Acoustics of Percussive

Instruments

by

Dr. K. Varadarangan
 Classification of Musical Instruments
(Traditional)

 Tata (String)- Eg: Veena,Violin, Mandolin

 Sushira (Wind)- Eg: Flute, Nagaswaram
 Avanaddha (Percussion)- Eg: Mrudanga,Tabla
 Ghana (Solid bodied)- Eg: Ghata, Nattuvanga (Tala)
 Jala (Water)- Eg: Jalatarang

Classification is based on the function of the

instrument.
 Classification of Musical Instruments
(Scientific: Sachs
Sachs--Hornbostel
Hornbostel))

 Chordophones (String)- Eg: Veena, Violin, Mandolin

 Aerophones (Wind)- Eg: Flute, Nagaswaram,
Clarinet, Harmonium
 Membranophones (Sound is produced by vibrating
membranes)- Eg: Mrudanga,Tabla
 Idiophones (Solid bodied)- Eg: Ghata, Nattuvanga
(Tala), Gongs, Bells, Cymbals
 Electrophones- Eg: Electronic Keyboard, Theremin

Classification is based on the mechanism of

sound production.
 Membranophones

Sound is produced by a vibrating membrane.

Eg: Percussion Instruments such as Drums, Conga,

Djambe, Darbuka, Mrudanga, Tabla, Tavil, Phakwaj

Kazoo is a non percussion Membranophone.

 The Kazoo

The Kazoo is a wind instrument that adds a

"buzzing" quality to a player's voice when the player
vocalizes into it. It is a membranophone – a device
that modifies the sound of a person's voice by way of
a vibrating membrane.
 Membranophonic
Percussion Instruments
 Operating Principle

A thin membrane stretched and held under uniform

tension produces a pitched sound analogous to a
stretched string.
 Common Examples-
Examples-Western Music

 Tom Tom
 Snare Drum
 Kick Drum
 Tympani (for concert music)
Percussion Instruments of Other Countries

 Conga
 Djambe
 Doumbek or Darbuka
 Bodhran
 Bongo
 Tambourine
Examples of Indian Percussion Instruments

 Mrudanga
 Tabla
 Phakwaj
 Khol
 Tavil
 Kanjira
 Chande
 The Tom Drum

Batter head
Rim or Counter hoop

Tension rods
Mounting
hardware

Lugs

Resonant head
Tension
 The Tom Drum

 It is played using two sticks.

 There are two heads: the top one is the Batter
head and the bottom is the Resonant head.
 The Batter head is the one that is beaten by the
sticks (hence the name “batter”).
 The Resonant head may be tuned to the Batter
head’s pitch or set to a higher or lower pitch to
produce a “pitch bend”.
 The Drum Head

 It is the most important component of a drum.

 The material of the drum head is a polyester film.
 The film is attached to a circular hoop made of
aluminum.
 The Drum Head

 Made of single or multiple ‘plies’ (sheets).

 May have a centre ‘dot’ to reduce harsh overtones.
 Ply thicknesses vary too.
 Thinner plies produce more overtones and higher
sustain whereas thicker plies produce more attack,
lower sustain, and reduced overtones.
 The Shell

 This is the body of the drum on which the drum

heads are mounted.
 The shell is made of multiple ply wood sheets glued
together or of a single thick sheet of wood bent
into a circle using steam and joined at the edges
with glue.
 Made of Maple, Birch, Luan, or African Mahogany.
 The Shell has a resonant frequency of its own that
depends on the construction and shell dimensions.
 Shells may also be made of metal, fiberglass, or
acrylic plastic.
 The Snare Drum

This is similar to the Tom Drum but the Resonant

head is mounted with a snare to produce a rattling
snare sound. The snare is a ribbon-like structure
made of metal wires.
 The Kick Drum

The Kick Drum is a large drum used for producing

bass sounds. It is hit by a soft mallet attached to a
pedal, which is operated by the foot.
 A Typical Western Drum Set

