11/09/2023

Because learning changes everything.®

Chapter 4
Tissues
Lecture Outline
Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Eleventh Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

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Tissue

• a group of specialized cells with similar structure

and function, plus the extracellular substance
surrounding them
• Histology is the microscopic study of tissue
structure

• changes in tissues can result in development,

growth, aging, trauma, or disease

• many abnormalities, including cancer, result from

changes in tissues that can be identified by
microscopic examination

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Types of Tissues:

1. Epithelial – a covering or lining tissue

2. Connective – a diverse primary tissue type that
makes up part of every organ in the body
3. Muscle – a tissue that contracts or shortens,
making movement possible
4. Nervous – responsible for coordinating and
controlling many body activities

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Epithelial Tissues

• epithelium, or epithelial tissue, covers and protects

surfaces, both outside and inside the body
• includes the exocrine and endocrine glands

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Epithelial Tissue Characteristics

1. Mostly composed of cells

2. Covers body surfaces

3. Has an exposed surface

4. Attaches at the basal surface

5. Specialized cell connections

and matrix attachments
6. Avascular
Surface and cross-sectional views of epithelium
7. Capable of regeneration illustrate the following characteristics: little extracellular
material between cells, a free surface, and a basement
membrane attaching epithelial cells to underlying
tissues. The capillaries in connective tissue do not
penetrate the basement membrane. Nutrients, oxygen,
and waste products diffuse across the basement
membrane between the capillaries and the epithelial
cells.

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Functions of Epithelial Tissues

1. Protects underlying structures - outer layer of skin

protects the underlying structures from abrasion

2. Acts as a barrier - epithelium of the skin prevents many toxic

molecules and microorganisms from entering the body

3. Permits passage of substances – O2 and CO2 are

exchanged between the air and blood by diffusion through
the epithelium in the lungs

4. Secrete substances - sweat glands, mucous glands are

composed of epithelial cells

5. Absorb substances - epithelial cells of the intestines absorb

digested food molecules, vitamins, and ions

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Classification of Epithelia

• classified based on number of cell layers and the shape

of the superficial cells
• cell layers can be simple, stratified, or pseudostratified
• cell shapes can be squamous, cuboidal, columnar, or a
special transitional shape, that varies with the
degree of stretch

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Classification of Epithelia

• Simple epithelium consists of a single layer of cells, with each

cell extending from the basement membrane to the free surface

• Stratified epithelium consists of more than one layer of cells, but

only the basal layer attaches the deepest layer to the
basement membrane

• Pseudostratified columnar epithelium is a special type of simple

epithelium, that appears to be falsely stratified; consists of one
layer of cells, with all the cells attached to the basement
membrane; due to variations in the shape of the cells, the
epithelia appears stratified

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Classification of Epithelia:

 types of epithelium based on idealized shapes of the

epithelial cells:
1. Squamous - cells are flat or scale-like
2. Cuboidal cells - cube-shaped, about as wide as
they are tall
3. Columnar cells tend to be taller than they are wide

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Structure:

Simple Squamous Epithelium Single layer of flat, often

hexagonal cells; the
nuclei appear as bumps
when viewed in cross
section because the cells
are so flat
Function:
Diffusion, filtration, some
secretion, and some
protection against friction
Location:
Lining of blood vessels
and the heart, lymphatic
vessels, alveoli of the
Alvin Telser/McGraw-Hill Education
lungs, portions of the
kidney tubules, lining of
serous membranes of
body cavities (pleural,
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Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

©Victor Eroschenko

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Simple Columnar Epithelium

Function:
Movement of particles out of the
bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated
cells; partially responsible for the
movement of oocytes through the
uterine tubes by ciliated cells;
secretion by cells of the glands,
the stomach, and the intestines;
absorption by cells of the
intestines
Structure:
Single layer of tall, narrow cells; some cells have cilia (bronchioles of lungs,
auditory tubes, uterine tubes, and uterus) or microvilli (intestines)

Location:
Glands and some ducts, bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, uterus, uterine tubes,
stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts, and ventricles of the brain

