UNAB E.A.

P: Civil Engineering Basic Mathematics

PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

2.1 Elements of Symbolic Logic

a. Statement: A statement refers to any phrase or sentence. Some statements

they indicate imperative, exclamatory, interrogative expressions, others on the other hand,

they can be true or false.

Examples: They are statements:

What time is it?

Up Peru!
2+5=7
The Condor mountain range is Peruvian.
5 9

The statements that have mathematical meaning are those that can be
considered as true or false (propositions); some statements are not
possible to affirm whether it is true or false, such as the questions,
exclamations or questions.

b. Open Statement: These are sentences that contain unspecified variables.

a determined value; they do not have the property of true or false.

Examples: They are open statements:

X+3=8
x2+ y2= 9
Z+4 8
He is 25 years old

The statements that use the words 'he', 'she' are open statements.

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Open statements that contain algebraic variables are called functions.

propositional, which have the property of becoming propositions when replaced by the
variable for a specific constant.

Example:

The open statement

x2+ 1 = 5

It is a propositional function, which becomes a proposition when:

For x = -3 (for example), it becomes the proposition

-32+ 1 = 5……………………… (F)

which has a truth value of False

ii. For x = 2, then, the proposition will be

(2)2+ 1 = 5……………………… (V)

which has a truth value of True

c. Variable: It is an amount susceptible to vary in a certain field or

route, we will represent the variables by lowercase letters x, y, z, p, q......
These variables are referred to as indeterminate variables.

Example:

i.Y= It√is a real number if x is a real number that is greater than or equal to 5.
the field or route of x is x

2.2 Logical Propositions

It is a statement or assertion to which a true value can be assigned or

the value of truth is false, but not both (Without ambiguities).

Logical propositions will generally be denoted by lowercase letters: p, q, r,

The truth or falsity of a proposition is called truth value.

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Examples:

p: √ ……True (v)
15 - 3 = 12 ……True (v)
The capital of Canada is Ottawa... True (v)
12 + 2 = 15 False (F)
7 is an even number …… False (F)
Examples of expressions that are not logical propositions:
“Buenos días”-“No faltes”-“¿Quién llamo por teléfono?

Note: Truth values refer to the truth values of a proposition to its two.
possible values: true or false. These possible values can be schematized in a
form truth table as follows:
Example:
p
V
F

2.4 Types of Logical Propositions

a. Simple or atomic propositions.- It is a proposition that contains no

logical connective.
Examples:

The triangle is a polygon

3+2=5

b. Compound or molecular propositions.-It is a proposition that contains

less a connective.
Examples:
If Juan goes to the cinema, then he has money
A triangle is equiangular if and only if it is equilateral.
Marcos is an engineer or Beatriz is a teacher.

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2.5 Basic Compound Propositions

They are classified as:

a. Conjunction ( ˄).- It is used when the linking term 'and' is used. It also has
if not
however, also, at the same time, nonetheless, as much... as, despite, etc.
Examples:
The door is white and the window is black.

Note: Examples:
Some are born virtuous, others have achieved virtue, and others have been granted it.
tax.
Paola drank milk with lemon and died.
Andrés and Karla are siblings.

b.Weak disjunction (inclusive) ( ˅).- It is the operation that links

atomic or molecular propositions, by means of the connective 'or'. Indicate within
from the proposition that the occurrence of one of them does not rule out the occurrence of the other

another (when it is possible for its component members to be accepted at the same time).

Examples:
The poison is deadly harmful.
We will go on a camping trip.

c. Strong disjunction (exclusive or excluding) It has the meaning of

"O....o....", links two atomic or molecular propositions. It indicates within a
molecular proposition the occurrence of one of the events but not both
(when only one of its members can be accepted; the other is invalidated).
Examples:
- Justin is in Lima, he is in Brazil.
- Mariáteguization in Lima or Moquegua.
- Alan García is the president of the country or a congressman.

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d. Conditionals ( )
Direct conditional ( When the antecedent is a necessary condition
so that the consequence can occur.

The direct conditional relies on other grammatical expressions in order to

recognize them
- If p, q Solopsiq
If then - from there it continues

-therefore - as it is then
pluegoq please deduce
-so that -Comop, q
from there that in such a way that
-therefore -Only if q
-pen consequence - pse concludes
When p, q
Assuming that p, q

Examples:
If you study then you pass
If you go then I will be sad

Indirect conditional ( The position of the antecedent is found

inverted just like the consequent.

The indirect conditional uses other grammatical expressions in order to

recognize them:
-every timeq sufficient that
since on the condition that
pya queq pen view of queq
-ppuesto queq always that
-why psuponeq
-psiq
-it is a necessary condition that

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Examples:

I will go on vacation as long as I finish the work.

