Simple Mechanical Design

Materials & Material Properties

The materials bible: Military Handbook - Metallic Materials and Elements for Aerospace
Vehicle Structures, MIL-HDBK-5G, 1999 (new editions are issued every couple of years -
always use the latest).

Primary Materials Selection Criteria

 Static strength efficiency
 Fatigue strength
 Fracture toughness and crack growth rate
 Corrosion and embrittlement properties
 Compatibility with other materials
 Environmental suitability
 Availability and cost
 Fabrication characteristics
Despite all the materials and alloys available, aluminum alloys continue to find prominence in
most aircraft.

For pressurized fuselage cabins and lower wing skins -- two areas prone to fatigue through the
long-continued application and relaxation of tension stresses -- the standard material is an
aluminum alloy 2024-T3

For upper wing skins that have to withstand mainly compression stresses as the wing flexes
upward during flight, 7075-T6 is most often used. 7075-T6 is also used extensively for
military fighter aircraft structures, which generally have stiffer wings and -- except for the
cockpit area -- an unpressurized fuselage. 7075-T6 is almost twice as "strong" as 2024-T3,
and therefore the weight can be reduced correspondingly in suitable application.
Aluminum Alloy Groups

 Group 1000 contains 99% elemental aluminum

 Group 2000 Copper as the major alloying element
 Group 3000 Manganese as the major alloying element
 Group 4000 Silicon as the major alloying element
 Group 5000 Magnesium as the major alloying element
 Group 6000 Magnesium and Silicon as the major alloying elements
 Group 7000 Zinc as the major alloying element
Basic Tempers used for aluminum alloys
 O Annealed
 F As fabricated
 H Strain hardened
 T Heat treated (all aluminum alloys used in primary aircraft
applications are the heat treated tempers)

1
Group 2000 - Primarily used in tension applications where fatigue and damage tolerant design
is critical, e.g., lower wing surfaces, pressurized fuselage skin, etc.
Group 7000 - Primarily used in compression applications where fatigue and damage tolerant
design is not critical, e.g., upper wing surfaces, wing ribs, floor
beams, etc.

Material and Temper Designations for Aluminum Alloys

A typical heat treat designation for an extrusion is shown below:

7050-T6511
T6 - type of heat treatment (6=solution heat treated and artificially aged)
5 - means materials has been stress relieved
1 - material was stretched to accomplish stress relief
(2 if compressive methods are used)
1 - indicated minor straightening was used to meet straightness
and flatness tolerances (0 if straightening is not allowed)
See MIL-HDBK-5 for complete description of symbols used.

2
 Material Designation for Cast Products

Material Designation for Carbon and Alloy Steel

Material Designation for For Austenitic, Martensitic, or Ferritic Stainless Steel

Material Designation for Newer High –Tech Alloys

3
Stress-Strain Curves
Uniaxial tensile and compression tests are generally performed to obtain the following basic
mechanical properties:

Some Symbols, Abbreviations, etc. used in MIL-HDBK-5

E Modulus of elasticity in tension

Ec Modulus of elasticity in compression

Es Secant modulus of elasticity

Et Tangent modulus of elasticity

e Elongation in percent, unit deformation or strain
ee Elastic strain

Plastic strain
ep
F stress
Design tensile yield stress at which permanent strain is .002
Fty

4
Ftu Design tensile ultimate stress
Fsu Design ultimate stress in pure shear (this value represents the average shear
stress over the cross section)
Fsy Design shear yield stress
Fb Design bending stress; modulus of rupture in bending
Fbru Design ultimate bearing stress
Fbry Design bearing yield stress
G Modulus of rigidity, shear modulus
t subscript meaning tension property
c subscript meaning compression property
u ultimate property
y yield property
A A basis for mechanical property values - at least 99% of the
population values will fall with a 95% confidence level
B B basis for mechanical property values - at least 90% of the
population values will fall with a 95% confidence level
S S basis for mechanical property values - minimum guaranteed value and its
statistical assurance level is unknown
L Longitudinal, or parallel to direction metal was worked
(grain direction) - greatest strength direction
LT Long Transverse, or perpendicular to grain direction (in the
long transverse direction) - second greatest strength direction
ST Short Transverse, or perpendicular to grain direction (in the
short transverse direction) - weakest strength direction

