1. a) Discuss the functions of various layers in ISO-OSI reference model?

Ans:
The OSI model is based on the proposal developed by International Standards Organization (ISO)
this model is called as ISO-OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it is used for connecting
the open systems. That is the systems which are open for communication with other systems. It was a first step
towards the International standardization of the protocols used in various layers by Day and Zimmermann in 1983.
The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication
between all types of computer systems. It consists of seven separate but related layers, each of which defines a
part of the process of moving information across a network.

LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL :

1. Physical Layer :
The physical layer is used for transmitting the raw bits over a communication channel. Here if the system at one
side sends 1bit, it is received by the other side also as a 1bit, not as a 0 bit. The functions required to carry a bit
stream over a physical medium. It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and
transmission medium.
Following figure shows the position of the physical layer with respect to the transmission medium and the data
link layer.

Figure: Physical layer

The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
 Representation of bits: The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 0s or 1s) with no
interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical.
 Data rate: It represents that how many number of bits can be transferred in each second is also defined by the
physical layer.
 Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver both must have to use the same bit rate but also must be
synchronized at the bit level.

 Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network. Ex: mesh topology, a
star topology, a ring topology, a bus topology, a hybrid topology.
 Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between the two devices as Simplex,
Half-duplex, and Full-duplex.
2. Data Link Layer:
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes
the physical layer appear as an error-free to the upper layer (network layer).
Following Figure shows the relationship of the data link layer to the network and physical layers.

 Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into data units called
frames.
 Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer
adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system
outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects the network to the next
one.
 Flow control: If the rate at which the data is absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which data is
transferred by the sender, the data link layer uses a flow control protocols to maintain same data transfer rate
between sender and the receiver
 Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
correct the damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
 Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has to send the data at any given time. Otherwise there is a chance of
collision. For this purpose a special sub layer in the data link layer known as medium access sub layer will deal
this one.
3. Network Layer:
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of a packet from source to destination, possibly across multiple
networks. The network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination. If two
systems are connected to the same link, there is no need for a network layer. However, if the two systems are
attached to different networks with connecting devices between the networks, there is often a need for the network
layer to maintain source-to-destination delivery.
Following Figure shows the relationship of the network layer to the data link and transport layers.
 Figure: Network layer
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
 Logical addressing: The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the addressing
problem locally. The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other
things, includes the logical addresses of the sender and receiver.
 Routing: When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks(network of networks) or a
large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the packets to their final
destination.
 Congestion Control: If there is traffic in one way of network for transferring the data. It is known as
Congestion, Here we have to find another path for transferring the data by the use of congestion control protocols
4. Transport Layer:
 The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
 A process is an application program running on a host.
 Whereas the network layer maintain source-to-destination delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize
any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as though each piece belonged to a
separate message, whether or not it does.
 The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing
both error control and flow control at the source-to-destination level. Following Figure shows the relationship of
the transport layer to the network and session layers.

Fig: Transport layer

Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
 Service-point addressing: Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this reason, source-to-
destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a specific process
(running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.
 Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message correctly
upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
 Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented. A connectionless
transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data are transferred, the connection is
terminated.
 Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However, flow
control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
 Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control. However, error
control at this layer is performed process-to process rather than across a single link. The sending transport layer
makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss, or
duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

5. Session Layer:
Session layer allows users on different machines to establish the Sessions , maintain the sessions and synchronize
the sessions.
The session layer is responsible for dialog control.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:

Dialog control: one of the services of the session layer is to manage dialogue control. Sessions allow traffic in
one direction or both the directions at the same time. In a network we are having many numbers of systems. If
more than one system want to perform the operation, on that case which system will have the priority is the
service provided by session layer, it is known as token management
 Synchronization: The session layer allows a concept of checkpoints, that if we are transferring a file which
may take 2hours between two machines. After the completion of 1 hour if the system crashes, automatically
already transferred data will be lost. For that purpose such a huge data will be divided into checkpoints.
 Following Figure illustrates the relationship of the session layer to the transport and presentation layers.

Fig: Session layer

6. Presentation Layer:
 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.
 Following Figure shows the relationship between the presentation layer and the application and session layers.

Figure: Presentation layer

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:
 The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption.
 Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information in the form
of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit streams before being
transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation layer at the sender changes the
information from its sender-dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at the receiving
machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent format.
 Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption means that
the sender transforms the original information to another form and sends the resulting message out over the
network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its original form.
 Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data compression
becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and video.
7. Application Layer:
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
 It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer,
shared database management, and other types of distributed information services.
 The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
Following Figure shows the relationship of the application layer to the user and the presentation layer..

Figure: Application layer

Specific services provided by the application layer include the following:
 Network virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal, and it
allows a user to log on to a remote host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the
remote host. The user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in turn, talks to the host, and vice versa.
The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its own terminals and allows the user to log on.
 File transfer, access, and management. This application allows a user to access files in a remote host to
retrieve files from a remote computer for use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a remote
computer locally.
 Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
 Directory services. This application provides distributed database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.

1. b) Write a note on various services provided by physical layer?