Includes Cymbals, Hi-Hat, Snare Drum, Kick Drum,

and Tom Drum.
 The Tympani

 The Tympani is a large bowl shaped drum, which

has a great sustained tone of distinct pitch. The
diameters vary from 20” to 32”.
 The pitch can be varied at any moment through a
pedal mechanism.
 It produces harmonic overtones!! (More on this
later.)
Some Percussion Instruments
of the World
 The Conga
Conga

Quinto Tumba
(Smaller one) (Larger one)

 The Conga is the Cuban hand drum, about 2.5 ft. tall
and more than a foot in diameter.
 Each drum has a single head.
 It is a tunable instrument. The tuning mechanism
involves threaded hooks that are tensioned via lugs
attached to the shell.
 Used in Latin Music, Salsa, Reggae, and Popular Music.
 The Djambe

 It is an African hand drum originating from Mali.

 It is about 2 ft. tall and slightly larger than 1 ft. in
diameter.
 It is a rope tuned instrument, but key tuned ones are
also available.
 The Doumbek (Darbuka)

 It is a hand drum used in Middle East, North Africa, and

Eastern Europe.
 It is about 1.5 ft. tall and about 10 inch in diameter.
 It is a key tuned instrument and the shell is generally
made of fiberglass or metal.
 This goblet drum may be played by holding it under one
arm or by placing it sideways on the lap with the head
towards the player's knees in seating position. The other
end is open.
 The Bongo

 It is an Afro-Cuban hand drum.

 The Bongo is always used as a pair. The larger one is
called Hembra (female) and the smaller one is called
Macho (Male).
 It is a key tuned instrument producing relatively high
pitched sounds compared to the Conga drums and
should be held behind the knees with the larger drum
on the right side.
 The Bodhran

 The Bodhran is an Irish frame drum, somewhat

similar to the Kanjira.
 The diameter ranges from 10" to 26". The sides are
3½" to 8" deep.
 The other side is open-ended for one hand to be
placed against the inside of the drum head to control
pitch and timbre.
 The Tambourine

 It is a frame drum with jingles, with or without a head.

 The word tambourine finds its origins in the French
tambourin, which is a long narrow drum.
 They are used in Greek and Italian folk music, Classical
music, Persian music, Rock music, and Pop music.
 The Physics of
Percussive Instruments
 Two Broad Categories
of Percussive Instruments

1. Instruments that produce inharmonic overtones

2. Instruments that produce harmonic overtones
 Overtones and Harmonics

 In general, musical sounds consist of a fundamental

frequency and a number of distinct higher
frequencies known as overtones.
 A harmonic is an overtone whose frequency is an
integral multiple of the frequency of the
fundamental.
 An Example

Let us say an instrument produces the following

frequencies:
100 Hz – Fundamental (also called the first harmonic)
120 Hz – First overtone
149 Hz – Second overtone
200 Hz – Third overtone (and also the second
harmonic)
245 Hz – Fourth overtone
300 Hz – Fifth overtone (and also the third harmonic)
 Overtones and Harmonics

If the overtones are all harmonic (as in a periodic

signal) then,
Overtone number = Harmonic number -1.
Thus,
first overtone = second harmonic,
second overtone = third harmonic,
third overtone = fourth harmonic,
and so on.
 Instruments with Inharmonic Overtones

Most instruments produce inharmonic overtones!!

These include all the instruments described earlier,
except the Tympani.
 Instruments that Produce
Harmonic Overtones

 The Tympani
 Loaded Indian drums such as the Mrudanga,Tabla,
Phakwaj, and Khol

Thus, the Tympani is the only non-Indian drum that

produces harmonic overtones.
 How the Tympani
Produces Harmonic Overtones

Two main factors contribute to the harmonicity of

the Tympani:
1. The special bowl-shaped shell
2. Influence of air pressure inside the closed shell
How Indian Instruments like Mrudanga & Tabla
Produce Harmonic Overtones

These instruments have their vibrating membrane

loaded, which increases the surface density (mass/unit
area) at the central area of the membrane.

