turbine blades.

Suppose a shaft rotates, centrifugal force will cause it to bend out. Let the deflection
of the shaft be r. The distance to the centre of gravity is then r + e.

The shaft rotates at ω rad/s. The transverse stiffness is kt N/m

The deflection force is hence F = Kt r

The centrifugal force is M ω2 (r + e)

Equating force we have

 m 2 (r  e) M 2 r M 2 e
kt = Mω2( r+e) from which r   
kt kt kt

M  2e
r 
M 2
k t (1  )
kt

It has already seen that

kt  2e e
  2n r  
M 2  n 
 n 2 (1  )    1
n2  

From this we see that when ωn = ω r = e/o which is infinity. This means that no
matter how small the imbalance distance e is, the shaft will whirl at the natural
frequency. Balancing does help but can never be perfect so whirling is to be avoided
on the best of machines.

The frequencies at which whirling occurs are calculated by the same methods as for
transverse vibrations of beams

SIMPLY SUPPORTED:

The ends are free to rotate normal to the axis (e.g. self-aligning bearings)

 gEI
f  n2 Where n is the mode (i.e. n=1, 2, 3, 4………….)
2 WL4

n=1

n=2
FIXED ENDS (i.e Fixed bearing or chucks)

gEI
The lowest critical speed is f n  3 .562
WL 4

The highest Critical Speed is

2
 1 gEI
fn   n  Where n=1, 2, 3, 4………………
2 2 WL4

First Mode

Second
mode

When Chuck at one end & free at the other

gEI
The lowest critical speed is f n  0 .565
WL 4

The highest Critical Speed is

2
 1 gEI
fn   n 
2 2 WL4

Where n=1, 2, 3, 4……………… (Lowest speed corresponds to n=1)

DESCRIPTION:

The setup consists of a sturdy mild seel frame, variable speed motor bearing holders
etc. Different bearings can be fitted in bearing block to have different end conditions.
I.e.

(i) Both end fixed

(ii)Both end free (simply supported),

(iii) One end free & other end fixed.

A variable speed motor is provided to drive the shaft along with the speed control
unit. The setup is will designed to study the whirling of shaft.

PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the bearings & shaft to be tested.

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Start the motor & increase the speed of motor, with the help of varriac.
4. Observe the modes of vibration.
5. Take the rpm of shaft with the help of tachometer.
6. Switch of the power supply & fix the other shafts accordingly and takes the
readings.

OBSERVATION:
Data:

Elasticity of shaft = 189 x 109 N/m2

g = 9.81 m/sec 2

Mass of the shaft= -----Kg

 When both ends are fixed

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr No Shaft diameter(m) Mode of vibration Speed(RPM)

 When both ends are Simply Supported

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr.No Shaft diameter(m) Mode of vibration Speed(RPM)

 When One End Fixed & Other End Supported

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr.No Shaft diameter(m) Mode of vibration Speed(RPM)

CALCULATION:

 When Both end fixed

W= Weight / unit length

mg
= , N/m
L

Moment of inertia (I)


I  X d 4 , m4
64

Natural Frequency at lowest speed

gEI
f n  3 .562
WL 4

The highest Critical Speed is

2
 1 gEI
f n  n   Where n=1, 2, 3, 4………………
2 2 WL4

Critical Speed

NC=Fn x 60 RPM

 When Both end Supported

W= Weight / unit length

mg
= , N/m
L

Moment of inertia (I)


I  X d 4 , m4
64

Frequency
  gEI
fn  n2 Where n is the mode (i.e. n=1, 2, 3, 4………….)
2 WL4

Critical Speed

NC=fn x 60 RPM

 When One End Fixed & Other End Supported

W= Weight / unit length

mg
= , N/m
L

Moment of inertia (I)


I  X d 4 , m4
64

The Critical Frequency is

2
 1 gEI
f n  n   Where n=1, 2, 3, 4……………… (Lowest speed
2 2 WL4
corresponds to n=1)

Critical Speed

NC=fn x 60 RPM

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if the power supply is less than 180 volts and
above 230 volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
4. Always apply the weight slowly.
 Experiment No. 5
AIM:

To determine the frequency of undamped free vibration of an equivalent

spring mass system.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Universal vibration apparatus.

THEORY:

The vibrations the system executes under no damping condition is known as

undamped vibrations. Neglecting damping is also considered as undamped situation.
When no external force is acts on the body after giving an initial displacement then
the body is said to be under free or natural vibrations. The frequency of the free
vibrations is called free or natural frequency and denoted by fn. simple pendulum is
an example of undamped free vibrations.