Grain Direction for Sheet and Plate

Grain Direction for Extrusions

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
 Material Conditions Properties (room temp.) Density Structural Properties (room temp.)
Efficiency
Ftu Fty Fcy E  Ftu/ E/ Ftu Fty Fcy E
(ksi) (ksi) (ksi) 106 psi Ib/in3 103 in 106 psi MPa MPa MPa MN/m2
2014-T6 68 56 48 10.7 0.101 673 106 468.84 386.11 330.95 73774
2024-T4Extrusion 57 42 38 10.7 0.100 570 107 393.00 289.58 262.00 73774
Aluminum 2024-T81 64 56 57 10.8 0.101 634 107 441.26 386.11 393.00 74463
7075-T6 78 71 70 10.3 0.101 772 102 537.79 489.53 482.63 71016
7075-T6 Extrusion 78 70 70 10.4 0.101 772 103 537.79 482.63 482.63 71705
6A1-4VAnnealed 134 126 132 16.0 0.160 838 100 923.90 868.74 910.11 110316
Titanium
6A1-4V Heat-treated 157 143 152 16.0 0.160 981 100 1082.48 985.95 1048.00 110316
4340 180 Ksi H.T. 180 163 173 29.0 0.283 636 102 1241.06 1123.85 1192.79 199948
17-7 PH TH1050 AMS6520 177 150 160 29 0.276 641 105 1220.37 1034.21 1103.16 199948
Steel Maragingsteel 252 242 255 26.5 0.283 890 94 1737.48 1668.53 1758.16 182711
H-11 280 240 240 30.0 0.281 996 107 1930.53 1654.74 1654.74 206843
300M 280 230 247 29.0 0.283 989 102 1930.53 1585.79 1703.01 199948
lnconel X-750 155 100 100 31.0 0.300 517 103 1068.69 689.48 689.48 213738
Nickel
A-286 130 85 85 29.1 0.287 453 101 896.32 586.05 586.05 200637
Beryllium Be Cross-rolled,SR200D 65 43 43 42.5 0.067 970 634 448.16 296.47 296.47 293027
Magnesium AZ3JB-1124 40 30 25 6.5 0.064 625 102 275.79 206.84 172.37 44816
Fiber-glass G1ass/Epox 80 60 5 0.065 1230 77 551.58 413.69 34474
Keviar Graphite/Epoxy* 160 40 12 0.05 3200 240 1103.16 275.79 82737
Graphite
Kevlar/Epoxy* 170 140 22 0.056 3040 13 1172.11 965.27 151685

13
 Design Basic Concepts

Basic Concepts
Stress is force per unit area, P/A. Typical units of stress are MPa, and N/mm2.
Although there are many names given to stress, there are only two primary
types, differing in the orientation of the loaded area. With normal stress, σ,
the area is normal to the force carried. With shear stress, τ, the area is parallel
to the force.

Strain, ε, is elongation expressed on a fractional or percentage basis. It may

be listed as having units of mm/mm, and percent, or no units at all. A strain in
one direction will be accompanied by strains in orthogonal directions in
accordance with Poisson’s ratio, (εy, νεx, νεz).
Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law is a simple mathematical statement of the relationship between
elastic stress and strain; stress is proportional to strain. For normal stress, the
constant of proportionality is the modulus of elasticity (Young’s Modulus), E.
σ = Eε
For shear stress, the constant of proportionality is the shear modulus, G.
τ = Gθ

14
Elastic Deformation
Since stress is P/A and strain δ/Lo, Hooke’s law can be expanded in form to
give the elongation of an axially loaded member experiencing normal stress.
Tension loading is considered to be positive; compression loading is negative.

The actual length of a member under loading is given by:

L = Lo ± δ
Bending Stress in Beams
Normal stress occurs in a bending beam. Although it is a normal stress, the
term bending stress or flexural stress is used to indicate the source of the of
the stress. The lower surface of the beam experience tensile stress (which
causes lengthening). The upper surface of the beam experiences compressive
stress (which causes shortening). There is no stress along a horizontal plane
passing through the centroid of the cross section, a plane known as the neutral
plane or the natural axis.

Bending stress varies with location (depth) within the beam. It is zero at the
neutral axis, and increases linearly with distance from the neutral axis, as
predicted by the equation:

15
The bending moment, M, is used the equation. Ic is the centroid moment of
inertia of the beam’s cross section. The negative sign, required by the
convention that compression is negative, is commonly omitted.
Since the maximum stress will govern the design, y can be set equal to c to
obtain extreme fiber stress. c is the distance from the neutral axis to the
extreme fiber (i.e. the top or bottom most distant from the neutral axis).

The above equation shows that the maxim bending stress will occur where the
moment is maximum. The region immediately adjacent to the point of
maximum bending moment is called the dangerous section of the beam. The
dangerous section can be found from a bending moment or shear diagram.

The moment of inertia, I, (it is the beam ability to resist bending).

Ic Moment of inertia (of plane areas) the sum of the products of all cross
sectional elements by the squares of their distance from the neutral axis.
(Torsion – Twisting)
Shear stress occurs when shaft is placed in torsion. The shear stress at the
outer surface of a bar or radius r, which is torsionally loaded by a torque T, is

J is the shaft’s polar moment of inertia. For a solid round shaft,

16
For a hollow round shaft,

If a shaft of length L carries a torque T, the angle of twist (in radians) will be

G is the shear modulus (8.0 x 104 MPa). The shear modulus also can be
calculated from the modulus of elasticity.

The polar moment of inertia, J (measure of an area’s resistance to torsion

(twisting).
J = Ix + Iy

Combined Stresses
Loading is rarely confined to a single direction. Many practical cases have
different normal and shear stresses on two or more perpendicular planes.
Sometimes, one of the stresses may be small enough to be disregarded,
reducing the analysis to one dimension. In most cases, however, the shear and
normal stresses must be combined to determine the maximum stress acting on
the material.
For any point in a loaded specimen, a plane can be found where the shear
stress is zero. The normal stresses associated with this plane are known as the
principal stresses, which are the maximum and minimum acting at that point
in any direction.
Proper sign convention must be adhered to when using the combined stress
equations. As is usually the case, tensile normal stresses are positive;
compressive normal stresses are negative. In two dimensions, shear stresses
are designated as clockwise (positive) or counter clockwise (negative).

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The maximum and minimum values of normal stress are the principal
stresses.

The extreme shear stresses (i.e., maximum and minimum shear stress).

Principal stresses
Given the stress components x, y, and xy, this calculator computes the principal
stresses 1, 2, the principal angle p, the maximum shear stress max and its angle s. It
also draws an approximate Mohr's circle for the given stress state.

The Mohr's circle associated with the above stress state is similar to the following figure.
However, the exact location of the center Avg, the radius of the Mohr's circle R, and the
principal angle p may be different from what are shown in the figure.

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Poisson’s ratio
Experiments demonstrate that when a material is placed in tension, there
exists not only an axial strain, but also a lateral strain. Passion demonstrated
that these two strains were proportional to each other within the range of
Hooke’s law. This constant is expressed as

and is known as Poisson’s ratio. These same relations apply for compression,
except that a lateral expansion takes place instead.
The three elastic constants are related to each other as follows:

Stress Concentrations
Stress concentrations occur whenever there is a discontinuity or non-
uniformity in an object. Examples of non-uniform shapes are lapped shafts,
plates with holes and notches, and shafts with keyways. It is convenient to
think of stress as streamlines within an object. There will be a stress
concentration wherever local geometry forces the streamlines closer together.

Stress values determined by simplistic F/A, Mc/I, or Tr/J calculation will be

greatly understated. Stress concentration factors (stress risers) are correction
factors used to account for the non-uniform stress distributions. The symbol k
is often used, but this not universal. The actual stress is determined as the
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product of the stress concentration factor, k, and the ideal stress. Values of
stress concentration factor are almost always greater then 1.0, and can run as
3.0 and above. The exact value for a given application must be determined
from extensive experimentation or from published tabulations or charts of
standard configurations.
σ' = k σ

Approximate Stress Concentration Factors

Bending or direct tension
Concentric groove around cylindrical shaft
Ration of groove radius to shaft diameter Stress concentration factor
r/d k
0.1 2.0
0.5 1.6
1.0 1.2
2.0 1.1
Fillet
Ratio of fillet radius to depth of member Stress concentration factor
r/d k
0 (sharp corner) 2
1/16 1.75
1/8 1.5
1/4 1.2
1/2 1.1
Torsion
Fillet in cylindrical shaft
Ratio of fillet radius to radius of smaller
Stress concentration factor
shaft
r/r k
0.02 1.8
0.10 1.2
0.20 1.1

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21
 Stress
Axial loading Bending Shear

Pt PS
Tensile t  Direct S 
A A
My
b 
I
Pc Tr
Compression c  Tensional t 
A J

Combined Stress Combined Stress

P My PS Tr
  t  
A I A J

Combined Stress

x  y  x  y 
2
Maximum
 max       2xy
Normal Stress 2  2 

Minimum x  y  x  y 
2

 max       2xy
Normal Stress 2  2 

x  y  x  y 
2
Maximum
 max       2xy
Shear Stress 2  2 

 xy
tan2 p  
  x   y  
The Principle
Angle  
 2 

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Safety factor
A component subjected to a solitary load will be considered in the first instance. This load
is interpreted in the context of the component's nature and duty - thus load usually implies
a transverse force in the case of a beam component, or a longitudinal compressive force
in a column, or a torque in the case of a shaft, or a pressure in a fluid containment vessel,
and so on.
Clearly a component is safe only if the actual load applied to the component does not
exceed the component's inherent maximum sustainable load. The degree of safety is
usually expressed by the safety factor, n:-
(1) n = maximum load / actual load =Pmax / P
. . And it follows that:
If n = 1 then the component is on the point of failure
If n < 1 then the component is in a failed state
If n > 1 then the component is safe.
The safety factor is usually expressed as a ratio of nominal loads. A higher value of the
safety factor seems to indicate a safer component - however this is not necessarily the case
as the inevitable variations must be kept in mind.
IF - and only IF - the stress in a component is proportional to the actual load on the
component, then the safety factor may be interpreted also as a stress ratio:-
( 1a ) n=F / σ where F is the strength of the component's material, and σ is the stress in the
component due to the actual load, P.

SUGGESTED SAFETY (DESIGN) FACTORS FOR ELEMENTARY WORK

based on yield strength - according to Juvinall & Marshek op cit.
1 1.25 - for exceptionally reliable materials used under controllable conditions and subjected to loads
1.5 and stresses that can be determined with certainty - used almost invariably where low weight
is a particularly important consideration
2 1.5 - 2 For well-known materials under reasonably constant environmental conditions, subjected to
loads and stresses that can be determined readily.
3 2 - 2.5 For average materials operated in ordinary environments and subjected to loads and stresses
that can be determined.
4 2.5 - 3 For less tried materials or for brittle materials under average conditions of environment, load
and stress.
5 3–4 For untried materials used under average conditions of environment, load and stress.
6 3–4 Should also be used with better-known materials that are to be used in uncertain
environments or subject to uncertain stresses.
7 Repeated loads: the factors established in items 1 to 6 are acceptable but must be applied to
1-6 the endurance limit (ie. a fatigue strength) rather than to the yield strength of the material.
8 Impact forces: the factors given in items 3 to 6 are acceptable, but an impact factor (the
3-6 above dynamic magnification factor) should be included.
9 Brittle materials: where the ultimate strength is used as the theoretical maximum, the factors
1-6 presented in items 1 to 6 should be approximately doubled.
10 Higher Where higher factors might appear desirable, a more thorough analysis of the problem
factor should be undertaken before deciding on their use.
11 1.5 Ultimate factor for Civil Military Aircraft
12 1.0 Proof Factor for Civil Aircraft
13 1.125 Proof Factor for Military Aircraft

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24
TENSION, COMPRESSION, SHEAR

DESIGN PROBLEMS

1. The link shown, made of AISI 4130 steel, as strip, is subjected to a tensile load of 35600 N.
Let h  1.5b . Factor of safety N =6 , determine the dimensions of the section with the
design based on (a) ultimate strength, (b) yield strength. (c) If this link, which is 380 mm.
long., must not elongate more than 0.12 mm., what should be the dimensions of the cross
section?