The centrally-loaded black patch not only imparts

great sustain to the tone, but also modifies the
inharmonic overtones into a harmonic series.
(More on this later.)
 Modes of Vibration of
Unloaded Circular Drums

Angular direction

Radial direction

A mode of vibration is indicated by a pair of indices

(m, n). The integer m represents variation along the
angular direction while the integers m and n
together determine the variation along the radial
direction.
 Nodal Lines and Nodal Circles

 A node represents a point where the vibration is

zero.
 A nodal line represents a straight line over which
the vibration is zero.
 Likewise, a nodal circle denotes a circle over which
the vibration is zero.
 The Fundamental Mode

In this mode, the entire drum head vibrates such that

there are no nodal lines or circles. This mode is
designated as the (0,1) mode. This is the mode with
the lowest frequency f.

Animation courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Grad. Prog. Acoustics, Penn State.
 First and Second Overtones

 The first overtone mode: In this mode, the drum head

vibrates such that there is one nodal line due to variations in
the angular direction. This mode is designated as the (1,1)
mode. The frequency of this mode is 1.593 f.
 The second overtone mode: In this mode, the drum head
vibrates such that there are two nodal lines due to variation
in the angular direction. This mode is designated as the (2,1)
mode. The frequency of this mode is 2.135 f.
Animation courtesy of Dr. Dan Russell, Grad. Prog. Acoustics, Penn State.
 Third and Fourth Overtones

 The third overtone mode: This mode is designated as

(0,2). There is no variation in the angular direction but
there is a nodal circle formed due to variation in the
radial direction. The frequency of this mode is 2.29 f.
 The fourth overtone mode: This mode is designated
as (1,2). The drum head vibrates in such a way that there
is one nodal line and one nodal circle. The frequency of
this mode 2.917 f.
 Fifth and Sixth Overtones

 The fifth overtone mode: This mode is designated

as (2,2). The drum head vibrates in such a way that
there are two nodal lines and one nodal circle. The
frequency of this mode 3.5 f.
 The sixth overtone mode: This mode is designated
as (0,3). There is no variation in the angular direction
but there are two nodal circles formed due to
variations in the radial direction. The frequency of this
mode is 3.598 f.
 Overtones of Unloaded Drums

If we now look at the frequency ratios of the first six

overtones with respect to the fundamental, we find
that they are of values 1.593, 2.135, 2.295, 2.917, 3.5,
and 3.598. Thus, none of these overtones are
harmonics of the fundamental. Even the higher order
modes exhibit a similar inharmonic behavior.
 Overtones of Unloaded Drums

When such a drum head is sounded, although there

is a perception of pitch due to the presence of the
fundamental, the sound appears tinny and rather
[Link] drummers who play these
instruments often use muffling rings or patches to
reduce the intensity of these inharmonic overtones.
 Assumptions in the Theoretical Model

The theoretical models are ideal approximations to

the real word drums. Some of these approximations
are:
 The membrane is perfectly elastic with zero
stiffness.
 The membrane is thin, uniform in density, and
tension is uniform at all points.
 There is no damping of vibrations.
 Effects of enclosed air or other coupling effects (as
in a double-headed drum) are neglected.
 Formula for Modal Frequencies
as per Theoretical Model

With these approximations made, the theoretical

solution for the modes of vibration involve the Bessel
functions and the frequency of the (m, n) mode is
given by:

where a=radius of the membrane, T=tension (N/m),

p=mass per unit area, and jmn is the nth root of the
Bessel function Jm.

Eg: j01=2.4, j02=5.52, j11=3.83,j12=7.02, j21=5.14,

j22=8.42 etc.
 Chladni Patterns

Vibrations of real drums differ significantly from the

theoretical models due to the simplifying assumptions
made in the model.