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Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

Structure:
Single layer of cells; some cells are tall and thin and reach the free surface, and
others do not; the nuclei of these cells are at different levels and appear stratified;
the cells are almost always ciliated and are associated with goblet cells that
secrete mucus onto the free surface

Function: Location:
Synthesize and secrete mucus onto the Lining of nasal cavity, nasal sinuses,
free surface and move mucus (or fluid) that auditory tubes, pharynx, trachea, and
contains foreign particles over the surface bronchi of lungs
of the free surface and from passages
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Stratified Squamous Epithelium • deepest cells are cuboidal or

columnar and are capable of
• forms a thick epithelium because it dividing and producing new
consists of several layers of cells cells; the naming is based on
the shape of the surface cells
• two types of stratified squamous epithelia: keratinized stratified
squamous and nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelia.

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Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• outer layer of skin is comprised of a keratinized
squamous epithelium (keratin – protein)
• keratin provides protection against abrasion; forms
barrier that prevents microorganisms and toxic
chemicals from entering the body; reduces the
loss of water from the body

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Non- keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium

• stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth is a moist

non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
• provides protection against abrasion and acts as a
mechanical barrier
• water, however, can move across it more readily than
across the skin (keratinized stratified squamous)

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Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

• consists of more than one layer of cuboidal epithelial cells
• epithelial type is relatively rare
• found in sweat gland ducts, ovarian follicular cells, and salivary glands
• functions in absorption, secretion, and protection

Stratified Columnar Epithelium

• consists of more than one layer of epithelial cells, but only the surface
cells are columnar
• deeper layers are irregular or cuboidal in shape
• relatively rare; found in the mammary gland ducts, the larynx, and a
portion of the male urethra
• carries out secretion, protection, and some absorption

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Transitional Epithelium Structure:

Stratified cells that appear
cuboidal when the organ
or tube is not stretched
and squamous when the
organ or tube is stretched
by fluid.
Function:
Accommodates
fluctuations in the volume
of fluid in an organ or a
tube; protects against the
caustic effects of urine
Location:
Lining of urinary bladder,
©Victor Eroschenko
ureters, and superior
urethra

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Structural and Functional Relationships

1. Cell layers and Cell shapes
• number of cell layers and the shape of the cells in a specific
type of epithelium reflect the function the epithelium performs

• two important functions are controlling the passage of materials

through the epithelium and protecting the underlying tissues

• simple epithelium is found in organs that primarily function to move

materials

• stratified epithelium is well adapted for its protective function

• shape and number of layers of epithelial cells can change if they are
subjected to long-term irritation or other abnormal conditions

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Structural and Functional Relationships

2. Free Surface Modifications

• most epithelia have a free surface that is not in contact

with other cells and faces away from underlying tissues
• the characteristics of the free surface reflect its functions
• free surface can be smooth or lined with microvilli or cilia
• microvilli increase surface area
• cilia move materials over the top of the cell

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Structural and Functional Relationships

3. Cell Connections
• cells have several structures that hold one cell to one another or to the
basement membrane

• these structures do three things: mechanically bind the cells together, help
form a permeability barrier, and provide a mechanism for
intercellular communication

• Desmosomes are mechanical links that bind cells together; found in

epithelia subjected to stress (ex. stratified squamous epithelium
of the skin)

• Hemidesmosomes are half desmosomes that anchor cells to the

basement membrane

• Tight junctions are cell connection structures that form barriers and
anchor cells to each other; found in the lining of the intestines and in
most other simple epithelia
• Adhesion belt is found just below the tight junction, they act as a weak
glue that holds cells together
• Gap junctions are small channels that allow small molecules and ions
to pass from one epithelial cell to an adjacent one
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Cell Connections

Desmosomes, adhesion belts, and

tight junctions anchor cells to one
another.

Hemidesmosomes anchor cells to

the basement membrane.

Gap junctions allow adjacent cells

to communicate with each other.

Few cells have all of these different

connections.