Universal Vibration Apparatus

PROCEDURE:

1. Support one end of the beam in the slot of trunion and clamp it by means of
screw.

2. Attach the other end of the beam to the lower end of the spring.

3. Set the beam in the horizontal position.

4. Measure the distance L1 of the assembly from pivot.

5. Allow the system to vibrate.

6. Measure the time for say 10 oscillations and find the periodic time and natural
frequency of vibration.

7. Repeat the experiment by varying L1.

Schematic of vibration apparatus

OBSERVATIONS:

Sr. L1 w No of Time for Periodic Natural Periodic Natural

No. oscillation n time, frequency time, frequency
s oscillations T (theo) fn (theo) (T = t/n) fn (expt)
, sec (expt) (fn = 1/t)

CALCULATIONS:

1. Periodic time T (theoretical)

𝑚
𝑇 2𝜋
𝐾
Where me is equivalent mass at the spring) = m (L12/L2)
Stiffness of the spring 0.3 kg/mm
m = (W + w) / g
w = weight attached to exciter assembly
W = weight of exciter assembly = 0.44kg
L1 is distance of W from pivot = 0.25 m
L is distance of spring from pivot 0.94 m

CONCLUSION:

1. The theoretical natural frequency is _______________.

2. The experimental natural frequency is _______________.
It is to conclude that the theoretical and experimental natural frequency of vibration
is almost equal.
 Experiment No. 6
Aim: To observe the effect of vibration in a rotating system.

To balance the masses statically & dynamically of a single rotating mass

system.

REQUIREMENTS:

Static & Dynamic Balancing Apparatus

THEORY:

When a certain mass is attached to a rotating shaft, It exerts some centrifugal

force, whose effect is to bend the shaft & to produce vibration in it. In order prevent
the effect of centrifugal force; another mass is attached to the opposite side of the
shaft, at such position so as to balance the effect of centrifugal force of the first mass.
This is done is such a way that, the centrifugal force of both the masses are made to
be equal & opposite. The process providing the balancing mass, in order to inter act
the effect of centrifugal force of the first mass is called balancing of rotating mass.
During balancing the net dynamic force acting on the shaft is equal to zero. This
requires that the line of action of three centrifugal forces must be same. In other
words the centre of the masses of the system must lie on the axis of rotation. This is
the condition for static balancing. This can be observed by giving a small torque to
the shaft by hand. For dynamic balancing the algebraic sum of the moments about
any point in the plane must be zero. For this condition we have to arrange the plane
of disturbing mass between the planes of two balancing masses & the plane of
disturbing mass may lie on the or right of the two planes containing the balancing
masses.

Consider any number of masses of magnitude m1, m2, m3, m4 at a distance r1,
r2, r3, r4 from the axis of rotation shaft, let θ1, θ2, θ3, θ3 be the angle of the masses
with horizontal line (axis of shaft) & they are rotating with a constant velocity of ω
rad/see. The magnitude & position of the balancing mass may be found out
analytically or graphically by plotting the forced diagram.
 Analytical method:

First of all find out the centrifugal force (i.e. the product of mass & It’s radius of
rotation) exerted by each mass on the rotating shaft.

1. Find out the sum of centrifugal forces horizontally & vertically.

Sum of horizontal components of the centrifugal force.

 H  m r cos 1 1 1 m2 r2 cos 2   mn rn cos n

Sum of vertical components of centrifugal force

 H  m r sin 1 1 1 m2 r2 sin  2   mn rn sin  n

3. Magnitude of resultant centrifugal force

( H ) 2  ( V )
2
F c

4. Balancing angle

  tan 1 V
H

5. The balancing force is then equal to the resultant force. But in opposite
direction

Now find out the magnitude of balancing mass

FC = m.r

m = Balancing mass

r= radius of rotation

Graphical method

1. Draw the space diagram with the position of several masses.

2. Then find out the centrifugal force exerts by each mass on the rotating shaft.
3. Now draw the vector diagram with the help of centrifugal force.
4. Now as per polygon law of force closing side will represent the resultant force
in magnitude & direction.
 5. Find out the magnitude of balancing mass (m) at a given radius r such that.
mw2r = resultant centrifugal force

mr = resultant of m1r1, m2r2-----mnrn

d
4 3
Fc Fc

e
c
Fc2
Fc

b
a Fc1
Fc2 Fc1
3
Fc m 3 m2
m1

r3 r2
r1

4
Axis of shaft
r
r4
m
m4
4
Fc

Fc

DESCRIPTION:

This equipment is designed for carry out the experiment for balancing a
rotation mass system. The apparatus consists of a stainless steel shaft fixed in a
rectangular frame. A set of four blocks with a clamping arrangement provided. For
static balancing each block is individually clamped on shaft & its balancing can check
by giving a manually rotation. For dynamic balancing a moment polygon is a drawn
using relative weight, angular & axial position of blocks. The blocks are clamped on
shaft is rotated by a motor to check dynamic balance of the system.
PROCEDURE:

1. First draw the space diagram by using the mass & radius of masses.
2. Now find out the centrifugal force exerted by each mass on the rotating
shaft.
3. Now draw the vector diagram with the help of obtained centrifugal force, to
a suitable scale & find out resultant force by closing the polygon.
4. Then arrange the masses on shaft with the help of spirit level provided
with the equipment
5. Switch on the motor & slowly increase the speed of motor with the help of
variac & observe the balancing of mass on shaft by seeing the vibration of
equipment.
OBSERVATION:

m1 = ---- gm

m2 = ---- gm

m3 = ---- Gm

m4 = ----Gm

r1, r2, r3, r4 = ------ mm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO PLANE MASS RADIUS CENTRIFUGAL DISTANCE COUPLE