When sand particles are sprinkled over a vibrating

drum head, they settle down along the nodal lines
and circles giving a visual display of the vibrational
modes. Such displays are called Chladni patterns.
Acoustical Properties of the Mrudanga
 Pitched Sounds of the Mrudanga
S. No. Name of the Method of playing*
stroke*

1 Meetu (Nam) Striking the rim at the edge of the drumhead with the forefinger while holding
the Karane at rest at its outer edge with the ring finger. This is generally
known as the Rim Stroke.

2. Chapu Striking the Karane forcefully with the little finger. The playing position is
such that the little finger is placed to extend from the outer edge of the
Karane towards the centre.

3. Arachapu Played forcefully using the little finger supported by other fingers along the
diameter of the Karane towards the far end. This stroke elicits the Tarasthayi
Shadja quite strongly.

4. Dhim (or Dhin) Played using the forefinger extending a little inwards from the outer edge of
the Karane while holding the ring finger pressed down at a point at the outer
edge of the Karane about 60 degrees away.

5. Dheem Played by striking the Karane at the centre with the forefinger and recoiling
immediately. This stoke elicits the Suddha Rishabha above the tonic.

* The names of these sounds and the exact playing technique may vary from school to school.
 The Mrudanga Produces
Near Harmonic Overtones

 Indian percussion instruments such as the

Mrudanga and Tabla produce near harmonic
overtones!!
 This is based on the principle that a symmetrically
loaded circular membrane is capable of producing
harmonic overtones.
 This remarkable property of the Mrudanga is a
tribute to the greatness of Indian music!
 It was Sir C.V. Raman who first observed that these
instruments produce harmonic overtones.
 Harmonicity of the Overtones of the
Mrudanga

However, several studies have shown that Raman’s observation

needs a correction.

While the higher order overtones form a nearly harmonic

series, the fundamental is actually out of tune which is in
contrast with Raman’s observations.

The ratio of the actual fundamental is about 1.07 times the

required fundamental frequency and this corresponds to the
Suddha Rishabha Ri1.

The Dheem stroke corresponds to the mode (0,1) where the

whole membrane vibrates as a single entity and its frequency is
higher than the required fundamental, as suggested by the
harmonic overtones.
 Modeling the Mrudanga

 Prof. B.S. Ramakrishna’s theoretical model of the

Mrudanga as a composite membrane clearly proves
the harmonicity of the overtones with the
exception of the fundamental that is a bit high.
 Rossing’s experimental studies on the Mrudanga
have demonstrated how the inharmonic overtones
of the Mrudanga gradually move towards their
harmonic slots as the Karane is built up layer by
layer.
 How do we hear the correct
pitch in the Mrudanga if the
fundamental mode (0,1) is out
of tune?
Two Effects that Facilitate the Perception of
the Correct Fundamental

1. The phenomenon of missing fundamental

2. Dynamic spectrum of the Mrudanga
The Phenomenon of Missing Fundamental

 A sound is said to have a missing fundamental,

suppressed fundamental, or phantom fundamental
when its overtones suggest a fundamental
frequency but the sound lacks a component at the
fundamental frequency itself.

 The brain perceives the pitch of a tone not only by

its fundamental frequency, but also by the
periodicity implied by the relationship between the
higher harmonics, so we may perceive the same
pitch even if the fundamental frequency is missing
from a tone.
 Suppressed Fundamental
 When pitched sounds (other than Dheem) are
produced, the fundamental corresponding the (0,1)
mode is suppressed substantially.
 What we hear as the tonic Sa is actually a non
existing component that is perceived by the brain
due to the presence of harmonic overtones. It is
purely a psychoacoustic effect.
 For example when the Meetu is played, the Karane
is held at rest at its outer edge. This suppresses the
fundamental mode (0,1) as it requires that this
point needs to move up and down for this
vibrational mode.
 Spectral Dynamics

In many of the stokes, the out of tune fundamental is

present during the initial phase but rapidly decreases
in intensity in relation to the other spectral
components with time.