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Glands

• secretory organs that secrete substances onto a surface,

into a cavity, or into the bloodstream
• composed primarily of epithelium, with a supporting
network of connective tissue
• glands with ducts are called Exocrine glands; both the
gland and its ducts are lined with epithelium
• Endocrine glands are ductless glands; they secrete their
products (termed hormones) into the bloodstream

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Structure of Exocrine Glands

• the duct is the tube that transports the secreted material to the free
surface of the epithelium

• the secretory portion of the gland lies deeper in the epithelium and is
composed of cells that produce the secreted material
• multicellular exocrine glands can be classified according to the
structure of their ducts and secretory regions, and mode of
secretion

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Categories of exocrine glands:

• Unicellular glands are composed of only a single cell
• Simple glands are multicellular and have a single, non-
branched duct
• Compound glands are multicellular and have several
branched ducts

Structure of Exocrine Glands

Based on the shapes of their

ducts, exocrine glands may be
called simple or compound.

Based on their secretory units,

they may be classed as tubular,
acinar, or alveolar.

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Structure of Exocrine Glands

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Structure of Exocrine Glands

- classified based on their modes of secretion

• Merocrine secretion involves the release of secretory products by exocytosis

• Apocrine secretion involves the release of secretory products as pinched-off
fragments of the gland cells
• Holocrine secretion involves the shedding of entire cells
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CONNECTIVE TISSUE

• a diverse primary tissue type that makes up part of every

organ in the body

• differs from the other three tissue types in that it consists

of cells separated from each other by abundant
extracellular matrix.

• diverse in both structure and function

• comprised of cells, protein fibers, and an extracellular

matrix.

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Functions of Connective Tissue

1. Enclose and separate organs and tissues – separate muscles,

arteries, veins, and nerves from one another

2. Connect tissues to one another - tendons are strong cables, or

bands, of connective tissue that attach muscles to bone, and
ligaments are connective tissue bands that hold bones together

3. Help support and move parts of the body - bones of the

skeletal system provide rigid support for the body; joints between
bones allow one part of the body to move relative to other parts

4. Store compounds - adipose tissue (fat) stores high-energy

molecules, and bones store minerals, such as calcium and
phosphate

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Functions of Connective Tissue

5. Cushion and insulate the body - Adipose tissue cushions and

protects the tissues it surrounds and provides an insulating
layer beneath the skin that helps conserve heat

6. Transport substances - Blood transports gases, nutrients, enzymes,

hormones, and cells of the immune system throughout
the body

7. Protect against toxins and injury - cells of the immune system and
blood provide protection against toxins and tissue injury, as
well as against microorganisms; bones protect underlying
structures from injury

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Connective Tissue Cells

• specialized cells of the various connective tissues produce

the extracellular matrix

• name of the cell identifies the cell functions

• Osteoblasts form bone; Osteocytes maintain it;

Osteoclasts break it down

• Fibroblasts are cells that form fibrous connective tissue;

Fibrocytes maintain it

• Chondroblasts form cartilage; Chondrocytes

maintain it

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Connective Tissue Cells

• cells associated with the immune system, such as white

blood cells, are also found in connective tissue.

• Macrophages (makros, large + phago, to eat) are large

white blood cells that are capable of moving about
and ingesting foreign substances, including
microorganisms in the connective tissue

• Mast cells are nonmotile cells that release chemicals,

such as histamine, that promote inflammation.

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Extracellular Matrix
• three major components: protein fibers, ground
substance, and fluid
Matrix Protein Fibers
• Three types of protein fibers—collagen, reticular, and
elastic—help form most connective tissues

• Collagen fibers (glue-producing fibers) resemble

microscopic ropes, are very flexible but resist
stretching

• Reticular fibers are very fine, short collagen fibers that

branch to form a supporting network

• Elastic fibers have the ability to return to their original

shape after being stretched or compressed, giving
tissue an elastic quality
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Extracellular Matrix

• Matrix Ground substance consists of non-fibrous protein

and other molecules

• structure of the matrix is responsible for the functional

characteristics of connective tissues—for example,
they enable bones and cartilage to bear weight

Proteoglycans (proteo, protein + glycan, polysaccharide)

- are large molecules that consist of a protein core
attached to many long polysaccharides.