FORCE(m.r) FROM
(m) (r) (m.r.l)
PLANE(l)m
kg meter Kg.m

1 RP m1 r1 m1r1 0 0

2 1 m2 r2 m2r2 l2 m2r2 l2

3 2 m3 r3 m3r3 l3 m3r3 l3
 To get the required balanced mass and its angle, solve it by both analytically
and graphically (force diagram), Then fix these masses to the shaft and check the
vibration on shaft.

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if the power supply is less than 180 volts and
above 230 volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
4. Always fix the masses very tightly.

TROUBLE SHOOTING:

1. If the electric panel is not showing the input on mains light, check the main
supply.
2. If the vibration is more on system, check the angle of masses by using the
angular scale and level indicator provided with this equipment.
 Experiment No.7
AIM:

To study the pressure profile of lubricating oil at various conditions of load

and speed on a journal bearing.

APPARATUS REQURIED:

Journal bearing apparatus

Tachometer (Optional)

Oil SAE: 40 3 ltrs

THEROEM:

Generally rotating shafts are supported on bearings. If a long shaft is

supported only at two ends, it will deflect at its center due to its own weight. So, to
have a long shaft straight and its running smooth, the shaft is supported at suitable
intervals by bearings. A bearing should permit free and smooth rotation of the shaft
as well. To minimize the frictional resistance due to rotation of shaft and also to
reduce wear and prevent undue heating and seizing, an adequate arrangement for
lubricating the outside surface of the rotating shaft and the inside surface of contact
of the bearing must be made. Every shaft supported by a bearing should have a
running fit

According to the position of shafts and direction of load coming upon them,
we can primarily divide bearings in to three types. They are journal bearing, Pivot or
footstep bearing and Thrust or collar bearing.

In case of journal bearing the supporting pressure is perpendicular to the axis

of shaft.

But in case of pivot or foot step bearing pressure is parallel to axis of shaft or
vertically upward. The end of shaft reset within the bearing body.
 In thrust or collar bearing pressure is parallel to shaft axis and has end thrust.
Shaft extends through and beyond bearing.

Journal bearing:

Journal is the part of the shaft in side of the bearing body. It can be classified
in to two types names solid and open journal bearing In case of solid journal bearing
the cylindrical block is extended at the base to permit bolting down. This portion is
called sole. A hole, equal to diameter of the shaft, is drilled through the cylindrical
block making the shaft running smoothly. The shaft is inserted in the hole its one
end. An oil hole, leading up to inner hole, is provided at the top center of its body for
lubrication. This bearing is made up of cast iron and is used for the shafts, which
rotates slowly or at infrequent intervals, carrying light load only. In this case there is
no provision for adjustment wear. In case of open bearing the bearing is open at the
top and is used for very long zigzag shafts. To prevent the shaft from falling out, at
high speed, the sides of bearing are kept sufficiently high. The shape of brush is
such that it can’t rotate with the shaft. It rotates in a flanged brush.

When a shaft is running freely in a bearing which is properly lubricated, under

the action of friction, it will slow down and ultimately come to rest. The fall in speed
can be experimentally determined. Such experimental results will give a curve. It is
obvious that there is a fall in value of the coefficient of friction very gradually with
decreasing speed from higher to lower RPM .After a certain value of the speed the
coefficient of friction starts shooting up very fast. When a horizontal shaft of radius r
rotates at N RPM. There is a sliding friction in the bearing. If the load transmitted by
the shaft to the bearing is W, the normal reaction at the bearing will be R=W. The
frictional resistance to sliding will be μw acting tangentially at the line of contact
between the shaft and the bases of the bearing. The frictional couple will be μwr
units and the work absorbed by this couple for one revolution of the shaft, being
Couple x the angle turned through, is μwr x 2π units of work. If the shaft rotates at N
RPM the work absorbed by friction in bearing is μwr x 2πN units and the H.P lost in
friction will be

wr  2N
, If the work unit are ft.-lbs.
33000
This loss of work by friction is converted in to heat energy.

DESCRIPTION

The apparatus consists of a plain steel shaft excavated in a bearing and

directly driven by a FHP Motor. The bearing is freely supported on the shaft and
sealed at the motor end. The speed of the motor is controlled accurately by the
speed control unit and it can be made run in both directions. Twelve equal-
spaced pressures taping around the circumference and four along the axis are
provided and are connected to manometer by PU Tubing so that the pressure
head of oil in all tubes can be observed at a time. The bearing can be loaded by
attaching weights to the arm supported beneath it.
Experimental Setup
TECHNICAL DETAILS:

Journal Diameter 50 mm
Bearing Diameter 55 mm
Weights 1 X 2 Kg.
Motor Variable speed FHP Motor
Control Panel for speed control of motor.
Manometer 14 Tubes.
Oil recommended SAE 40
PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the power supply & start the motor.