You are a singer if you have talent.

e. Biconditional ( It is represented by 'if and only if' in ordinary language.

other equivalent expressions can be found such as:
- Then and only then
- When and only when
- If and only if, etc.
Examples:
Alfonso will enter only if he studies.
ii. Every number is even if and only if it is divisible by 2

f. The denial It's not a logical link. It's a gonadic or singular operator that
affects a proposition or set of propositions. It means: no,
ni, nunca, no siempre, no es cierto que, es falso que, no ocurre que, es imposible
that, it's not that, it's not the case that, it's not true that, etc.

It is classified:

Negation linked. - When it affects simple propositions using

generally the grammatical form not
Examples:
Pedro is not an athlete.
Vanessa does not study computing.

Free negation.-When it affects or compound propositions. Its forms

grammatical phrases are: It is not true that, it is not the case that, it is false that, it is not

possible that, etc.

Example:
It is not true that you go to the movies and the theater.

Negation.- Its grammatical form is: the term 'neither' is symbolized p and q )
Example:

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i.NiÁngelaniClaudia are going to the theater.

2.6 Symbolization of Propositions

i. Definition.- The symbolization of propositions, also called 'formalization

of propositions", is the process by which propositions and their
logical links through variables and propositional operators, in this way
generate a logical formula.

ii. Logical formula.- They are the well-formed combinations of variables and operators.
propositional, that is, they are resulting logical schemes that replace
symbolically the propositions and their links.

iii. Propositional variables.- They are lowercase letters that represent the
simple propositions. Any content can be assigned to them: p, q, r,…z.

iv. Propositional operators.- It refers to the logical links that are found
joining simple propositions are logical constants (conjunction, disjunction,
biconditional, conditional, negation.

Propositional operators can be dyadic and monadic. That is to say:

y ˄
.......o....... ˅
Operators O.....o....... ≇, , , ˅
Dyadic Yes....then Ↄ
...if and only if...

Operator It is not true that

Monadic no

Example:
If Angie arrives on time, then she will not miss the flight and will enjoy her vacation.

Assigning propositional variables:

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Angie arrives on time

Angie will miss the flight
Angie will enjoy her vacation
Replacing:
Sipentonces qyr
Symbolizing: p ( ˄r)

ii. If Sheyla does not work today, then Richard goes to the library and Justin goes to the
library.

Assigning propositional variables:

Sheyla works today
Richard goes to the library
Justin is going to the library
Replacing:
Yes then the question
Symbolizing: p ( ^r)

General Summary

Propositions Formulas Reading

composed logical
Conjunctiva p and q p and q
Weak disjunction p or not q p or q
Strong disjunction p∆q The p o q
Conditional if p then q If p then q
Biconditional p if and only if
p if
q and only if q
Free denial (p AND q) It is not true that
p and q

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Linked denial No p

v. Grouping signs.-They are used to group variables and operators, so

to give them hierarchy. They are as follows:
Bars
Keys { }
Brackets [ ]
Parenthesis ( )
a. Hierarchy - Hierarchizing means grouping the variables and the operators.
within the collection signs, also called grouping signs.
To prioritize, the following requirements must be taken into account:

Only the logical connectives (and, or, then, if and only if) present hierarchy.

To carry out a correct hierarchization, one must take into account the signs.
of punctuation in the text to be hierarchized, as they indicate the location
of the collection signs.

In the text, the period has higher hierarchy, followed by the comma in second.
place the semicolon first, and thirdly the comma.

b. Rules for prioritizing.

Where the most important punctuation mark of the text is located (of
the main connective is located there.
Wherever there is a punctuation mark, there opens or closes a sign of
collection (parenthesis, bracket or brace).
The connector that is located outside or in the outermost part of the signs
the collection one is the one with the highest hierarchy.

If we find a text where a sequence of identicals is presented

punctuation marks, the one that presents itself as a connector will be greater

so, then or any of its synonyms.

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The negation precedes the variable ( p), does not link propositions, as it does not
it is connective.

Example:
Yolanda studies biology and anatomy.

q
study mathematics. However, study physics.

r s
Replacing propositions = p and q, or r. however s
Replacing connectors = p ˄ q , ˅ r . ˄ s

hierarchy 1
higher hierarchy

Hierarchizing the symbolization = [ ( p ˄ q) ˅ r ] ˄ s

Main connective
2.7. Examples
Symbolize the following propositions:
If there is rain in the mountains and the government distributes fertilizer, then the production
agricultural will grow.

You will travel to Paramonga if you don't have homework.

iii. China will have border issues if the boundary markers are not visible.
iv. It is not true that you are not a singer or an athlete.
It is not the case that Carolina does not know how to play the guitar and does not compose a melody.

since she is a graduate of the music school.

vi. When the sky is clear, it is hot.
vii. When it rained cats and dogs, Vallejo died.
viii. Even if it rains, I will go to visit you

ix. Although severe, it is fair

When the ambition for power or wealth dominates a man, there is no shame nor
inviolable legal or moral barriers.

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Mr. Johnny Mitchell Gomero Mancesidor Basic Mathematics