Ans:

1. Bit-by-Bit Transmission
o Transmits raw bits (0s and 1s) over the physical medium.
o Does not organize bits into frames or packets; it simply ensures that bits are sent from sender to
receiver.
2. Signal Encoding and Modulation
o Converts digital data into signals suitable for transmission.
o Utilizes encoding techniques like NRZ (Non-Return to Zero) and Manchester encoding.
3. Employs modulation methods such as Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), and
Phase Modulation (PM) for analog transmission.
4. Transmission Media Selection and Specifications
o Defines the types of physical media used for communication, such as copper cables, fiber-optic
cables, and wireless channels.
o Specifies characteristics like bandwidth, signal attenuation, and noise susceptibility.
5. Data Rate Management
o Determines the rate at which data bits are transmitted over the channel, measured in bits per second
(bps).
o Influenced by factors like modulation techniques and channel bandwidth.
6. Transmission Modes
o Defines how data flows between devices:
 Simplex: Data flows in one direction only.
 Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions, but not simultaneously.
 Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously.
7. Line Coding and Decoding
o Maps digital data to analog signals and vice versa.
o Ensures that transmitted signals can be accurately interpreted by the receiving device.
8. Synchronization
o Ensures proper synchronization between sender and receiver to maintain data integrity.
o Techniques like preamble sequences or clock signals help achieve synchronization.
9. Error Detection and Correction
o While more advanced error detection and correction techniques are often handled by higher layers,
the physical layer may incorporate basic error detection mechanisms to identify transmission
errors, especially in noisy environments.
10. Line Configuration
11. Defines the physical layout of devices and their interconnections in the network, such as point-to-point,
point-to-multipoint, or multipoint configurations.
12. Use of Intermediate Relay Devices
o Employs devices like repeaters and hubs to extend the transmission distance and overcome issues
like attenuation and signal degradation.
o Repeaters regenerate and amplify signals to maintain signal strength over long distances.

2. a) Explain about the types of twisted pair cable?

Ans:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Description: Comprises pairs of wires twisted together without additional shielding.

 Advantages:
o Cost-effective and easy to install.
o Suitable for most networking applications.
 Disadvantages:
o Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and crosstalk.
 Common Use: Widely used in Ethernet networks and telephone systems.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

 Description: Each pair of wires is shielded with a metallic foil or braided mesh to reduce EMI.
 Advantages:
o Better protection against interference compared to UTP.
 o Improved data integrity in noisy environments.
 Disadvantages:
o More expensive and complex to install due to grounding requirements.
 Common Use: Used in industrial settings and areas with high EMI.

2. b) Discuss different types of computer networks?

Ans:

Local Area Network

 A local area network is generally called as LANs; these are privately-owned networks with in a single building
single or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
 LANs are widely used to connect personal computers and work stations in company offices and factories to
share resources like printers, and to exchange information.
 LANs are different from other networks by three characteristics (1).With their size, (2). With their transmission
technology. (3).their topology.
 Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
 LANs use a transmission Technology consisting of a single cable to which all the systems are attached, like a
telephone lines.
 LANs run at a speed of 10 to 100 Mbps (mega bits/sec), having a low delay and make very few error

Various Topologies are used for broadcasting the LANs. The most common LAN topologies are bus, ring, and
star.
 Here it uses IEEE 802.3 popularly known as Ethernet, and IEEE 802.5 IBM Token ring
Metropolitan Area Networks
 A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN.
 It normally uses similar technology of LAN and covers the area inside a town or a city.
 Here we are using IEEE 802.6 known as DQDB(distributed queue dual bus) which contains to unidirectional
buses to which all the computers are connected.
 Both the buses contain Head-End which initiates the transmission. The traffic of right side of the sender uses
upper bus. And to send left side uses lower one.
 It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity.

Wide Area Network

WAN provides long-distance transmission of data, voice, image and information over large geographical areas
that may comprise a country, continent or even the whole world. In WANs systems are connected by a
communication subnet or subnet. The job of the subnet is to carry messages from system to the system, just like a
telephone which carries words from speaker to speaker
A subnet is a point-to-point, store and forward or packet-switched subnet. Nearly all subnets are Store and
Forward subnets. Some of the possible topologies for a Point-to-Point subnets are Star, Ring, Tree, etc.
Another possibility of WAN is a satellite, where Each router has an antenna which can send and receive.

3. a) Explain about character stuffing and bit stuffing techniques?

Ans:

1. Flag bytes with byte stuffing:

This framing method gets around the problem of resynchronization after an error by having each frame
start and end with special bytes. Often the same byte, called a flag byte, is used as both the starting and ending
delimiter. This byte is shown in Fig.(a)as FLAG. Two consecutive flag bytes indicate the end of one frame and
the start of the next. Thus, if the receiver ever loses synchronization it can just search for two flag bytes to find
the end of the current frame and the start of the next frame.
However, there is a still a problem we have to solve. It may happen that the flag byte occurs in the data,
especially when binary data such as photographs or songs are being transmitted. This situation would interfere
with the framing. One way to solve this problem is to have the sender’s data link layer insert a special escape
byte (ESC) just before each ‘‘accidental’’ flag byte in the data.
The data link layer on the receiving end removes the escape bytes before giving the data to the network layer. This
technique is called byte stuffing.