2. Adjust the speed of motor to a particular mark with the help of variac.
3. Apply the weight on hanger.
4. Wait for steady state and note down the readings of pressure heads.
5. Plot the graph between height and distance.
6. Repeat the experiment at different RPM of motor
7.
OBSERVATION:-

Journal diameter 50 mm

Bearing diameter 55 mm

Weight applied 2 kg,1 kg

RPM = --------
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.NO No. of Points Height(mm)

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

5 5

6 6

7 7

8 8

9 9

10 10

11 11

12 12

13 13

14 14

Plot the graph between height Vs distance

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if the power supply is less than 180 volts and
above 230 volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
4. Always fix the masses very gently.
 Experiment No. 8
Aim:

1. To plot the characteristics curve of a sleeve position against the speed of

rotation for all governors.
2. To study the effect of varying mass on the centre of sleeve in portor & proell
governor.
3. To study the effect of varying the initial spring compression in hartnell
governor.
REQUIREMENT:

Universal Governor Apparatus & Tachometer

THEORY:

Generally, the friction of governor is to regulate the speed of engines.

When there is variation in the load on engines. It is necessary to increase the
supply of working fluid. It is necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. On
the other hand when the load on the engine decrease its speed increases & less
fluid is required. The governor automatically controls the supply of working fluid to
the engine with the varying load conditions. & keeps the mean speed within
certain limit. The governors may broadly classified as centrifugal governors &
inertia governors.

The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of

centrifugal force on the rotating balls, by an equal & opposite radial force, known
as controlling force. It consists of two balls of equal mass which are attached to
the arms of governor. The balls revolve with a spindle, which is driven by the
engine through bevel gears. The upper ends of the arm are pivoted to the
spindle, so, the balls may rise up & fall down as they revolve about the vertical
axis. The arms are connected by the links to a sleeve, which is keyed to the
spindle. This Sleeve revolves with the spindle but can slide up & down. The balls
& sleeve rises, when the spindle speed increase & falls down when the speed
decreases. In order to limit the travel of the sleeve upward & downward direction,
two stoppers are provided on the spindle. The speed at which the governor balls,
arms etc. are in complete equilibrium & the sleeve does not tend to move upward
& downward direction. I.e. called the equilibrium speed.

Generally the centrifugal governors can be classified at two types, one

is pendulum type which included watt governor & other is loaded type which
includes porter governors, proell governors & hartnell governor.

 Watt governor
It is the simplest form of centrifugal governor. It is basically a conical pendulum
with links attached to a sleeve of negligible mass. The arms of the governor may
be connected to the spindle by means of three ways.

1. The pivot may be on the spindle axis.

2. The pivot may be offset from the spindle axis and the arms when produced
intersect at the axis.
3. The pivot may be offset, but the arms cross the axis.
In this case height of governor can be find out by using the formula h -= 895/ N2
meter.

In this case height of governor is inversely proportional to the square of the speed
of rotation. This type of governor may only work satisfactory at relatively low
speed, i.e. 60 to 80 RPM.

 Porter Governor
The porter governor is the modification of watt governor, with the central load
attached to the sleeve. The load moves up and down with the spindle. This
additional force increases the speed of revolution required to enable the balls to
rise to any predetermined level. In this case, though there are several ways to
determine the relationship between the heights of governors (h) the angular
speed of ball (ω). Only two methods are important from the subject point of view.
In method of resolution of forces & instantaneous Centre method. In the method
of resolution of forces height of governor can be finding out by using the following
formula
If,

M = mass of each ball in kg.

W = weight of each ball in Newton = mg.

M = mass of central load in kg.

W = weight of central load = mg.

R = radius of rotation in meter.

H = height of governor in meter.

N= Speed of ball in RPM.

𝑇 = Force on copper link in Newton.

𝑇 = force on lower link in Newton.

α = Angle of inclination between upper link & axis of rotation.

β= Angle of inclination bet lower link & axis of rotation.

Assuming Length of lower link = Length of upper link

We can find out the governor height (h)

 M  m  895
h  2
 m  N

When the loaded sleeve moves up & down the spindle, the frictional force
acts on it in the direction opposite to that of the motion of sleeve. If F = Frictional
force acting on the sleeve in Newton.

Then

mg  Mg  F 895
N2   , ( when q  1)
mg h

On comparing with watt governor we can observe that the mass of central
mM
load (M) increases the height of governor in the ratio
m
 Proell governor
The proell governor has the extended weight on both sides of links. In this case
height of sleeve can be depend upon the centrifugal force arise on the extended
mass. In this case height of governor can be determined by using the Following
formula.

M = mass of each ball in kg.

W = weight of each ball in Newton = mg.

M = mass of central load in kg.

W = weight of central load = mg.

R = radius of rotation in meter.

H = height of governor in meter.

N = Speed of ball in RPM.

𝑇 = Force on upper link in Newton.

𝑇 = Force on lower link in Newton.

D = Angle of inclination between upper link & axis of rotation.

B = Angle of inclination bet lower link & axis of rotation.

 M 
m (1  q ) 
FM  2 895
Length of upper link h   2
BM  m  N
 

When the length of upper links B equal to the length of lower link then

initial sleeve position from centre  m  M  895 

h   
length of extended link  initial sleeve position from centre  m  N 2 
 Hartnell governor
A hartnell governor is a spring loaded governor. It consists of two bell
crank levers pivoted with the arms of frame. The frame is attached to the
governor spindle & therefore rotates with it. Each lever carries a ball at the end of
the vertical arm. A helical spring in compression provides equal down ward forces
on the two rollers through a collar on the sleeve. The spring force can be
adjusted by screwing a nut up or down on the sleeve. Here the stiffness of spring
can be found out by.

S 2  S1
S 
h

Where S 1 = Spring Force Exerted by the sleeve at minimum radius of rotation.

 x
S1  2FC 1 X   Mg
 y

Where M = mass of sleeve

𝑆 = Spring Force exerted by the sleeve at maximum radius of rotation

 x
S 2   2 FC 2    Mg
 y

The centrifugal force (FC) at any intermediate position (i.e. between the minimum
& maximum position) at a radius of rotation (r) may be obtained by using
following formula.

 r  r1 
FC  FC 1  FC 2  FC 1  
 r2  r1 

 r r 
FC  FC 2  FC 2  FC 1  2 
 r2  r1 

The sensitiveness of a governor can be find out by taking the ratio of the
difference between the maximum & minimum equilibrium speeds to the mean
equilibrium speed.
 Let,

𝑁 = Minimum equilibrium Speed

𝑁 = Maximum equilibrium Speed

N1  N 2
N = Mean equilibrium speed 
2

 2 1  N 2  N 1 
Sensitiveness of governor  2  2
1   2 N1  N 2

A governor is said to be stable when For every speed within the working
range there is a definite configuration i.e. there is only one radius of rotation of
balls at which the governor is in equilibrium. A governor is said to be unstable if
the radius of rotation decreases as the speed increases.

For controlling force diagram we have to plot a graph between the controlling
force (FC=mω2r) as ordinate & radius of rotation of balls (r) on abscissa. The
graph obtained between the two parameters is known as controlling force
diagram.

DESCRIPTION:

The set-up is designed to study the working of different governors normally

used to control the speed. It consists of a main spindle, mounted vertically on the
base plate. This spindle is driven by a variable speed Motor which is also mounted
vertically on the same base plate. Any one governor assembly out of four can be
mounted on spindle. The spindle speed is controlled by speed control unit. A
graduated scale is fitted to the sleeve to measure the displacement.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

WATT GOVERNOR

STANDARD DATA:

1. Length of each link (L) = 125 mm

2. Initial height, (h’) = 100 mm
3. Weight of each ball (w) = 0.1+0.1=0.2 Kg
4. Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.81 m / s2
5. Weight of Aluminum sleeve = 0.640 kg
6. Distance of pivot to center of spindle (a) = 52.5 mm
7. Reading of pointer on scale at N rpm = X’ mm

Force diagram of watt governer

 O

P P
e r lin k
up p

g ht
B We i
B
k
er Lin
Lo w

Slee ve

Schematic of watt governer

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = -------mm

Selected ball weight, w = 0.2 kg

S. No. Speed, Nact (RPM) Sleeve displacement, X’

(mm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
FORMUALE:

1. Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = --------mm

2. Height gained by sleeve, X' '  X' = ---------mm

  X 
3. Height, h '    = ---------mm
  2 

h
4.  = cos 1  
L
 a  
5. Governor height, H =    h = -------mm
 tan   

895
6. Governor speed (theo.), Ntho = = -------RPM
H
7. Radius of rotation, R = a  L sin   = ----
----- mm
2  N
8. Angular velocity,  = = ---------- rad/sec
60
w  R  ω2
9. Centrifugal force (actual), Fca = = --------Kg
g  1000
wR
10. Centrifugal force (theo.), Fct = = ---------Kg
H
CALCULATION TABLE:

S. Sleeve Height of Theo. Radius of Actual Theo. Force

No. height, X governor, Speed, rotation, Force,
Fct kg
mm
H mm Ntho R mm Fca kg
RPM

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Plot the graph between RPM vs. sleeve height

PORTER GOVERNOR

STANDARD DATA:

1. Length of each link (L) = 125 mm

2. Initial height, (h') = 100 mm
3. Initial radius of rotation (R) = 125.21 mm
4. Weight of each ball (w) = 0.1+0.1=0.2 Kg
5. Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.81 m / s2
6. Distance of pivot to centre of spindle (a) = 52.5 mm
7. Weight of Cast Iron sleeve (W1) = 1.98Kg
8. Dead weight applied on sleeve (W2) = 0.7 Kg or 1 kg
9. Weight of Arms on one side (W3) = 0.165 kg
10. Total dead weight on sleeve (W) = (W1 + W2)
11. Reading of pointer on scale at N rpm = X' mm
 Schematic of Porter governer