Problems 1.
Solution:
For AISI 4130 steel, as strip (Table 2.3.1.0(c) ) >0.187 in
Ftu  90 ksi Ftu  620.55 MPa
Fty  70 ksi Fty  482.65 MPa
E  29 106 psi E  199955 MPa

P
d 
A
Where
Limit Load, P  35600 N
A  bh
but
h  1.5b
Therefore A  1.5b 2

(a) Based on ultimate strength

Ultimate load factor = N = 6
Ultimate load = 35600 X 6
Ftu P
d  
N A
35600  6
620.55 
1.5b 2

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b  15.15 mm say 15 mm .
h  1.5b  22.5 mm say 23 mm

(b) Based on yield strength

Proof yield factor = N = 3
Proof load = 35600 X 3

FtyP
d  
N A
35600  3
482.65 
1.5b 2
b  12.146 say 12 mm .
h  1.5b  18 mm

PL
(c) Elongation =  
AE
where,
  0.12 mm
P  35600 N
E  199955 MPa
L  380 mm
A  1.5b 2
then,
FL

AE
0.12 
35600380
1.5b 2 199955
b  19.49 mm say 19 mm .
h  1.5b  30 mm

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2. A piston rod, made of AMS6512, is subjected to a repeated, reversed load. The rod is for a
20-in. air compressor, where the maximum pressure is 125 psig. Compute the diameter of
the rod using a design factor based on (a) ultimate strength, (b) yield strength. N u  8
Ny  4

Solution:-

For of AMS6512steel, as bar (Table 2.5.1.0(b) ) > 4.000 in

Ftu  255 ksi Ftu  1758.23 MPa
Fty  250 ksi Fty  1723.75 MPa
E  26.5 106 psi E  182717.5 MPa


P  force  202 125  39,270 lb  39.27 kip
4
P  force  174680.814 N
Nu  8
Ny  4

(a) Based on ultimate strength

NuP
A
Ftu
 2 8(174680.81)
d 
4 1758.23
d  31.81159362 mm say 32mm

(b) Based on yield strength

NyP
A
Fty
 2 4(174680.81)
d 
4 1723.75
d  22.72 mm say 23mm

3. A hollow, short compression member, of steel (AISI 4130), is to support a load of 1500
kips with a factor of safety of 5 based on the yield strength. Determine the outside and
inside diameters if Do  2 Di .

Solution:

Fty  70 ksi Fty  482.65 MPa

Ny  8
P  1500 kips P  6672300 N
 3Di2 
4

A  D  D  4D  D 
4
2
o i
2

4
 i
2
i
2

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 3D i2 N u P 56672300
A  
4 Fcy 482.85
D i  171.2778 mm say 171.5 mm
D o  2D i  2(171.5)  343 mm

4. A round, steel tension member, 1400 mm. long, is subjected to a maximum load of
31000 N. (a) What should be its diameter if the total elongation is not to exceed 0.7 mm?