2. Flag bits with bit stuffing:

Framing can be also be done at the bit level, so frames can contain an arbitrary number of bits made up
of units of any size. It was developed for the once very popular HDLC(High level Data Link Control)
protocol. Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern, 01111110 or0x7E in hexadecimal. This pattern
is a flag byte. Whenever the sender’s data link layer encounters five consecutive 1s in the data, it automatically
stuffs a 0 bit into the outgoing bit stream. This bit stuffing is analogous to byte stuffing, in which an escape
byte is stuffed into the outgoing character stream before a flag byte in the data. It also ensures a minimum
density of transitions that help the physical layer maintain synchronization. USB(Universal Serial Bus)uses bit
stuffing for this reason.
When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming 1 bits, followed by a 0 bit, it automatically destuffs
(i.e., deletes) the 0 bit. Just as byte stuffing is completely transparent to the network layer in both computers, so
is bit stuffing. If the user data contain the flag pattern, 01111110, this flag is transmitted as 011111010 but
stored in the receiver’s memory as 01111110. Figure gives an example of bit stuffing.

3.b) Discuss various error detection and correction codes?

Ans:

ERROR-DETECTINGCODES:
Error detection means to decide whether the received data is correct or not without having a copyof the
original message. Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting
errors at the destination.

1. Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC):

The cyclic redundancy check, or CRC, is a technique for detecting errors in digital data, but not for
making corrections when errors are detected. The CRC(Cyclic Redundancy Check),also known as a
polynomial code
Polynomial codes are based upon treating bit strings as representations of polynomials with
coefficientsof0and1only.Forexample,110001has6bitsandthusrepresentsasix-termpolynomial with
coefficients 1, 1, 0, 0, 0, and 1: 1x5 + 1x4 + 0x3 + 0x2 + 0x1 + 1x0.
Polynomialarithmeticisdonemodulo2,accordingtotherulesofalgebraicfieldtheory.Itdoesnot have carries
for addition or borrows for subtraction. Both addition and subtraction are identical to exclusive OR.
For example:
10011011 00110011 11110000 01010101
+ 11001010 + 11001101 − 10100110 –10101111
01010001 11111110 01010110 11111010

When the polynomial code method is employed, the sender and receiver must agree upon a generator
polynomial, G(x), in advance. Both the high- and low order bits of the generator must be 1. To compute the
CRC for some frame with m bits corresponding to the polynomial M(x), the frame must be longer than the
generator polynomial. The idea is to append a CRC to the end of the frame in such a way that the polynomial
represented by the check summed frame is divisible by G(x).When the receiver gets the check summed frame,
it tries dividing it by G(x). If there is a remainder, there has been a transmission error.
 The algorithm for computing the CRC is as follows:

1. Let r be the degree of G(x). Append r zero bits to the low-order end of the frame so it
now contains m + r bits and corresponds to the polynomial xrM(x).
2. Divide the bit string corresponding to G(x) into the bit string corresponding to x rM(x), using
modulo 2 divisions
3. Subtract the remainder (which is always r or fewer bits) from the bit string corresponding
to xrM(x) using modulo2 subtractions. The result is the check summed frame to be
transmitted. Call its polynomial T(x).
Below figure illustrates the calculation for a frame1101011111 using the generator G(x)=x4+x+1.

It should be clear that T(x) is divisible(modulo2) by G(x). In any division problem, if you diminish the
dividend by the remainder, what is left over is divisible by the divisor.
Example of CRC:
2. CHECKSUM:
 Check sum is the error detection scheme used in IP,TCP&UDP.
 Here, the data is divided in to k segments each of n bits. In the sender’s end the segments are
added using 1’s complement arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented to get the
checksum. The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments
 At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’scomplement arithmetic to get the
sum. The sum is complemented. If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise
discarded
 Checksumprocedureatsenderandreceiver end:

correction codes

1. Hamming Code

 Structure: Linear block code.

 Functionality: Detects and corrects single-bit errors.
 Example: Hamming(7,4) encodes 4 data bits into 7 bits, adding 3 parity bits to enable error detection and
correction.
 Use Case: Commonly used in computer memory systems.
 4.a) Explain in detail about the selective repeat ARQ protocol and also derive the size of the sliding windows of selective
repeat ARQ?

Ans: Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request: Selective Repeat ARQ is also known as the
Selective Repeat Automatic Repeat Request. It is a data link layer protocol that uses a sliding window
method. The Go-back-N ARQ protocol works well if it has fewer errors. But if there is a lot of error in the
frame, lots of bandwidth loss in sending the frames again. So, we use the Selective Repeat ARQ protocol.
In this protocol, the size of the sender window is always equal to the size of the receiver window. The
size of the sliding window is always greater than 1.

If the receiver receives a corrupt frame, it does not directly discard it. It sends a negative
acknowledgment to the sender. The sender sends that frame again as soon as on the receiving negative
acknowledgment. There is no waiting for any time-out to send that frame. The design of the Selective
Repeat ARQ protocol is shown below.
4.b) How to used checksum and complements in error detection and correction? Give Examples?

Ans: