Euclidean Geometry Introduction

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Euclidean Geometry is the high school geometry we all know and love!
It is the study of geometry based on definitions, undefined terms (point, line and plane)
and the postulates of the mathematician Euclid (330 B.C.)

Euclid's text, The Elements, was the first systematic discussion of geometry. While
many of Euclid's findings had been previously stated by earlier Greek mathematicians,
Euclid is credited with developing the first comprehensive deductive system. Euclid's
approach to geometry consisted of proving all theorems based upon his five postulates.

Five Postulates of Euclidean Geometry:

1. A straight line segment can be drawn from any given point to any other.

2. Any straight line segment can be extended indefinitely in a straight line.

3. Given any straight line segment, a circle can be dawn having the segment as radius
and one endpoint as center.

4. All right angles are congruent.

5. If a straight line crossing two straight lines makes the interior angles on the same
side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if extended indefinitely, meet on
that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles.
This postulate is equivalent to what is known as the Parallel Postulate.

Postulates are statements that are accepted as true, but cannot be proven to be true.
Over the centuries, mathematicians have endeavored to "prove" Euclid's Fifth
Postulate based upon his first four postulates, with no success. In so doing, however,
several "equivalent forms" of that Postulate were discovered.

In 1795, John Playfair stated an alternative (equivalent) form of Euclid's Fifth

Postulate:

"Through any point in the plane, there is at most one straight line
parallel to a given straight line."

This opened the door for naming the Fifth Postulate the Parallel Postulate.
Euclidean Geometry is the study of flat space. We can
easily illustrate these geometrical concepts by drawing on a
flat piece of paper or chalkboard. In flat space, we know
such concepts as:

 theshortest distance between two points is one unique

straight line.

 the sum of the angles in any triangle equals 180 degrees.

 theconcept of perpendicular to a line can be illustrated as seen in the

picture at the right.

Today, we know the equivalent form of Euclid's fifth postulate,

called the Parallel Postulate, as simply stating:

The Parallel In a plane, at most one line can be drawn through a point not on a
Postulate given line parallel to the given line.

The concepts in Euclid's geometry remained unchallenged until the early 19th
century.
At that time, other forms of geometry started to emerge, called non-Euclidean
geometries.
It was no longer assumed that Euclid's geometry could be used to describe all physical
space.

non-Euclidean geometry is any form of geometry that contains a

postulate (axiom) which is equivalent to the negation of the Euclidean Parallel
Postulate.

1. Riemannian Geometry (also called elliptic geometry or spherical

geometry) is a non-Euclidean geometry using as its Parallel Postulate any statement
equivalent to the following:

"If l is any line and P is any point not on l ,

then there are no lines through P that are parallel to l ."

Riemannian Geometry is named for the German

mathematician, Bernhard Riemann, who in 1889
rediscovered the work of Girolamo Saccheri (Italian)
showing certain flaws in Euclidean Geometry.
Riemannian Geometry is the study of curved surfaces. Consider what would
happen
if instead of working on the Euclidean flat piece of paper, you work on a curved
surface,
such as a sphere (or a beach ball).

The study of Riemannian Geometry has a direct connection to our daily existence
since we live on a curved surface called planet Earth.

What effect does working on a sphere, or a curved

space, have on what we think of as geometrical truths?

 In
curved space, the sum of the angles of any triangle is
now always greater than 180°.

 On a sphere, there are no straight lines. As soon as you

start to draw a straight line, it curves on the sphere.

• In curved space, the shortest distance between any two points (called a geodesic) is
not unique. For example, there are many geodesics between the north and south
poles of the Earth (lines of longitude) that are not parallel since they intersect at the
poles.

• In curved space, the concept of perpendicular to a line can be

illustrated as seen in the picture at the right.

2. Hyperbolic Geometry (also called saddle geometry or Lobachevskian

geometry) is a non-Euclidean geometry using as its Parallel Postulate any statement
equivalent to the following:

"If l is any line and P is any point not on l ,

then there exists at least two lines through P that are parallel to l ".

Lobachevskian Geometry is named for the Russian

mathematician, Nicholas Lobachevsky, who, like
Riemann, furthered the studies of non-Euclidean
Geometry.
Hyperbolic Geometry is the study of a saddle shaped
space. Consider what would happen if instead of working on the
Euclidean flat piece of paper, you work on a curved surface shaped
like the outer surface of a saddle or a Pringle's potato chip.

What effect does working on a saddle shaped

surface have on what we think of as geometrical
truths?

 Inhyperbolic geometry, the sum of the angles of

a triangle is less than 180°.

 In
hyperbolic geometry, triangles with the same
angles have the same areas.

• There are no similar triangles in hyperbolic geometry.

• In hyperbolic space, the concept of perpendicular to a line can be

illustrated as seen in the picture at the right.
• Lines can be drawn in hyperbolic space that are parallel (do not intersect).
Actually, many lines can be drawn parallel to a given line through a given point.

Graphically speaking, the hyperbolic saddle shape is

called a hyperbolic paraboloid, as seen at the right.

It has been said that some of the works of artist M. C. Escher illustrate hyperbolic
geometry.
In his work Circle Limit III , the effect of a hyperbolic space's negative curve on the
sum of the angles in a triangle can be seen. Escher's print illustrates a model devised
by French mathematician Henri Poincare for visualizing the theorems of hyperbolic
geometry,
the orthogonal circle.

Basic Geometric Symbols & Labeling

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Mathematics is a form of a language. And as such, it has its own manner of

communicating information. As you progress in your mathematical career, you will
discover that mathematics relies more and more on its own set of symbols when
discussing information.
Let's refresh our memories on the geometry symbols you have already seen.
(For information on the correct notation, using these symbols, see Notation.)

Geometric Symbol Interpretation Example

Angle
Triangle
capital letter Point point A

↔ Line

Line Segment

→ or ← Ray

⊥
|| Parallel

Perpendicular

Congruent

Similar

Now, let's take a look at how figures are labeled in

geometry, and the meanings of these labels. This
information should sound familiar.

Angles:
 or
Angles are labeled by Angles may be labeled with a Angles may be represented Angles may also be
specifying 3 points, with the single letter at the vertex, as by a single lower case letter represented by numbers, as
center point being the vertex long as it is perfectly clear or by a Greek letter, as long long as it is clear to which

NOT ∠BAC.
of the angle. This angle is that there is only one angle at as it is clear which angle is angle the number applies.
this vertex. being referenced.

Lines:

line
Lines are traditionally labeled by expressing two points Lines may also be labeled with a single scripted letter, and
through which the line passes. referred to by that name.

Closed Figures:

When drawing rectangle ABCD: When drawing rectangle ABCD: When drawing rectangle ABCD:
the letters must follow, in order, around you may label in either a clockwise or you may NOT label "across" the
the outside of the figure. You may start at counterclockwise direction around the figure as shown here.
any vertex point. outside of the figure. This is not rectangle ABCD.
(It is rectangle ACBD.)

Triangles:

When using letters to refer to the sides of A right triangle is designated with a
a triangle, it is customary to label the "box" drawn in the location of the
or any other three letter combination of
sides as small case letters. Across from right angle.
A, B and C will apply to this triangle.
the vertex labeled capital A will be the
side labeled small case a, and so on.

Parallels and Perpendiculars:

 Parallel lines are marked with "feathers". A "box" at the point of intersection indicates the lines are
Notice how they appear as sets: the lines with one feather are perpendicular. This "box" represents the presence of a right
parallels, and the lines with two feathers are parallel. angle (just as it did in the right triangle).

Congruent Sides and Angles:

"Hash marks" are used to represent segments of equal While "hash marks" are used to represent segments of
length on diagrams. Notice that corresponding sides are equal length on diagrams, "arcs" are used to
distinguished by their number of hash marks. It is customary, represent angles of equal measure. In the same fashion as
with congruent triangles, to "letter" the triangles' names in a we saw with the hash marks, corresponding angles are
corresponding order: vertex A will correspond to vertex D, distinguished by their number of arcs.
vertex B to vertex E, and vertex C to vertex F, so
triangle ABC is congruent to triangle DEF.