Solution:

PL PL
(a)   or A 
AE E
Where,
P  31000 N
L  1400 mm
  0.7 mm
E  29  10 6 psi E  199955 MPa

A  d2 
310001400
4 0.7199955
d  19.87 mm say 20 mm
5. A lever keyed to a shaft is L  380 mm long and has a rectangular cross section of
h  3t . A 8900-N load is gradually applied and reversed at the end as shown; the material
is 7075T651 Aluminum Base A. Design for both ultimate and yield strengths. (a) What
should be the dimensions of a section at a  330 mm ? (b) at b  100 mm ? (c) What
should be the size where the load is applied?Nu=8 Ny=4

Solution:
For7075 T561 Aluminum Alloy for minimum conditions
Fu  61 ksi Fu  420.6 MPa

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Fy  50 ksi Fy  344.75 MPa

Design factors for gradually applied and reversed load

Nu  8
Ny  4
Limit Load= 8900 N
Ultimate Load = 8x8900= 71200 N
Proof Load = 4x8900=35600 N
th 3
I , moment of inertial
12
but h  3t
h4
I
36

Moment Diagram (Load Upward)

Based on ultimate strength

Fu
D 
Nu

Mc Pultimate ac
(a)  D  
I I
h
c
2

h
8900330 
420.6 2
D  
8  h4 
 
 36 

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h  100.18mm
h 100.18
t   33.39 mm
3 3
say
h  100 mm
t  34 mm

Mc Pultimate bc
(b)  D  
I I
h
c
2

8900100 h 
480.6 2
s 
8 h 4
 
 36 
h  64.366 mm
h 64.366
t   21.455 mm
3 3
say
h  65 mm
t  23 mm

(c)

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6. A centrifugal pump is to be driven by a 15-hp electric motor at 1750 rpm. What should be
the diameter of the pump shaft if it is made of AISI 4130 ? N=6

Solution:

For AISI 4130,

Fty  70 ksi Fty  482.65 MPa
Fus  54 ksi Fus  344.75 MPa
Power  15 hp Power  11.1855 KW
Designing based on ultimate shear strength
Fus
D  , N 6
N
344.76 N
D   57.46
6 mm 2

Power 11185.5
Torque, T    61.04 N.m
2n 2
1750
60
For diameter,
16T
D 
d 3
1661.04 1000
57.46 
d 3
d  17.5 mm
say d  18 mm

7. A shaft in torsion only is to transmit 1850 KW at 570 rpm with medium shocks
N  3 . Its material is AISI 4130 steel. (a) What should be the diameter of a solid
shaft? (b) If the shaft is hollow, Do  2 Di , what size is required? (c) What is the
weight per foot of length of each of these shafts? Which is the lighter? By what
percentage? (d) Which shaft is the more rigid? Compute the torsional deflection of
each for a length of 10 ft.

Solution:
Power 1850
T   30.993 KN.m
2 n 2
570
60
For AISI 4130
Fus  54 ksi Fus  344.75 MPa
N  3 for medium shock, one direction
Design stress
Fus 344.75
D    114.92 MPa
N 3

(a) Let D = shaft diameter

31
 Tc
D 
J
 D4
J
32
D
c
2
16T
D 
D 3
1630993000
114.92 
D 3
D  111.16 mm
say D  112 mm

(b) J  

 Do4  Di4   2 Di 4  Di4   15 D i
4

32 32 32
D 2 Di
c o   Di
2 2
TD i 32T
D  
 15D i  15D 3i
4
 
 32 
 
3230993000
114.92 
15D 3i
D i  56.79 mm
D o  2D i  113.57 mm
say
D i  57 mm
D o  114 mm

(c)From Table Density,   0.283 lb in   7833.44 Kg m 3

3

For solid shaft

w  Weight per meter of length
   2
w   D 2   3D 2  7833.44 0.112   77.17 kg m
4  4 

For hollow shaft

 
4
 
4
 
w    Do2  Di2  7833.440.114  .0.057   59.97 Kg m
2 2

Therefore hollow shaft is lighter
77.17  59.97
Percentage lightness = 100%  28.68%
59.97

32
(d) Torsional Deflection

TL

JG
where
L3m
G  1110 3 ksi G  75.845 GPa

 D4
For solid shaft, J 
32

309933  180 
 0.07935 rad  0.07935   4.546


    

 0.112 75.845  10
4 9

 32 

For hollow shaft, J 


 Do4  Di4 
32

309933  180 
 0.078862 rad  0.041   4.5185


 
 
  0.114  .057  75.845  10
 32 
4 4 9
   

Therefore, hollow shaft is more rigid, 4.52   4.55 

33