- trap large quantities of water between the

polysaccharides, which allows them to return to their
original shape when compressed or deformed

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Types of Connective Tissues

• two main types of connective tissue - embryonic and

adult connective tissue

• by eight weeks of development, most of the embryonic

connective tissue has become specialized to form the
types of connective tissue seen in adults

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Table 4.4 presents the classification of adult connective tissue. Adult connective
tissue consists of three types: connective tissue proper (loose and dense),
supporting connective tissue (cartilage and bone), and fluid connective
tissue (blood).

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Types of Connective Tissues

1. Connective Tissue Proper
A. Loose connective tissue consists of relatively
few protein fibers that form a lacy network,
with numerous spaces filled with ground
substance and fluid

• three types of adult loose connective tissue:

1) areolar
2) adipose
3) reticular

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1) Areolar Connective Tissue

Structure: A fine network of fibers (mostly collagen fibers with a few

elastic fibers) with spaces between the fibers; fibroblasts,
macrophages, and lymphocytes are located in the spaces

Function: Loose packing, support, and nourishment for the

structures with which it is associated
Location: Widely distributed throughout the body; substance on
which epithelial basement membranes rest; packing
between glands, muscles, and nerves; attaches the skin to
underlying tissues
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2) Adipose Tissue

Structure: Little extracellular matrix surrounding cells; adipocytes, or

fat cells, are full of lipid that the cytoplasm is pushed to the
periphery of the cell

Function: Packing material, thermal insulator, energy storage, and

protection of organs against injury from being bumped or jarred

Location: Predominantly in subcutaneous areas, mesenteries, renal

pelves, around kidneys, attached to the surface of the colon,
mammary glands, and in loose connective tissue that penetrates
into spaces and crevices
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3) Reticular Tissue

Structure: Fine network of reticular fibers irregularly arranged

Function: Provides a superstructure for lymphatic and

hemopoietic tissues

Location: Within the lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow

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Types of Connective Tissues

1. Connective Tissue Proper

B. Dense connective tissue – with large number

of protein fibers that form thick bundles and
fill nearly all of the extracellular space;
produced by fibroblasts

• two major subcategories of dense connective

tissue: 1) collagenous and 2) elastic

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1) Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue

• In tendons and ligaments, the collagen fibers are oriented in

the same direction, and so the tissue is called dense
regular, but in the dermis and in organ capsules, the
fibers are oriented in many different directions, and so
the tissue is called dense irregular
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2. Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue

Marfan syndrome - a genetic condition resulting from, in part the

inability to properly maintain and form elastic fibers; major cause
of death is weakening and rupture of the aorta wall
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Table 4.4 presents the classification of adult connective tissue. Adult connective
tissue consists of three types: connective tissue proper (loose and dense),
supporting connective tissue (cartilage and bone), and fluid connective
tissue (blood).

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Types of Connective Tissues

2. Supporting Connective Tissue
A. Cartilage
• composed of chondrocytes, located in small spaces called lacunae
within an extensive matrix

• collagen in the matrix gives cartilage flexibility and strength

• resilient because the proteoglycans of the matrix trap water, making the
cartilage rigid and enables it to spring back after being compressed

• provides support, but if bent or slightly compressed, it resumes its original

shape

• heals slowly because blood vessels do not penetrate the interior of the
structures (after injury); cells and nutrients necessary for tissue
repair do not reach the damaged area

• provides support and is found in structures such as the disks between

the vertebrae, the external ear, and the costal cartilages

• three types of cartilage: hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage

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2. Supporting Connective Tissue