Undefined Terms
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In geometry, formal definitions are formed using other defined words or terms. There
are, however, three words in geometry that are not formally defined. These words
are point, line and plane, and are referred to as the "three undefined terms of
geometry".

While these words are "undefined" in the formal sense, we can still "describe" these
words.
The descriptions, stated below, refer to these words in relation to geometry.

POINT
• a point indicates a location (or position) in space.
• a point has no dimension (actual size).
• a point has no length, no width, and no height
(thickness).
• a point is usually named with a capital letter.
• in the coordinate plane, a point is named by an The size of the dot drawn to represent a
ordered pair, (x,y). point makes no difference. Points have
no size. They simply represent a
location.
While we represent a point with a dot, the dot can be
very tiny or very large. Remember, a point has no
size.

LINE (straight line)

• a line has no thickness.
• a line's length extends in one dimension.
• a line goes on forever in both directions.
• a line has infinite length, zero width, and zero
height. Lines can be labeled with a single script
• a line is assumed to be straight. (in Euclidean Geometry). letter, or by two points on the line,
. The thickness of a line makes no
• a line is drawn with arrowheads on both ends. difference.
• a line is named by a single lowercase script letter,
or by any two (or more) points which lie on the line.

Definition: Collinear points are points that lie on the same straight line.
Postulate: One, and only one, straight line can be drawn though two distinct points.

PLANE
• a plane has two dimensions.
• a plane forms a flat surface extending
indefinitely in all directions.
• a plane has infinite length, infinite width and
zero height (thickness).
• a plane is drawn as a four-sided figure
resembling a tabletop or a parallelogram.
• a plane is named by a single letter (plane m) or
by three coplanar, but non-collinear,* points Plane m or Plane ABC.
While the diagram of a plane has edges,
(plane ABC). you must remember that the plane actually
has no boundaries.

Definition: Coplanar points are points that lie in the same plane.

Referring to Geometric Rules -

What we call them!
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When working in Geometry, we encounter "rules" that

are given specific designations, or references, such as
"definition, "theorem", "postulate", etc.

So, what's the difference?

The chart below is a listing of the more

popular "references"
that you will be using in your study of Geometry.

Geometric References for "Rules":

• A definition (or formal definition) is a statement of the "precise" meaning of a
word or word group.

• A theorem is a statement (rule) that has been proven true using facts,
operations and other rules that are known to be true. These are usually the "big"
rules of geometry. A short theorem referring to a "lesser" rule is called a lemma.

• A corollary is a follow-up to an existing proven theorem. Corollaries are off-

shoots of a theorem that require little or no further proof.

• A postulate (or axiom) is a statement (rule) that is taken to be true without

proof based upon geometric principles. Postulates are often simply "common
sense" ideas, such as "Through any two points, there is exactly one straight line."
Note: Euclid derived many of the rules for geometry starting with a series of definitions and only five
postulates.

• A property is a quality or characteristic belonging to something.

For example, the real numbers have the associative, commutative and distributive
properties.

Precision of Definitions
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The theoretical aspect of geometry is composed of definitions and theorems.

Definitions are precise descriptions of words used in geometry. Theorems are logical
results deduced about these geometric definitions. On this page, we will
discuss precise definitions.

The word "precise"means exact and accurate.

What do we know about definitions?

A definition is the formal statement of the meaning or significance of a

word.

When working with definitions (and theorems), you will encounter the
word "converse".
Converse is a logic term indicating the reverse of a statement written in "if-then"
form.
(The concepts within the "if" and "then" portions of the statement switch places.)
 Statement: If today is Tuesday, then it is laundry day.
Converse: If it is laundry day, then today is Tuesday.

Definitions are actually "bi-directional".

If you put a definition into "if - then" form, the definition will be remain true when the
portions of the "if" and "then" statements are exchanged. Both the definition and
its converse are true. Logically speaking, this is referred to as an "if and only
if" situation, or a biconditional.

Example: Definition: A right triangle is a triangle with one right angle.

If-then form: If a triangle is a right triangle, then it is a triangle with one right
angle. (true)
Converse (Reversed form): If a triangle has one right angle, then it is a right
triangle. (true)
Biconditional: A triangle is a right triangle if and only if the triangle has one right
angle. (true)

What is a "precise" mathematical definition?

A good mathematical definition explains "precisely" what something means. You may
express definitions in your own words, as long as your definitions are "precise".

While expressing definitions in your own words sounds like a simple

process, it can easily lead to faulty definitions and loss of credit on test
papers. Be careful!

Take a look at what problems arise when precision is lacking.

Counter-example to disprove
Student's Definition: "Precise" Definition:
student's definition:

definition, ∠1, ∠2
Complementary By the student's Complementary

and ∠3 could be
angles angles
are angles adding to are TWO angles the
90 degrees. complementary. sum of whose
This is not correct! measures is 90.
(Note: This definition is
considered incorrect.)

If you choose to define terms "in your own words", be sure to express a degree of
precision that will guarantee your definition is accurate.
 Geometric Properties of Equality
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In Algebra, we saw a Real Numbers Property Chart.

The first entries in that chart were the properties most used in algebraic problem
solving:
distributive property, commutative property, associative property, identity property,
inverse property, and closure property.
(refer to the Real Number Property Chart if you need to review these properties)

It is understood that all of the properties in the Real Numbers Property Chart are
of importance in Algebra, Geometry, and future mathematics courses.

In Geometry, we will be focusing more on the "equality properties of numbers"

from that chart, with those properties stated in geometric terms.
Items 1 - 13 appear in the Real Numbers Property Chart.

Geometric
Property Verbal hints
Examples
14. Addition Property If AB = CD,
of Equality and EF,
then AB + EF "adding the same value to both sides of
= CD + EF an equation will not change the truth
value of the equation."
If AB = CD, "when equals are added to equals, the
sums are equal"
and EF = GH
then AB + EF
= CD + GH
15. Subtraction Property If AB = CD,
of Equality and EF,
then AB - EF = "subtracting the same value from both
CD - EF sides of an equation will not change the
truth value of the equation."
If AB = CD, "when equals are subtracted from
equals the results are equal."
and EF = GH
then AB - EF =
CD - GH
16. Multiplication If AB = CD, "multiplying both sides of an equation
Property of Equality then 2 • AB by the same value will not change the
= 2 • CD truth value of the equation."

17. Division Property If AB = CD, "dividing both sides of an equation by

of Equality then AB / 2 the same non-zero value will not
(non-zero denominator) = CD / 2 change truth value of the equation."

18. Substitution Property If AB + CD

= 42,
"a value may be substituted for its
and CD = 20 equal."
then AB + 20 =
42
19. Reflexive (or Identity) "a real number is always
Property of Equality AB = AB equal to itself"

20. Symmetric Property

If AB = CD, "quantities that are equal can be read
of Equality then CD = AB forward or backward"

21. Transitive Property If AB =

"if two numbers are equal to the same
of Equality CD and CD =
number, then the two numbers are equal
EF, to each other"
then AB = EF.
22. Law of Trichotomy If AB > 8,
"for two real numbers a and b, a is
then AB 8 either equal to b, greater than b, or less
and than b." (common sense)
AB is not < 8.

Most of these properties appear as "common sense" in relation to

what we already know about working with number values.

In Geometry, these properties will also come into play as reasons in "proofs",
to verify statements we need to make to support the solution.

Auxiliary Lines
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In geometry, it may be necessary to add a line or segment to a diagram to help in
solving a problem or proving a concept. Such an added line or segment is called
an auxiliary line. The word "auxiliary" means providing additional help or support.

While it is never acceptable to change any of the original parts of a diagram, it is

acceptable to add new lines or segments. These new lines are drawn "dashed" or
"dotted" to indicated that they were not part of the original diagram.

Auxiliary lines are often used to create a triangle in a diagram or to create two
congruent triangles in a diagram. Your goal is to add something to the diagram that
will help you solve the problem.

There are a series of postulates that are used to support the addition of
an auxiliary line to a proof, such as:
• Two points determine one unique line or segment.
• Each angle has one unique angle bisector.
• Through a point not on a line (segment), only one line can be drawn parallel to
the given line (segment). (Parallel Postulate)
• Through a point not on a line (segment), only one line can be drawn
perpendicular to the given line (segment).
• Through a point not on a segment, only one line (segment) can be drawn to the
midpoint of the given segment.

Example:
The problem at the left wants us to prove
that the base angles of an isosceles
triangle are congruent. As you can see,
there is not much for us to work with in
the diagram.

If we add an auxiliary line which is a

perpendicular to the base from point B, we The auxiliary segment
can form two right triangles in which to gives us two triangles
work. We can then work our way toward with which to work.
getting the angles to be congruent as
corresponding parts of congruent triangles.
Always add an auxiliary line in the simplest way possible. Do not add a
multitude of auxiliary lines and make a confusing mess of the diagram.

Be sure that the conditions that you place on an auxiliary line are
actually true.

Consider this example:

Given the diagram at the left, a student draws an auxiliary
segment from point D to point A forming a second triangle.
The student states that the "Reason" for the auxiliary line is
that "through a point not on a line (segment), only one line
can be drawn perpendicular to the given line (segment)" and
states that . WRONG!

We have no way of knowing that the perpendicular

from A to will intersect at point D. It will more
likely intersect somewhere between point C and
point D. The student can draw the segment from A to D,
stating that two points determine one unique line, but the
student cannot state that the segment is perpendicular to
at D.

What's a Proof?
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A proof is a written account of the complete thought process

that is used to reach a conclusion.

Each step of the process is supported by a theorem, postulate, property or definition

verifying why the step is possible.
In formal Euclidean proofs, no steps can be left out.

If you think about the numerical problems you are used to solving in geometry,
you will realize that your mind often does a "fast-forward" through some of the logical
steps needed to reach a valid answer. In other words, you quickly "go right to the
answer."

Check out the numerical problem below:

Example of a
Number
Problem
(your thinking
is in
"fast-forward")

Answer: Since bisects , D is the midpoint of , forming two congruent

segments whose measures are equal.
If AD = 6, then DC = 6 as well.

You probably arrived at the answer of 6 long before you finished

reading the explanation of the answer. Right?

When developing a proof of this same problem, we must be careful

to include ALL of the steps that led to our answer.
We cannot "fast-forward" over steps when writing a proof.

Check out the "proof" of this same problem:

Proof of the
Same
Problem
(slow down your
thinking)

Statements Reasons
1. 1. Given

2. Segment bisector intersects a segment at its

2. midpoint.
3. Midpoint divides a segment into 2 congruent
3. parts.
 4. Congruent segments are segments of equal
4.
measure.

5. 5. Substitution.

A proof requires that you document all of the little steps that you mentally
"fast-forwarded" through in the numerical problem.

What's in a proof?
A formal 2-column proof contains the following components:
Refer to the labeled proof below the chart.

• Statement of the original problem.

This information is usually stated in the original problem. Some word problems, Part
however, have to be dissected in order to get the specific information needed for the A
proof.

• Diagram marked with "Given" information.

The diagram usually is not marked, so this step is very important. You will see the Part
sought after congruent triangles and their corresponding parts much clearer with the B
diagram marked.

• Re-statement of the "Given" information in the proof. Part

Stating the "Given" information is almost always the first statement, and the reason
is simply "GIVEN".
C

• Complete supporting reasons for each step in the proof. Part

The "wording" of supporting reasons may vary slightly between textbooks (and
teachers), so be careful to follow the guidelines set by your teacher.
D

• The "Prove" statement as the last statement. Part

"PROVE" is always the final statement. This statement is the purpose for the entire
problem.
E

See the parts labeled on the proof.

Labeled Part A: Part B:

"Parts"
of the
Proof
 Statements Reasons Part D:
1. Part 1. Given
C:
2. Segment bisector intersects a segment at
2. its midpoint.
3. Midpoint divides a segment into 2
3. congruent parts.
4. Congruent segments are segments of equal
4.
measure.

5. Part E: 5. Substitution.

A Helpful Proof Strategy!

A helpful strategy is often "looking backward"!
For most proof problems, it is helpful to think of the problem "in reverse",
from the "Prove" statement back to the "Given" information.
Ask "How could I get to this result?"
"What would I need to know to get to this result?"

Let's look at this strategy applied to the problem we just examined.

Looking
Backward
Strategy
A look "backwards" -- Where could this conclusion come from?

By looking at the above steps, we can see how to proceed with the proof.

Statements Reasons
1. Given

2. Reflexive Property - a quantity is congruent to

itself.
3. SAS: If 2 sides and the included angle of one
triangle are congruent to the corresponding parts of
another triangle, the two triangles are congruent.
4. CPCTC: Corresponding parts of congruent triangles
are congruent.

You might want to consider jotting down your "backward"

thoughts before you begin writing your proof.

Types of Proofs - Direct

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The Building Blocks of Proofs

The theoretical aspect of geometry is composed of definitions, postulates, properties

and theorems. They are, in essence, the building blocks of the geometric proof. You
will see definitions, postulates, properties and theorems used as primary
"justifications" appearing in the "Reasons" column of a two-column proof, the text of a
paragraph proof or transformational proof, and the remarks in a flow-proof.
 A quick review of terms:
• A definition is a precise description of a word used in geometry. All definitions can
be written in "if - then" form (in either direction) constituting an "if and only if" format
known as a biconditional. See more about definitions at Precision of Definitions.
Example of a definition: An isosceles triangle is a triangle with two congruent sides.
("if - then" form) If a triangle is isosceles, then the triangle has two congruent sides.
(reversed "if-then" form) If a triangle has two congruent sides, then the triangle is isosceles.
("if and only if" form) A triangle is isosceles if and only if the triangle has two congruent sides.

• A postulate is a statement that is assumed to be true without a proof. It is

considered to be a statement that is "obviously true". Postulates may be used to prove
theorems true. The term "axiom" may also be used to refer to a "background
assumption".
Example of a postulate: Through any two points in a plane there is exactly one straight line.

• A theorem is a statement that can be proven to be true based upon postulates and
previously proven theorems. A "corollary" is a theorem that is considered to follow
from a previous theorem (an off-shoot of the other theorem.) Unlike definitions,
theorems may, or may not, be "reversible" when placed in "if - then" form.
Example of a theorem: The measures of the angles of a triangle add to 180 degrees.

• The properties of real numbers help to support these three essential building blocks
of a geometric proofs.
Example of a property: A quantity may be substituted for its equal.

Proofs are an Intellectual Game!

A proof is a way to assert that we know a mathematical concept is true. It is a logical

argument that establishes the truth of a statement. Lewis Carroll (author of Alice's
Adventures in Wonderland and mathematician) once said, "The charm [of
mathematics] lies chiefly ... in the absolute certainty of its results; for that is what,
beyond all mental treasures, the human intellect craves."
Writing a proof can be challenging, exhilarating, rewarding, and at
times frustrating. The building of a proof requires critical thinking,
logical reasoning, and disciplined organization. Except in the simplest
of cases, proofs allow for individual thought and development. Proofs
may use different justifications, be prepared in a different order, or
take on different forms. Proofs demonstrate one of the true beauties of
mathematics in that they remind us that there may be many ways to
arrive at the same conclusion.

Writing a proof is like playing an intellectual game. You have to decide upon which
pieces to use for this puzzle and then assemble them to form a "picture" of the
situation. Proofs are fun!!

Formats for Proofs

The most common form of proof is a direct proof, where the "prove" is shown to be
true directly as a result of other geometrical statements and situations that are true.
Direct proofs apply what is called deductive reasoning: the reasoning from proven
facts using logically valid steps to arrive at a conclusion.

The steps in a proof are built one upon the other. As such, it is important to maintain
a chronological order to your presentation of the proof. Like in a game of chess, you
must plan ahead so you will know which moves will lead to your victory of proving
the statement true. Each statement in your proof must be clearly presented
and supported by a definition, postulate, theorem or property. Write your proof so that
someone that is not familiar with the problem will easily understand what you are
saying.

There are several different formats for presenting proofs. It may be the case, that one
particular method of presentation may be more conducive to solving a specific
problem than another method.

The Two - Column Proof

Also called the T-Form proof or the Ledger proof.

This proof format is a very popular format seen in most high school textbooks. The
proof consists of two columns, where the first column contains a numbered
chronological list of steps, called Statements, leading to the desired conclusion. The
second column contains the justifications, called Reasons, to support each step in the
proof. Remember that justifications are definitions, postulates, theorems and/or
 properties. This format clearly displays each step in your argument and keeps your
ideas organized.

Statements Reasons

1. 1. Given

2. 2. Midpoint of a segment divides the segment

into two congruent segments.
3. 3. Vertical angles are congruent.
4. 4. SAS: If two sides and the included angle of
one triangle are congruent to two sides and
the included angle of another triangle, the
triangles are congruent.
QED

The Paragraph Proof

This proof format is a more collegiate method. The proof consists of a detailed
paragraph explaining the proof process. The paragraph contains steps and supporting
justifications which prove the statement true. When prepared properly, the paragraph
can be quite lengthy. When using this method, it can be easy to overlook critical steps
and/or supporting reasons if you are not careful. Be sure to list your steps in
chronological order, and support each step with a definition, theorem postulate and/or
property.
It is given that C is the midpoint of both in the supplied
figure. Since C is the midpoint, we know that because the
midpoint of a segment divides the segment into two congruent segments. Knowing
vertical angles are congruent, we have . We can now state
that by SAS, because if two sides and the included angle of one
triangle are congruent to two sides and the included angle of another triangle, the
triangles are congruent. QED

The Flow Proof

Also called the Flowchart Proof.

This proof format shows the structure of a proof using boxes and connecting arrows.
The appearance is like a detailed drawing of the proof. The justifications (the
definitions, theorems, postulates and properties) are written beside the boxes. The
flowchart (schematic) nature of this format resembles the logical development
structure often used by computer programmers. This format clearly displays each step
in your argument.
 QED

Transformational Proof
This proof format describes how the use of rigid transformations (reflections,
translations, rotations) can be used to show geometric figures (or parts) to be
congruent, or how the use of similarity transformations (reflections, translations,
rotations and dilations) can be used to show geometric figures to be similar. The
justification in this style of proof will include properties relating to transformations.
Be sure you state a sufficient amount of information to thoroughly support your
argument. Since transformational proofs are presented in a paragraph format, be sure
to organize your ideas in chronological order, and support each idea with a definition,
theorem postulate and/or property. We will be highlighting the "ideas" throughout the
proof with a "bullet" to make reading the proof easier.
Not all situations will be easily solved by a transformational proof.
 The basis of this transformational proof will be a rotation of 180º about C.
• A rotation of 180º about C will map A onto and map B onto since we are
dealing with straight segments.
• because these are the same angle since they have the same sides

because ∠A'CB' is a 180º rotation of ∠ACB about E, and

(rays) and the same vertex.
•
rotations are rigid transformations which preserve angle measure.
• by the transitive property of congruence (or substitution).
• because a midpoint divides the segment into two congruent
segments.
• because a rigid transformation preserves
length.
• by SAS.
QED

Ending a Proof - QED

A traditional method to signify the end of a proof is to include the letters Q.E.D.
These letters are an acronym for the Latin expression "quod erat
demonstrandum", which means "that which was to be demonstrated".

When a proof is finished, it is time to celebrate your hard work.

Stamp your proof with a QED!
 Types of Proofs - Indirect
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When trying to prove a statement or theorem to be true, it may be beneficial to ask

"What if this statement or theorem was not true?" and examine what happens. This
concept is the premise of the Indirect Proof, or Proof by Contradiction.

Indirect Proof:
Assume what you need to prove is false, and then
show that something contradictory (absurd) happens.
Proof by Contradiction is also known as reductio ad absurdum
(which from Latin means reduced to an absurdity).

Assumption Made by an Indirect Proof: If all possible conclusions to a proposition

are listed, one of them must be true, and if all but one are proved false, then the
remaining conclusion is true.

Steps in an Indirect Proof:

• Assume that the opposite of what you are trying to prove is true.
• From this assumption, draw conclusions about the problem. Be sure that your
conclusions are based on the assumption and the use of valid statements.
• Look for a conclusion that you know will be false because it contradicts the
Given, or known, information. Usually you will be contradicting "Given"
information.
• When the assumption leads to a false conclusion, the assumption must be false.
• If the assumption (which is the opposite of what you are trying to prove)
is false, then you will know that what you are trying to prove must be true.

How to Recognize When an Indirect Proof is Needed:

Look for the word "not" or a "not symbol" in the problem. The presence of "not" or
a "not symbol", such as the not equal , or not congruent symbols, in a problem
indicates a need for an Indirect Proof.

Example:

Indirect Proof in Two - Column Format

 Notice how this problem is dealing with "NOT".

Statements Reasons

1. 1. Given

2. 2. Assumption leading to a contradiction.

3. 3. An angle bisector is a ray in the interior of
the angle forming 2 congruent angles.
4. 4. Reflexive (Identity) - A quantity is

5. SAS - If 2 sides and the included ∠ of one Δ

congruent to itself.
5.
are congruent to the corresponding parts of
another Δ, the Δ s are congruent.
6. 6. CPCTC - Corresponding parts of congruent
triangles are congruent.
7. 7. Contradiction steps 1 and 6
QED

Why Study Proofs?

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Marilyn vos Savant is an American magazine columnist who has the highest recorded
intelligence quotient (IQ) in the Guinness Book of Records.
 In one of her columns, she was asked ...

When in our lives are we going to use proofs?

Her reply was ...

"You will need them every day, I hope, without knowing it. Geometry is beautifully
logical, and it teaches you how to think and prove that things are so, step by step by
step. Proofs are excellent lessons in reasoning. Without logic and reasoning, you are
dependent on jumping to conclusions or - worse - having empty opinions."
(Reprinted with permission from PARADE and Marilyn vos Savant, copyright © 2003.)

Circular Reasoning in Proofs

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Circular reasoning is a logical fallacy.

It occurs in Geometry when two statements depend upon each other to be true.

Statement 1 is used to prove Statement 2,

but
Statement 2 is used to prove Statement 1.

In Geometry, there is a hierarchy (a specific order) as to when theorems are proven to

be true in relation to one another. A theorem needs to be proven true "before" it can be
used to prove another theorem true. This helps avoid circular reasoning.

When proving theorems true in Geometry, you must be careful not to use circular
reasoning.

Consider these two theorems:

1: In a plane, if a line is perpendicular to one of two parallel lines, it is
also perpendicular to the other line.

2: If two lines are parallel, then the corresponding angles are congruent.

Circular Reasoning:

Theorem 1 is used to prove Theorem 2

(says theorem 1 must be above theorem 2 in the hierarchy)
but then
Theorem 2 is used to prove Theorem 1.
(says theorem 2 must be above theorem 1 in the hierarchy?????)

Under these conditions, Theorem 2 would not be considered a valid step in proving
Theorem 1.

FYI: This web site will be using Theorem 1 to prove Theorem 2.

But we will NOT be using Theorem 2 to prove Theorem 1.

Our proof of Theorem 1 will not involve the use of corresponding angles.
Theorem 1 is proven under Perpendicular Lines using an Indirect Proof and the Parallel
Postulate.
This more generic proof of Theorem 1 will allow for a wider application of that theorem
in other proofs, and will maintain Theorem 1 above Theorem 2 in the hierarchy.