OSI Model andTCP/IP

ISO-OSI Reference Model

Contents TCP/IP Protocol suite
Comparison of OSI andTCP/IP
 The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven
layers can be briefly summarized as follows:
 A layer should be created where a different
Principles of abstraction is needed.
OSI model  Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
 The function of each layer should be chosen with an
eye toward defining internationally standardized
protocols
 The layer boundaries should be chosen to
minimize the information flow across the
interfaces.
The number of layers should be large enough
Contd…
that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and
small enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy.
Network Model – OSI Model

 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s

Note
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
ISO-OSI Reference Model
 An ISO standard that
covers all aspects of network communications is
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
 Created as a framework and reference model
to explain how different networking
technologies work together and interact
 It is not a standard that networking protocols
must follow.
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model
for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable.
 It facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the
logic of the underlying hardware and
software
 An open system is a set of protocols that
allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying
architecture
Fig. OSI Layered architecture

6
Contd…
Contd…

Seven layers can be split into three subgroups

Layer 1,2,3 : Network support layers
o It deals with physical aspects of moving data from one device to
another (electrical specifications, physical connection, physical addressing,
timing and reliability)
Layer 5,6&7: (implemented in software) - User support layers
oIt allows interoperability among unrelated software systems
Layer 4
o It links the two subgroups (lower layers and upper layer)
o It ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission
Interaction between layers in the OSI model
  The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry
a bit stream over a physical medium.
 It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission medium.
 It also defines the procedures and functions that physical
devices and interfaces have to perform for transmission to
Physical Occur.
Layer
Note
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
 Physical characteristics of interfaces and
medium.
 The physical layer defines the characteristics of
the interface between the devices and the
transmission medium.
Contd…  It also defines the type of transmission medium.
 Representation of bits.
 data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s or
1s) with no interpretation.
 To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into
signals-electrical or optical.
 It defines the type of encoding (how 0s and 1s are
changed to signals).
  Data rate
 The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also
defined by the physical layer.
 Synchronization of bits
 The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate.
 The sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
Contd…  Line configuration
 The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media.
 In a point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a
dedicated link.
 In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among several devices
  Physical topology
 The physical topology defines how devices are connected to
make a network.
 Devices can be connected by using
 Mesh topology
 Star topology
Contd…  Ring topology
 Bus topology
 Hybrid topology
 Transmission mode
 The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission
between two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.
  It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer
(network layer)
 node – to - node delivery
 It is responsible for transmitting a group of bits (called
frames or packets) to adjacent node without error:

The data link layer is responsible for moving

Data Link frames from one hop (node) to the next.

Layer
  Framing - Divides the stream of bits received into
data units called frames.
 Physical addressing – If frames are to be
distributed to different systems on the network, data
Contd… link layer adds a header to the frame to define the
sender and receiver.
 Flow control - If the rate at which the data are
absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate
produced in the sender ,the Data link layer imposes a
flow control mechanism.
  Error control - Used for detecting and
retransmitting damaged or lost frames and to prevent
duplication of frames. This is achieved through a
Contd… trailer added at the end of the frame.
 Access control -Used to determine which device
has control over the link at any given time when 2 or
more devices are connected to the same link.
Hop-to-hop delivery
  As the figure shows, communication at the data link layer
occurs between two adjacent nodes.
 To send data from A to F, three partial deliveries are made.
 First, the data link layer at A sends a frame to the datalink
Contd… layer at B (a router).
 Second, the data link layer at B sends a new frame to the
data link layer at E.
 Finally, the data link layer at E sends a new frame to the
data link layer at F.
  The frames that are exchanged between the three
nodes have different values in the headers.
 The frame from A to B has B as the destination
Contd… address and A as the source address. Likewise B to
E and E to F.
 The values of the trailers can also be different if
error checking includes the header of the frame.
  This layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from
source to destination
 If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually
no need for a network layer.
 However, if the two systems are attached to different
networks (links) with connecting devices between the
networks (links), there is often a need for the network layer to
Network accomplish source-to-destination delivery.
Layer
 The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual
packets from the source host to the destination host.

Logical addressing
 If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another
addressing system for source and destination called logical
address.
Contd…
Routing
 The devices which connects various independent networks
called routers.
 Routers are responsible for delivering packets to final
destination.
Source-to-destination delivery
  The network layer at A sends the packet to the network layer
at B.
 When the packet arrives at router B, the router makes a
decision based on the final destination (F) of the packet.
 router B uses its routing table to find that the next hop is
Contd… router E.
 The network layer at B, therefore, sends the packet to the
network layer at E.
 The network layer at E, in turn, sends the packet to the
network layer at F.
  It is responsible for process-to-process delivery of
the entire message
 A process is an application program running on a
host.