So we hear, in effect, the missing fundamental due to

the presence of the higher order harmonics.
The Idea of the Suppressed Fundamental
 Degenerate Modes in the Mrudanga
Two modes are said to be degenerate if they produce the same frequency. In
the case of the Mrudanga, the following are degenerate among the first nine
modes:
 Mode (0,1) corresponding to the lowest mode of vibration that produces a
slightly out of tune fundamental at Ri1, the Dheem sound.
 Mode (1,1) with one nodal diameter. This mode produces the second
harmonic (Tarasthayi Sa) with a ratio of 2:1 to the perceived fundamental
and is elicited strongly by the Arachapu stroke.
 Mode (0,2) with one nodal circle and mode (2,1) with two nodal diameters
produce the third harmonic with respect to the perceived fundamental.
 Mode (1,2) with one nodal circle and one nodal diameter and mode (3,1)
with three nodal diameters are all degenerate and they produce the forth
harmonic.
 Mode (0,3) with two nodal circles, mode (2,2) with two nodal circles and
one nodal diameter and mode (4,1) with four modal diameters. These
modes produce the fifth harmonic .
 Experimental Observations

A standard G-pitch Mrudanga is chosen for the

experiment. This is a good quality concert Mrudanga
made of Jack wood shell. The instrument was tuned
to pitch G and the acoustic spectrum is observed on
the computer using the Visual Analyzer 2011
software.
 Spectrum of Dheem

Spectral Observed value Ratio with Remarks

component (Hz.) reference to the
second harmonic
taken with the
ratio 2:1
Fundamental 214.7 1.07 Very prominent
Second peak 395 2.0
Third peak 579.6 2.93 These may be
590 2.99 degenerate peaks
Fourth peak 791 4.0
Fifth peak 970.2 4.91 These may be
990.0 5.01 degenerate peaks
General remark: The out of tune fundamental is very strong resulting in the swara,
Suddha Rishabha. Other spectral components are at least 200 times smaller than
the fundamental.
 Spectrum of Meetu

Spectral component Observed value Ratio with reference Remarks

(Hz.) to the second
harmonic taken with
the ratio 2:1
Fundamental 209.6 1.06 8 times smaller than the third
harmonic
Second peak 395.2 2.0 Fairly strong
Third peak 585.8 2.96 Very strong
Fourth peak 779.0 3.94 Moderately strong
Fifth peak 980.3 4.96 Moderately strong
General remark: Third harmonic is very strong. The out of tune fundamental is somewhat over shadowed by
the perceived fundamental, suggested by strong harmonic peaks.
 Spectrum of Arachapu

Spectral Observed value Ratio with Remarks

component (Hz.) reference to the
second harmonic
taken with the
ratio 2:1
Fundamental 210.4 1.08 Strongest of all harmonics
Second peak 390.4 2.0 Strong
Third peak 590.1 3.02 Strong
Fourth peak 788.9 4.04 Moderately strong
Fifth peak 969.4 4.97 Moderately strong
Sixth peak 1186.9 6.08 Moderately strong
Seventh peak 1381.2 7.08 Moderately strong
General remark: Fundamental is the strongest. Second and third harmonics are also strong. A large
number of strong near harmonic overtones are elicited. How then do we perceive the correct
fundamental and a pronounced second harmonic (Tarasthayi Shadja)? The answer lies in the dynamic
nature of the spectral components. (We will see this later.)
 Spectrum of Dhim

Spectral Observed value Ratio with Remarks

component (Hz.) reference to the
second harmonic
taken with the
ratio 2:1
Fundamental 211.7 1.08 Strongest of all harmonics
Second peak 393.0 2.0 Strong
Third peak 581.8 2.96 Strong
Fourth peak 788.9 4.04 Moderate
Fifth peak 978.2 4.98 Weak
Sixth peak 1181.7 6.01 Moderate
General remark: Fundamental is the strongest. Second and third harmonics are also strong. A
large number of moderately strong near harmonic overtones are elicited. How do we perceive the
correct fundamental here? Again, the answer lies in the dynamic nature of the spectral
components. (We will see this later.)
 Spectrum of Chapu

Spectral Observed value Ratio with Remarks

component (Hz.) reference to the
second harmonic
taken with the
ratio 2:1
Fundamental 209.6 1.06 Moderately strong
Second peak 394.6 2.0 Strongest
Third peak 582.5 2.95 Strong
Fourth peak 787.8 3.99 Strong
Fifth peak 987.2 4.00 Weak
Sixth peak 1192.4 6.04 Moderate
General remark: Fundamental is somewhat subdued. Second harmonic is the strongest and third is
also subdued. A large number of fairly strong near harmonic overtones are elicited. In general the
even harmonics appear to be stronger as compared to the odd harmonics.
 How is the Chapu Produced?

The Chapu is one of the most important sounds of

the Mrudanga and gives it a very distinct “crackling”
sound. How is this cracking sound produced?
 The Chapu is a Result of a Make and Break
Contact Process
The pieces of broom stick play a very important role in the production of this sound. When
the main membrane and Rappe are appropriately tensioned and struck, and if the conditions
are favorable, the two membranes start vibrating together. During a certain phase of the
vibration, they come together and move apart in another phase. The broom stick pieces play
the role of spacers and facilitate these vibrations. During the phase the two membranes
move apart, they vibrate freely and produce maximum sound. During the phase they come
close, they collide with each other, with the sticks acting like brakes to stop the sound. This
reduces the sound intensity considerably. However, the vibrations do not stop completely
because of the momentum of the membranes. In the next instant, they again move apart
producing sounds of higher intensity. This concept is illustrated below:
 Waveform of Chapu

It can be clearly seen that after the Attack phase, the

amplitude of vibration varies in a cyclical fashion
while generally decreasing in an exponential pattern.
This amplitude modulated sound gives us a
perception of the distinct Chapu sound of the
Mrudanga.
 Overtones in the Tamboora Due to the
Jivala
It must be mentioned here that the Chapu is a result
of the “make and break” contact process of the
vibrating membranes similar to what happens in a
Tamboora due to the Jivala thread. Dr. B.C. Deva, in his
book ‘Psychoacoustics of Music and Speech’ notes
that in the Tamboora, the vibrating string hits the
bridge and stops momentarily during such times. This
gives rise to a number of overtones, many of them
being harmonic. That is the reason for the rich tone
of the Tamboora.
Dynamic Nature of Spectral Components

Spectrum of Dhim

Original spectrum Spectrum taken after a small time delay

 The Fundamental Decays Rapidly

It can be clearly seen that the out of tune

fundamental has decreased 10 times at this point in
time. This difference will get further accentuated with
the passage of time until all components decrease to
inaudible levels. A similar behavior is observed in the
case of other pitched sounds as well. Thus we
perceive the correct fundamental in each case except
in case of Dheem where the fundamental is much
stronger than the other components.
 Conclusion
 Unloaded drums produce inharmonic overtones.
 Loaded drums such as the Mrudanga and Tabla
produce harmonic overtones but the fundamental
is slightly out of tune.
 The Tympani appears to be the only Western
percussion instrument that produces harmonic
overtones.
 The Mrudanga produces an “out of tune”
fundamental that approximates the swara Suddha
Rishabha. This is clearly heard in the Dheem stroke.
 Conclusion
 The perceived fundamental is due to the
psychoacoustic effect of the suppressed
fundamental.
 In some strokes, the fundamental is excited strongly
in the beginning but decays rapidly with time in
relation to other frequency components and hence
remains unnoticed.
 The Chapu is an amplitude modulated sound
resulting from the make and break contact of the
Rappe with the main vibrating membrane.
 This is analogous to the Jeevala effect as in a
Tamboora.