1) Hyaline Cartilage

Structure:
Collagen fibers are small and evenly dispersed in the matrix, making the matrix appear
transparent; the chondrocytes are found in spaces, or lacunae, within the firm but flexible
matrix; most abundant type of cartilage
Function:
Allows growth of long bones; provides rigidity with some flexibility in the trachea, bronchi,
ribs, and nose; forms strong, smooth, yet somewhat flexible articulating surfaces; forms the
embryonic skeleton
Location:
Growing long bones, cartilage rings of the respiratory system, costal cartilage of ribs, nasal
cartilages, articulating surface of bones, and the embryonic skeleton
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2. Supporting Connective Tissue

2) Fibrocartilage

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2. Supporting Connective Tissue

3) Elastic Cartilage

Structure:
Similar to hyaline cartilage, but matrix also contains elastic fibers
Function:
Provides rigidity with even more flexibility than hyaline cartilage because
elastic fibers return to their original shape after being stretched
Location:
External ears, epiglottis, and auditory tubes
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2. Supporting Connective Tissue

B. Bone
• a hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and a
mineralized matrix; Osteocytes (osteo, bone) are
located within lacunae

• the strength and rigidity of the mineralized matrix enables

bones to support and protect other tissues and organs

Types of Bone Tissue:

• Spongy bone – has spaces between
trabeculae (beams), or plates, of
bone and resembles a sponge

• Compact bone - more solid, with

almost no space between many thin
layers of mineralized matrix
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2. Supporting Connective Tissue

B. Bone (Spongy and Compact)

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Table 4.4 presents the classification of adult connective tissue. Adult connective
tissue consists of three types: connective tissue proper (loose and dense),
supporting connective tissue (cartilage and bone), and fluid connective
tissue (blood).

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Types of Connective Tissues

3. Fluid Connective Tissue
A. Blood

Structure
contains a liquid matrix (plasma), along with
formed elements (erythrocytes, leukocytes
and platelets)

Function
transport of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients,
waste, hormones, and other substances; protects
the body from infection
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MUSCLE TISSUE

• main function is to contract, or shorten, making movement

possible

• muscle contraction results from contractile proteins

located within the muscle cells

• length of muscle cells is greater than the diameter

• sometimes called muscle fibers because they often

resemble tiny threads

• three types of muscle tissue are 1) skeletal, 2) cardiac,

and 3) smooth

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Types of Muscle Tissues

1) Skeletal Muscle

Structure:
Skeletal muscle cells or fibers appear striated (banded); cells are
large, long, and cylindrical, with many nuclei
Function:
Movement of the body; under voluntary control
Location:
Attached to bone or other connective tissue
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Types of Muscle Tissues

2. Cardiac Muscle

Structure:
Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical and striated and have a single nucleus;
they are branched and connected to one another by intercalated disks, which
contain gap junctions
Function:
Pumps the blood; under involuntary (unconscious) control
Location:
In the heart

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Types of Muscle Tissues

3. Smooth Muscle

Structure:
Smooth muscle cells are tapered at each end, are not striated, and have a
single nucleus
Function:
Regulates the size of organs, forces fluid through tubes, controls the amount of
light entering the eye, and produces “goose bumps” in the skin; under
involuntary (unconscious) control
Location:
In hollow organs, such as the stomach and intestine; skin and eyes
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NERVOUS TISSUE

• includes brain, spinal cord, and nerves

• for coordinating and controlling many body activities

• consists of neurons and support cells, termed glial

cells

• neuron is responsible for conducting electrical signals

called action potentials

• composed of three parts: a cell body, dendrites, and

an axon

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NERVOUS TISSUE

Structure:
A neuron consists of dendrites, a cell body, and a long axon; glia, or
support cells, surround the neurons
Function:
Neurons transmit information in the form of action potentials, store
information, and integrate and evaluate data; glia support, protect, and
form specialized sheaths around axons
Location:
In the brain, spinal cord, and ganglia
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Tissue Membranes

• a thin sheet or layer of tissue that covers a

structure or a cavity
• consist of epithelium and the connective tissue
on which the epithelium rests
• four tissue membranes in the body:
1) cutaneous, 2) mucous, 3) serous, and
4) synovial
1) skin or cutaneous membrane
- an external body surface membrane