 It does not recognize any relationship between the

packets which is arrived from network layer.
Transpor  It treats each one independently, as though each
t Layer piece belonged to a separate message, whether or
not it does.
 The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that
the whole message arrives intact and in order,
overseeing both error control and flow control at
the source-to-destination level.
Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
  Port addressing - The header in this must therefore
include a address called port address or service-point
address. This layer gets the entire message to the correct
process on that computer.
Contd…  Segmentation and reassembly - The message is
divided into segments and each segment is assigned a
sequence number. These numbers are arranged
correctly on the arrival side by this layer.
  Connection control - This can either be
connectionless or connection-oriented.
The connectionless treats each segment as a
individual packet and delivers to the
destination. The connection-oriented makes
Contd… connection on the destination side before the
delivery. After the delivery the connection will
be terminated.

 Flow and error control - Similar to data

link layer, but process to process take place.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
  The services provided by the first three layers (physical,
data link, and network) are not sufficient for some
processes.
 The session layer is the network dialog controller.
 It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
Session among communicating systems.
Layer  (i.e) This layer establishes, manages and terminates
connections between applications.

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
Session layer
  Dialog control
 This session allows two systems to enter into a dialog either in
half duplex or full duplex.
 Synchronization
 This allows to add checkpoints (or synchronization points)
into a stream of data.
Contd…  For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is
advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure
that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently.
 In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page
523, the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery
are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.
 The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.

 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.
Presentat
ion Layer
  Translation
 Different computers use different encoding system, this
layer is responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods.
 It will change the message into some common format.
 Encryption and decryption
Contd…  It means that sender transforms the original information
to another form and sends the resulting message over the
network and vice versa.
 Compression and expansion
 Compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information particularly in text, audio and video.
  The application layer enables the user, whether human or
software, to access the network.
 It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other types of distributed
information services.
Application
 Application services
Layer – X.400 (message handling service)
– X.500 (Directory services)
– FTAM (file transfer, access and management )
Application layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
 FTAM(file transfer, access, mgmt) -Allows
user to access files in a remote host.
Mail services - Provides email forwarding and
Contd… storage.
Directory services - Provides database sources
to access information about various sources and
objects.
Summary
TCP/IP
PROTOCOL SUITE
  The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol).
 TCP/IP is a protocol suite (a set of protocols
organized in different layers) used in the Internet
Contd… today.
 It is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive
modules, each of which provides a specific
functionality.
  The term hierarchical means that each upper level
protocol is supported by the services provided by one
or more lower level protocols.
Contd…  The original TCP/IP protocol suite was definedas
four software layers built upon the hardware.
 TCP/IP is thought of as a five-layer model.
Layered
Architect
ure
Communication through an internet
  Five communicating devices in this communication:
1. Source host (computerA)
2. The link-layer switch in link 1
3. The router
Contd…
4. The link-layer switch in link 2
5. The destination host (computer B)
 Each device is involved with a set of layers depending
on the role of the device in the internet.
 The two hosts are involved in all five layers;
The source host needs to create a message in
the application layer and send it down the
layers so that it is physically sent to the
Contd… destination host.
The destination host needs to receive the
communication at the physical layer and then
deliver it through the other layers to the
application layer.
  The router is involved in only three layers;
 There is no transport or application layer in a router
as long as the router is used only for routing.
 Although a router is always involved in one network
Contd… layer, it is involved in n combinations of link and
physical layers in which n is the number of links the
router is connected to.
 The reason is that each link may use its own data-link
or physical protocol.
 A link-layer switch in a link, however, is
involved only in two layers, data-link and
Contd… physical.
A router, a link-layer switch is involved only in
one data-link and one physical layer.
 Using logical connections makes it easier for us
to think about the duty of each layer.
Layers in The duty of the application, transport, and
the network layers is end-to-end.
TCP/IP The duty of the data-link and physical layers is
Protocol hop-to-hop, in which a hop is a host or router.
Suite The domain of duty of the top three layers is
the internet, and the domain of duty of the two
lower layers is the link.
 In the top three layers, the data unit (packets)
should not be changed by any router or link-
layer switch.
Contd…
In the bottom two layers, the packet created by
the host is changed only by the routers, not by
the link-layer switches.
 The logical connection at the network layer is
between the two hosts.
Identical objects exist between two hops in this
Contd… case because a router may fragment the packet
at the network layer and send more packets
than received.
  The physical layer is responsible for carrying
individual bits in a frame across the link.
 Although the physical layer is the lowest level in the
Descriptio TCP/IP protocol suite, the communication between
n of Each two devices at the physical layer is still a logical
communication because there is another, hidden layer,
Layer the transmission media, under the physical layer.
 Two devices are connected by a transmission medium
(cable or air).
  The transmission medium does not carry bits; it
carries electrical or optical signals.
 So the bits received in a frame from the data-link layer
Physical are transformed and sent through the transmission
Layer media, but we can think that the logical unit between
two physical layers in two devices is a bit.
 There are several protocols that transform a bit to a
signal.
  An internet is made up of several links (LANs and WANs)
connected by routers.
 There may be several overlapping sets of links that a
datagram can travel from the host to the destination.
 The routers are responsible for choosing the best links.
Data Link  when the next link to travel is determined by the router,
Layer the data-link layer is responsible for taking the datagram
and moving it across the link.
 The link can be a wired LAN with a link-layer switch, a
wireless LAN, a wired WAN, or a wireless WAN. We can
also have different protocols used with any link type.
 The data-link layer is responsible for moving the packet
through the link
  TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol for the
data-link layer.
 It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols.
 Any protocol that can take the datagram and carry it
Contd… through the link suffices for the network layer.
 The data-link layer takes a datagram and encapsulates
it in a packet called a frame.
 Each link-layer protocol may provide a different
service.
  The network layer is responsible for creating a
connection between the source computer and the
destination computer.
 The communication at the network layer is host-to-
host.
Network
Layer  There can be several routers from the source to the
destination, the routers in the path are responsible for
choosing the best route for each packet.
 The network layer is responsible for host-to-host
communication and routing the packet through
possible routes.
  The routers do not need the application and transport
layers
 The network layer in the Internet includes the main
protocol, Internet Protocol (IP), that defines the
format of the packet, called a datagram at the network
layer.
Contd…
 IP also defines the format and the structure of
addresses used in this layer.
 IP is also responsible for routing a packet from its
source to its destination, which is achieved by each
router forwarding the datagram to the next router in
its path.
  IP is a connectionless protocol that provides no flow
control, no error control, and no congestion control
services.
 The network layer also includes unicast (one-to-one)
and multicast (one-to-many) routing protocols.
Contd…
 A routing protocol does not take part in routing (it is
the responsibility of IP), but it creates forwarding
tables for routers to help them in the routing process.
 The network layer also has some auxiliary protocols
that help IP in its delivery and routing tasks
  The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) helps
IP to report some problems when routing a packet.
 The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is
another protocol that helps IP in multitasking.
Contd…  The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
helps IP to get the network-layer address for a host.
 The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a protocol
that helps IP to find a router when its network-layer
address is given.
  The logical connection at the transport layer is also
end-to-end.
 The transport layer at the source host gets the
message from the application layer, encapsulates it in a
transport layer packet (called a segment or a user
Transpor datagram in different protocols)
t Layer  Sends it, through the logical (imaginary) connection,
to the transport layer at the destination host.
 The transport layer is responsible for giving services
to the application layer: to get a message from an
application program running on the source host and
deliver it to the corresponding application program
on the destination host.
  The logical connection between the two application
layers is end-to-end.
 The two application layers exchange messages
between each other as though there were a bridge
between the two layers.
Applicatio
Communication at the application layer is between
n Layer 
two processes (two programs running at this layer).
 To communicate, a process sends a request to the
other process and receives a response.
 Process-to-process communication is the duty of the
application layer.
  The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle
for accessing theWorldWideWeb (WWW).
 The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the
main protocol used in electronic mail (e-mail)
Contd… service.
 The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for
transferring files from one host to another.
 The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell
(SSH) are used for accessing a site remotely.
 The Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP) is used by an administrator to manage
the Internet at global and local levels.
The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by
Contd… other protocols to find the network-layer
address of a computer.
 The Internet Group Management Protocol
(IGMP) is used to collect membership in a
group.
Encapsulation
and
Decapsulation
 One of the important concepts in protocol
layering in the Internet is
encapsulation/decapsulation.
Contd…
The encapsulation in the source host,
decapsulation in the destination host, and
encapsulation and decapsulation in the router.
Encapsulation/
Decapsulation
  At the application layer, the data to be exchanged is
referred to as a message.
 A message normally does not contain any header or
Encapsulation trailer, but if it does, we refer to the whole as the
at the Source message.
Host
 The message is passed to the transport layer.
 The transport layer takes the message as the payload,
the load that the transport layer should take care of.
  It adds the transport layer header to the payload,
which contains the identifiers of the source and
destination application programs that want to
communicate plus some more information that is
needed for the end-to-end delivery of the message,
such as information needed for flow, error control, or
Contd… congestion control.
 The result is the transport-layer packet, which is
called the segment (in TCP) and the user datagram (in
UDP).
 The transport layer then passes the packet to the
network layer.
  The network layer takes the transport-layer packet as
data or payload and adds its own header to the
payload.
 The header contains the addresses of the source and
destination hosts and some more information used for
Contd… error checking of the header, fragmentation
information, and so on.
 The result is the network-layer packet, called a
datagram.
 The network layer then passes the packet to the data-
link layer.
  The data-link layer takes the network-layer packet as
data or payload and adds its own header, which
contains the link-layer addresses of the host or the
next hop (the router).
Contd…
 The result is the link-layer packet, which is called a
frame.
 The frame is passed to the physical layer for
transmission.
  At the router, we have both decapsulation and
encapsulation because the router is connected to two
or more links.
Decapsulation 1.After the set of bits are delivered to the data-link
and layer, this layer decapsulates the datagram from the
Encapsulation frame and passes it to the network layer.
at the Router
2.The network layer only inspects the source and
destination addresses in the datagram header and
consults its forwarding table to find the next hop to
which the datagram is to be delivered.
  The contents of the datagram should not be changed
by the network layer in the router unless there is a
need to fragment the datagram if it is too big to be
Decapsulation passed through the next link.
and  The datagram is then passed to the data-link layer of
Encapsulation
at the Router
the next link.
3. The data-link layer of the next link encapsulates the
datagram in a frame and passes it to the physical layer
for transmission.
  At the destination host, each layer only decapsulates
the packet received, removes the payload, and delivers
Decapsulation
at the the payload to the next-higher layer protocol until the
Destination message reaches the application layer.
Host  It is necessary to say that decapsulation in the host
involves error checking.
 o Any communication that involves two parties needs
two addresses: source address and destination
address.
o 5 pairs of addresses - one pair per layer
o only four because the physical layer does not need
addresses
Addressing
 o At the transport layer - addresses are called
port numbers
o At the network-layer - the addresses are
Contd… global, with the whole Internet as the scope
o Link-layer addresses - sometimes called MAC
addresses, are locally defined addresses.
 o The TCP/IP protocol suite uses several
protocols at some layers - multiplexing at the
source and demultiplexing at the destination.
Multiplexing
o Multiplexing means that a protocol at a layer
and can encapsulate a packet from several next-
Demultiplexing higher layer protocols (one at a time);
o Demultiplexing means that a protocol can
decapsulate and deliver a packet to several
next-higher layer protocols (one at a time).
Multiplexing and demultiplexing
Entry Ticket

1.Match the following

(i).Transport layer: (a)MAC add & ARP Protocol
(ii) Network layer: (b)Port Address& TCP/UDP protocol
(iii)Data link layer:(c) IP address &IP Protocol
2. Match the following to one or more layers of the TCP/IP
protocol suite:
a. route determination
b. connection to transmission media
c. End-to-end host delivery
d. Reliable process-to-process message delivery
e. Format and code conversion services
3. The result is the network-layer packet____ and result of
link layer packet____.
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TCP/IP Protocol suite
 Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol
 The original TCP/IP protocol
suite was defined as having four
layers: host-to network, internet,
transport, and application
 Application layer
It include all higher level protocols
such as remote terminal
protocol(TELNET),
File transfer protocol(FTP),
hypertext transfer
protocol(HTTP),simple mail transfer
protocol(SMTP)etc.
 Transport layer
 Network Layer
The network layer protocols are the
IP and the Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP), which is used for Fig. Relationship of layers
error reporting. and addresses in TCP/IP

81
 The TCP/IP reference model.
-The lowest layer in the model, the link layer describes what links such as
serial lines and classic Ethernet must do to meet the needs of this
connectionless internet layer.
-Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel
independently to the destination (potentially on a different network).Packets can arrive
in different order

82
 Application layer

Process-to-process communication is the duty of the application

layer. The application layer in the Internet includes many predefined protocols.
• The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a vehicle for accessing the World
Wide Web (WWW).
• The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the main protocol
used in electronic mail (e-mail) service.
• The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for transferring files from one host to another.
• The Terminal Network (TELNET) and Secure Shell (SSH) are used for accessing a
site remotely.
• The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used by an administrator to
manage the Internet at global and local levels.
• The Domain Name System (DNS) is used by other protocols to find
the network-layer address of a computer.

83
 Transport Layer

Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here.

 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)
It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream
originating on one machine to be delivered without error on any other
machine in the internet.
 It segments the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and
passes each one on to the internet layer.
 At the destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles
the received messages into the output stream.
 TCP also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a
slow receiver with more messages than it can handle.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
• It is unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow
control and wish to provide their own.
• It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply queries and applications in which
prompt delivery is more important than accurate delivery, such as transmitting speech or video.

84
Fig. Protocols and networks in TCP/IP

85
Encapsulation and decapsulation

One of the important concepts in protocol layering in the Internet is encapsulation/

decapsulation.
1. Application layer >Message with no header or trailer
2.Transport layer>Message +transport layer header=segment(TCP) or user
datagram(UDP).
Header contains the identifiers of the source and destination application programs that
want to communicate plus some more information that is needed for the end-to end
delivery of the message, such as information needed for flow, error control, or
congestion control

86
Encapsulation and decapsulation

3.Network layer >transport layer Message +header=datagram

The header contains the addresses of the source and destination hosts and some more
information used for error checking of the header, fragmentation information, and so
on.
4.Data link layer> datagram+header=frame.
Header contains the link-layer addresses of the host or the next hop (the router)

• Decapsulation at Destination host

87
Addressing
Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses:
source address and destination address
1.Application layer: someorg.com or email or address
2 Transport layer, addresses are called port numbers, and these
define the application-layer programs at the source and destination.
-Port numbers are local addresses that distinguish between several
programs running at the same time
3. At the network-layer, the addresses are global, with the whole
Internet as the scope.
-A network-layer address uniquely defines the connection of a
device to the Internet.
4. The link-layer addresses, sometimes called MAC addresses, are
locally defined addresses each of which defines a specific host
or router in a network

88
 Addressing

Fig. Addressing in TCP/IP

ACOE255 89
Multiplexing/Demultiplexing
• Multiplexing in this case means that a protocol at a layer can
encapsulate a packet from several next-higher layer protocols
(one at a time)
• De-multiplexing means that a protocol can decapsulate and
deliver a packet to several next-higher layer protocols (one at a
time).

Fig.Multiplexing in TCP/IP
90
Protocol at different layers

Application HTTP,FTP,SMTP

Transport TCP,UDP,RTP

Network IPv4,Ipv6,MPLS

Data link Ethernet, Wifi,Bluetooth,UMTS,LTE

Physical

91
TCP/IP and OSI model

92
A Critique of the TCP/IP Reference Model

Problems:
•Service, interface, and protocol not distinguished
•Not a general model
•Host-to-network “layer” not really a layer (is an interface)
•No mention of physical and data link layers
•Minor protocols deeply entrenched, hard to replace
(The virtual terminal protocol, TELNET, was designed for
mechanical teletype terminal)

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-OSI model makes the distinction between these three concepts
explicitly
Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The
service definition tells what the layer does, not how entities
above it access it or how the layer works. It defines the layer’s
semantics.
A layer’s interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It
specifies what the parameters are and what results to expect. It, too,
says nothing about how the layer works inside.
-Finally, the peer protocols used in a layer are the layer’s own
business. It can use any protocols it wants to, as long as it gets the job
done.

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Comparison

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Activity – Think Pair Share
Comparison of OSI andTCP/IP Model
OSI versus
TCP/IP
TCP/IP
and OSI
model
 Two layers, session and presentation, are
missing from the TCP/IP protocol suite.
These two layers were not added to the
TCP/IP protocol suite after the publication of
Contd… the OSI model.
The application layer in the suite is usually
considered to be the combination of three
layers in the OSI model.
  Second, the application layer
is not only one piece of
 First, TCP/IP has more software.
than one transport-layer  Many applications can be
protocol. developed at this layer.
Two reasons  Some of the  If some of the functionalities
functionalities of the mentioned in the session and
session layer are available presentation layers are
in some of the transport- needed for a particular
layer protocols. application, they can be
included in the development
of that piece of software.
  The OSI model appeared after the TCP/IP protocol
suite.
 First, OSI was completed when TCP/IP was fully in
Contd… place and a lot of time and money had been spent on
the suite; changing it would cost a lot.
 Second, some layers in the OSI model were never
fully defined.
  For example, although the services provided by the
presentation and the session layers were listed in the
document, actual protocols for these two layers were
not fully defined, nor were they fully described, and
the corresponding software was not fully developed.
Contd…  Third, when OSI was implemented by an
organization in a different application, it did not show
a high enough level of performance to entice the
Internet authority to switch from the TCP/IP
protocol suite to the OSI model.
Quiz