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = ------ mm

Weight applied on sleeve, W2 = 0.7 Kg

Selected ball weight, w = 0.2 Kg

S. No. Sleeve displacement, X’ Speed, Nact RPM

mm

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
FORMUALE:

1. Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = ------- mm

2. Height gained by sleeve, X' '  X' = ---------mm

  X 
3. Height, h '    = ---------mm
  2 

h
4.  = cos 1   = ----------0
L
 a  
5. Governor height, H =    h  =-------mm
 tan   
6. Radius of rotation, R = a  L sin   =-------mm
2  N
7. Angular velocity,  = = ---------rad/sec
60
w  R  ω2
8. Centrifugal force (actual), Fca =
g  1000
= -----------Kg

9. Governor Speed (theo.), Ntho =

 w  W 91.2 g 
   1000 
 w H 
= ---------RPM

10. Centrifugal Force (theo.) Fct = w  W   tan α

= ----------Kg
CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr. Sleeve Height of Theo. Radius of Actual Theo. Force

height, X governor, Speed, rotation, Force,
NO. Fct kg
mm
H mm Ntho RPM R mm Fca kg

1.

2.

3.

Plot the graph between RPM vs. Sleeve Height

PROELL GOVERNOR

STANDARD DATA:

1. Length of each link (L) = 125 mm

2. Height (h’) = 100 mm
3. Initial angle, ’ = 17.7530
4. Initial angle, ’ = 23.6110
5. Initial radius of rotation (R) = mm
6. Weight of two balls (w) = 0.2 kg
7. Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.81 m / s2
8. Distance of pivot to center of spindle (a) = 52.5 mm
9. Extended length AB = 65 mm
10. Weight of Cast Iron sleeve (W1) = 1.98 kg
11. Dead weight applied on sleeve (W2) = 0.7 or 1 kg (one each)
12. Weight of Arms on one side (W3) = 0.156 kg
13. Total dead weight on sleeve (W) = (W1 + W2)
14. Reading of pointer on scale at N rpm = X’ mm
Force diagram of Proell governer

P P

Exte nded weight

Central Load

Schematic of Proell governer

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = ------- mm

Weight applied on sleeve, W2 = 1 kg

Selected ball weight, w = 0.1 kg

S. No. Sleeve displacement, X’ mm Speed, Nact RPM

1.

2.

3.

FORMUALE:

1. Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = -------- mm

2. Height gained by sleeve, X' '  X' = ---------mm

 '  X 
3. Height, h = h     = --------mm
  2 

h
4.  = cos 1   = ----------0
L

 a  
5. Governor height, H =    h
 tan   
= ---------mm

6.  = α  α   γ'
'
= --------0

7. Radius of rotation, R = a  AB sin  

= -------mm

2  N
8. Angular velocity,  = = -------rad/sec
60
w  R  ω2
9. Centrifugal force (actual), Fca =
g  1000
 = -------Kg

10. DG = AB cos γ  = --------mm

 '  X 
11. PG = h     = --------- mm
  2 
12. Centrifugal Force (theo.) Fct =
 PG tan α 
 W  2w      w  tan γ 
 AB cos γ 
= ---------Kg

 F  g  1000 
13. Governor Speed (theo.), Ntho = 9.549   ct 
 wR 
= --------RPM

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATION:

CALCULATION TABLE:

Sr. Sleeve Height of Theo. Radius Actual Force, Theo. Force

height, X governor, Speed, of
NO. Fca kg Fct kg
mm rotation,
H mm Ntho RPM
R mm

1.

2.

3.
 HARTNELL GOVERNER

STANDARD DATA:

1. Length of arm (a) = 75 mm

2. Length of arm (b) = 120 mm
3. Initial radius of rotation (R’) = 182.6 mm
4. Weight of each ball (w) = 0.1 kg
5. Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.81 m / s2
6. Weight of Cast Iron sleeve (W1) = 1.98 kg
7. Dead weight applied on sleeve (W2) = 0.7 Kg
8. Total dead weight on sleeve (W) = (W1 + W2)
9. Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = mm
10. Reading of pointer on scale at N rpm = X’ mm

r2

GOVERNOR AXIS
r
mg
X2 X

y
h2

y2

Force diagram of Hartnell Governer

 Nut

Fra me

Spring
BALL

BELL CRANK LEVER

Slee ve

Spindle

Schematic of Hartnell Governer

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATION:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = --------- mm

Selected ball weight, w = 0.2 kg

S. No. Sleeve displacement, X’ Speed, Nact (RPM)

(mm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
FORMUALE:

1. Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = ------- mm

2. Height gained by sleeve, X' '  X' = -------mm
a
3. Radius of rotation, R = R'  X  = -------mm
b
2πN
4. Angular velocity,  = = --------rad/sec
60
w  2  R
5. Centrifugal force, Fc = = --------Kg
g  1000

 a
6. Force exerted by spring, S =  2  Fc    w
 b
2
 a   Fc 
7. Stiffness of spring, s = 2   
 b   R  R' 
= --------Kg/mm
 Experiment No. 9
AIM:

To Study the motion of follower with the given profile of the cam.
To plot the n-q (Follower displacement Vs. Angle of rotation) curves for
different cam follower pairs.
To observe the follower speed at different load condition.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Cam and follower arrangement.

Stroboscope (Optional).

THEROY:

Cams precede the development of modern Mechatronics but still have

their uses in a variety of devices. They convert the rotation of a shaft into a
specified linear motion of a follower. A typical example is the overhead cam shaft
in an internal combustion engine. Many applications have been replaced by
computer controlled machines using hydraulic, pneumatic and electric actuators.
The motion of the follower depends on the shape of the cam. The most basic
motion might be a simple quick stroke (e.g. to knock something off a conveyer
belt. A cam as shown in the diagram would be suitable. A key part of your work is
to understand how to produce the cam shape that produces the required motion.
You should already know the relationship between displacement, velocity and
acceleration. For a displacement x, the velocity is v = dx/dt = gradient of the
displacement - time graph. This is clearly zero at any time where the profile is
circular. We must consider the inertia force produced by the sudden movement
which produces acceleration and deceleration of the follower. The acceleration is
a = dv/dt = the gradient of the velocity – time graph. It is normal to round the
corners to avoid excessive wear.
DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF FOLLOWER

Consider a simple cam with a pointed follower. The Centre lines of the follower
and cam are the same. The follower is restrained to move along the Centre line by
the guides. The displacement of the follower is x and a typical displacement –
angle graph is shown.

Cam may be defined as a rotating and reciprocating element of a mechanism

which imparts a reciprocating or oscillating motion to another element called
follower. The cams are of the disc or cylindrical types and the follower are of knife
edge, roller or flat faced. The usual motions for the follower are

S.H.M

Let S= lift of the follower

X= Displacement of the follower when crank has turned

Then X = S/2{1-cosθ)}

V = vs / 2

Vmax = πωS / 2θ

A = ω2S Cosθ/2 during ascent

Amax = π2ω2S/2θ2 during decent

Uniform acceleration or deceleration

Then displacement

Y=1/2at2
 Vaverage =S/t

Vmax= 2S/t

=2ωS/θ0 during ascent

=Vω2S/θ2 during descent

The jump, phenomenon occurs in case of cam operating under the action
of compression spring load. This is a transient condition that occurs only with high
speed, highly flexible cam follower systems. With jump the cam and the follower
separate owing to excessively unbalanced forced exceeding the spring force
during the period of negative acceleration. This is indelible since the fundamental
function of the cam-follower system; the constraint and control of follower motion
are not maintained. Also related at the short life of the cam flank surface, high
noise, and vibrations and poor action. A cam – follower retained against the cam
with a compression retaining spring will under certain conditions, jump or bounce
out of contact with the cam. This condition is most likely to occur with low values
of damping and with high-speed cams or quite flexible follower trains.
Crossover shock occurs in a positive drive cam mechanism when contact
moves from one side of the cam to the other. Clearance and backlash are taken
up during the crossover, and impact occurs. Crossover takes place on the rise or
return motion when the acceleration changes sign and when the velocity is at its
peak. Preloading the system to remove backlash, by designing for a low peak
velocity, and by using rigid follower train can reduce the effect. Roth art states that
jump will not occur in high-speed system if at least two full cycles of vibration
occur during the positive acceleration time-interval of the motion. If a smaller
number of cycles exist during this period then, the states, the system should be
investigated mathematically to determine if jump exists. This condition can be
expressed by the equation: Bi k > 2.

Where Bi is the angle through which the cam rotates during positive
acceleration period.

This figure can probably be reduced slightly for appreciable amount of

damping.
 As shown in fig. 1. Spring K2 loses compression when jump beings and is
carried in motion with the mass. The resulting motion now gets rather complicated
because the mass too must be redistributed. Probably a good first approximation
could be obtained by concentrating a portion of the mass at the bottom of spring
and treating motion as a system of two degrees of freedom. It must be noted, and
then the system will vibrate at a new frequency after jump being and analysis of
the motion using the old frequency after jump being is not a true description of the
motion.

The cam & follower assemblies are:

a) Circular arc cam with mushroom follower.

b) Tangent cam with roller follower.
c) An eccentric cam with knife-edge follower.
DESCRIPTION:

Apparatus is a motorized unit consisting of a camshaft driven by a variable

speed motor. The shaft runs in a double bearing. The free end of the camshaft
has a facility to mount the cam easily.
The follower is properly guided in gunmetal bushes and the type of
follower can be changed according to the cam under test. Graduated circular
protractor is fitted co-axial with the shaft. And a Dial Gauge fitted on the follower
shaft is used to note the follower displacement for the angle of cam rotation. A
spring is used to provide controlling force to the follower system. Weights on the
follower shaft can be adjusted as per the requirement. An arrangement is provided
to regulate the speed. The apparatus is very useful for testing the cam
performance for jump phenomenon during operation. On this apparatus the effect
of change of inertia forces on jump action of cam-follower during operation can be
observed. It is useful for testing various cam & follower pairs. Three cams and
three followers will be supplied with the apparatus. These are already hardened to
reduce the wear.
PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the required cam and follower to be tested.

2. Bring the cam and follower to zero position.
3. Rotate the cam slowly and note down the angle of rotation of the cam at
regular interval and note the corresponding displacement of follower.
4. Plot the graph between displacement of the follower and the angle of
rotation of cam.
5. Adjust the speed of motor to a particular mark with the help of variac.
6. Measure the RPM and stroke of the cam and follower.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. No Angle of rotation(θ) Displacement of the

follower(mm)

CALCULATION:

Plot a graph between displacement of the follower and the angle of

rotation of the cam.

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

5. Cam should be rotate slowly and continuously to take accurate reading.

6. Lubricate the cam and follower part to decrease friction.
 Experiment No.-10
AIM: To study inversions of 4 Bar Mechanisms

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Models of 4 bar Mechanisms

THEORY:

FOUR BAR MECHANISM:

A four bar link mechanism or linkage is the most fundamental of the plane kinematics
linkages. It is a much preferred mechanical device for the mechanization and control
of motion due to its simplicity and versatility. Basically it consists of four rigid links
which are connected in the form of a quadrilateral by four pin joints. A link that
makes complete revolutions is the crank, the link opposite to the fixed link is the
coupler and the fourth link a lever or rocker if oscillates or an another crank, if rotate.
By fixing the link

Schematic of four bar mechanism

Inversion of Mechanism:

When one of the links is fixed in a kinematic chain, it is called a mechanism.

So we can obtain as many mechanisms as the number of links in a kinematic chain
by fixing, in turn, different links in a kinematic chain. This method of obtaining
different mechanisms by fixing different links in a kinematics chain is known as
inversion of the mechanism. It may be noted that the relative motion between the
various links is not changed in any manner through the process of inversion, but their
absolute motion (those measured with respect to the fixed link) may be changed
drastically.

Types of Kinematics Chains:

The most important kinematics chains are those, which consist of four lower
pairs, each pair being a sliding pair or a turning pair. The following three types of
kinematic chains with four lower pairs are important from the subject point of view:

1. Four bar chain or quadric cycle chain,

2. Single slider crank chain, and

3. Double slider crank chain.

These kinematic chains are discussed, in detail, in the following articles.

1 Four Bar Chain or Quadric Cycle Chains:

The simplest and the basic kinematic chain is a four bar chain or quadric cycle
chain. It consists of four links; each of them forms a turning pair A, B, C and D. The
four links may be of different lengths. According to Grashof’s law for a four bar
mechanism, the sum of the shortest and the longest link lengths should not be
greater than the sum of the remaining two links lengths if there is to be continuous
relative motion between the two links.

The mechanism in which no link makes a complete revolution will not be

useful. In a four bar chain, one of the links, in particular the shortest link, will make a
complete revolution relative to the other links, if it satifies the Grashof’s law. Such a
link is known as crank or driver. The link BC (link2) which makes a partial rotation or
oscillates is known as lever or rocker or follower and the link CD (3) which connects
the crank and lever is called connecting rod or coupler. The fixed AB (link 1) is
known as frame of the mechanism.

Inversions of Four Bar Chain:

Though there are many inversions of the four bar chain, yet the following are
important from the subject point of view.
1. Beam Engine. (Crank and lever mechanism).

A part of the mechanism of a beam engine (also of four links. In this

mechanism, when the crank rotates about the fixed centre. A, the lever oscillates
about a fixed centre D. The end E of the lever CDE is connected to a piston rod,
which reciprocates due to the rotation of the crank. In other words, the purpose
of this mechanism is to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion.

2. Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double crank mechanism).

The mechanism of a coupling rod of a locomotive (also known as double

crank mechanism), which consists of four links. In this mechanism, the links AD
and BC (having equal length) act as cranks and are connected to the respective
wheels. The link CD acts as a coupling rod and the link AB is fixed in order to
maintain a constant centre-to-centre distance between them. This mechanism is
meant for transmitting rotary motion from wheel to the other wheel.

3. Watt’s indicator mechanism (Double lever mechanism).

A Watt’s indicator mechanism (also known as Watt’s straight line mechanism

or double lever mechanism) which consists of four links. The four links are: fixed
link at A, link AC, link CE and link BFD. It may be noted that BF and FD forms
one links because these two parts have no relative motion between them. The
links CE and BFD act as levers. The displacement of the link BFD is directly
proportional to the pressure of gas or steam which acts on the indicator plunger.
On any small displacement of the mechanism, the tracing point E at the end of
the link CE traces out approximately a straight line.