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Tissue Membranes
2) mucous membranes
• line cavities that open to the outside of the body,
such as the digestive, respiratory, and
reproductive tracts
• consist of epithelial cells, their basement
membrane, and a thick layer of loose
connective tissue
• many, but not all, secrete mucus
• functions include protection, absorption, and
secretion
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Tissue Membranes

3) Serous membranes

• line cavities that do not open to the exterior of the body,

such as the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal
cavities

• consist of three components: a layer of simple squamous

epithelium, its basement membrane, and a delicate
layer of loose connective tissue

• do not contain glands, but they secrete a small amount of

fluid called serous fluid, which lubricates the
surface of the membranes

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Tissue Membranes

4) Synovial membranes

• line the cavities of freely

movable joints

• made up of only connective

tissue and consist of modified
connective tissue cells

• produce synovial fluid, which

makes the joint very slippery,
thereby reducing friction and
allowing smooth movement
within the joint

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Tissue Damage and Inflammation

• Inflammation (flamma, flame) occurs when

tissues are damaged
• can also result from the immediate and painful
events that follow trauma
• five major symptoms: redness, heat, swelling,
pain, and disturbance of function
• processes of inflammation are usually beneficial;
isolates and destroys harmful agents

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Inflammation
Inflammation Injury to an area results in release of chemical
mediators, which stimulate increased blood flow
and migration of white blood cells to the site of
tissue damage

1. A splinter in the skin causes damage and

introduces bacteria. Chemical mediators of
inflammation are released or activated in
injured tissues and adjacent blood vessels.
Some blood vessels rupture, causing
bleeding. 2. Chemical mediators cause capillaries to
dilate and the skin to become red.
3. White blood cells (e.g., neutrophils) leave Chemical mediators also increase capillary
the dilated blood vessels and move to the permeability, and fluid leaves the
site of bacterial infection, where they begin capillaries, producing swelling (arrows).
to phagocytize bacteria and other debris.
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Chemical mediators
• substances released or activated in injured tissues and
adjacent blood vessels
• include histamine and prostaglandins
• cause dilation of blood vessels, which produces redness
and heat; increase the permeability of blood vessels,
allowing materials and blood cells to move out of the
vessels and into the tissue, where they can deal
directly with the injury
• dilation of blood vessels is beneficial because it increases
the speed with which blood cells and other infection-
fighting and repair-inducing substances are brought to
the injury site

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Chronic inflammation

• results when the agent causing injury is not removed or

something else interferes with the healing process

• can lead to the replacement of normal tissue by fibrous

connective tissue

• loss of normal tissue leads to the loss of normal organ

function

• chronic inflammation of organs, such as the lungs, liver,

or kidneys, can lead to death.

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Tissue Repair
• involves substitution of dead cells for viable cells

• occur by regeneration or replacement

• Regeneration - new cells are the same type as those that

were destroyed, and normal function is usually
restored; can completely repair some tissues (ex. skin
and the mucous membrane of the intestine through
stem cells)

• Replacement or fibrosis - a new type of tissue develops,

which eventually produces a scar and causes loss of
some tissue function

• involves clot formation, inflammation, formation of

granulation tissue, and the regeneration or fibrosis of
tissues
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Tissue Repair 1. Fresh wound cuts through the

epithelium (epidermis) and
underlying connective tissue
(dermis), and a clot forms.

2. Approximately 1 week after

the injury, a scab is present,
and epithelium (new epidermis)
is growing into the wound.

3. Approximately 2 weeks after

the injury, the epithelium
has grown completely into the
wound, and fibroblasts
have formed granulation tissue

4. Approximately 1 month after the

injury, the wound has completely
closed, the scab has been
sloughed, and the granulation
tissue is being replaced by new
connective tissue.

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Effects of Aging on Tissues

1. Cells divide more slowly as people age. Injuries

heal more slowly.

2. Extracellular matrix containing collagen and

elastic fibers becomes less flexible and less
elastic.

3. Consequently, skin wrinkles, elasticity in arteries

is reduced, and bones break more easily.

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