Department of Life and Consumer Sciences

Pa ra s i te s o f a n i m a l s a n d h u m a n s

Written by C Wolmarans
Revised by SR Magano

Only study guide for

ZOL3703

University of South Africa

Pretoria
© 2012 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

ZOL3703/1/2013–2019

98886622

InDesign, Florida

CLO_Style
 CONTENTS
Parasites of animals and humans

andhumans
humans
Study unit Page

PREFACE v
of animalsand

1 Parasitic Protozoa 1

2 Parasitic Helminths 3
of animals

3 Vectors 5

4 Physiology and Nutrition 7

Parasites

5 Immunology 9
Parasites

6 Chemotherapy 11

7 Control 13
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

 iii
 PREFACE
Parasites of animals and humans

andhumans
of animalsand humans

WELCOME
Welcome to this course in animal parasitology, presented by the programme group Zool-
of animals

ogy at the Florida campus of University of South Africa. This course will enable you to
identify and classify a number of selected representatives of protozoa, parasitic helminths
and parasitic vectors, and to discuss relevant aspects of the physiology and nutrition of
parasites. We will also discuss the immunological reactions that take place in parasitic
infections, and identify the most suitable form of chemotherapy and method of controlling
these organisms. This study guide has been written to help you conduct a well-ordered
investigation into this fascinating and challenging section of parasitology.
Parasites
Parasites

CORRESPONDENCE
Please direct all other correspondence to:

The Registrar(Academic)
PO Box 392
Unisa
0003

¡¡ Tutorial letter and study guide

If you have not yet received a tutorial letter or study guide, please contact the Depart­ment
of Despatch at Unisa in Pretoria. For telephonic enquiries, please use only the telephone
number that appears on the letter of inventory. Address all written enquiries to the Depart-
ment of Despatch, indicating this clearly on the envelope. No study material is available
from the Department of Life and Consumer Sciences.

You may include different pieces of correspondence for the same department in one en-
velope. But please note that correspondence for different departments must be placed in
different envelopes, each one marked clearly for the attention of the relevant department.
It is very important that you indicate your student number, subject name and course code
at the top of all your correspondence.

¡¡ Administrative enquiries
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

Any administrative enquiries, such as those relating to changes of address and tele­phone
numbers, must be directed to the Registrar, Unisa. Telephonic enquiries in this regard must
be directed to the relevant department dealing with the matter. Consult the booklet Unisa:
Services and procedures for more information.

 v
 STUDY MATERIAL
The following is the prescribed textbook for this module:

Cox, FEG. 1993. Modern parasitology: A textbook of parasitology. 2nd edition. Blackwell:
Scientific Publications.

In this study guide this prescribed textbook is referred to as Modern parasitology.

HOW TO STUDY
¡¡ Study the information on the module carefully, and make sure you know what objec-
tives you need to achieve.
¡¡ Work through the study guide consistently and complete all the learning events (activi-
ties and instructions) carefully according to the instructions.
¡¡ All the learning events in the study guide relate to the achievement of the outcomes
and your preparation for the contact sessions.
¡¡ Try to keep an accurate record of all the learning events (in the form of answers, notes,
summaries, etc) as you work through the study guide/module. This will form valuable
learning material for your examination preparation.
¡¡ After completing a learning section or study unit, go back to the learning outcomes
set for each study unit and determine whether you have achieved them. Guard against
continuing to the next section of your studies before having successfully achieved the
previous outcomes.
¡¡ If you follow the study guide carefully, and complete the learning activities diligently
and in good time you should be well prepared for the examination.
¡¡ Strive to acquire skills that will help you to become a self-regulated, lifelong learner; a
learner who through intensive study can independently process new information into
knowledge and tap new areas of study in zoology.

EVALUATION
Examination

One examination paper of three (3) hours will be written in May/June or Oct/Nov. The
date, time and examination venue is indicated in Part 1 of Section C of the yearbook and
will be confirmed in writing.

ACTION WORDS
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

Questions, be they in tests or examinations, always contain certain key words or action verbs/
words. Students must know what these action words mean, and what is required of them
in the answer. Here is a brief list of such words and phrases for assistance in this regard:

¡¡ Name/list
Write down only the facts, briefly and clearly.
vi
 ¡¡ Describe
Here more detailed knowledge is required. Characteristics, facts or results are pre­sented
in a logical, well-structured way. No comments or arguments are necessary.

¡¡ Define
Here you need to relay your knowledge. Present a clear, concise and reliable descrip­tion
of a concept, so that its meaning becomes clear.

¡¡ Give an overview
A large volume of knowledge must be summarised and presented in a logical and system-
atic way without losing the essence of the topic.

¡¡ Explain
The topic is presented simply so that the reader can understand it. Here illustrations, de-
scriptions and examples must be given, as well as reasons for findings and results.

¡¡ Prove
Support the statements by presenting relevant facts in a logical manner.

¡¡ Compare
Answer a question that requires you to compare, carefully. Do not first describe or discuss
one issue, and then describe/discuss the other. Facts, events or problems are presented
against one another, and similarities and differences are highlighted.

¡¡ Discuss
This type of question requires insight and discretion in application and judgement. Here
various aspects of the topic or statement are analysed and presented.

¡¡ Analyse
The content is divided up into sections or elements and discussed. Causes and con­sequences
are determined, and mutual relationships are established.

¡¡ Evaluate
Here a topic needs to be assessed on the basis on certain criteria. A value judgement is
made, which needs to be motivated.

MODULE PLAN
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The module is divided into the following seven study units:

Preface
Study unit 1 Parasitic protozoa
Study unit 2 Parasitic helminths
Study unit 3 Vectors
Study unit 4 Physiology and nutrition
Study unit 5 Immunology
 vii
 Study unit 6 Chemotherapy
Study unit 7 Control

Each of these sections is covered in one chapter of the prescribed book. We will give you
the relevant chapters and page numbers for each of the sections, as well as the learning
outcomes which you can use as guidelines when studying the relevant section. The self-
evaluation questions for all the above study units will be covered in the two assignments
given in the tutorial letter. If you answer these questions you will get some indication of
your mastery of the study material. These questions also give you some idea of the type
of questions to expect in the examination.

We strongly recommend that you work consistently as this module covers a large amount
of work that cannot be mastered in a short period of time. Remember: the purpose of
this study guide is to help you understand the relevant sections, so that you will be able to
apply the theory in an increasingly demanding work environment. Regard your studies as
an opportunity to expand your knowledge and skills so that you can find a good position
in the job market or, if you are already employed, improve your chances of promotion.

We wish you success with the challenge that lies ahead. Do not hesitate to contact us if
you experience any difficulties.

MODULE OUTCOMES

After completing this module, you should

¡¡ understand what parasitology involves, and appreciate the extent to which it can be
regarded as an interdisciplinary science
¡¡ know the taxonomy and general biology of selected protozoa and helminths
¡¡ know which organisms act as vectors for certain parasites
¡¡ understand the physiology of how parasites function, and how they feed and reproduce
¡¡ know the various components of the immune system and how they are involved in
protecting against parasitic infections
¡¡ know which drugs can be applied against certain parasites, how these drugs work and
what resistance to these drugs entails
¡¡ know what general control of parasites involves
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

viii
 STUDY UNIT 1
Parasites of animals and humans

andhumans
humans
Parasitic Protozoa
1
of animalsand
of animals

TIME
You need 12 hours to be able to complete this study unit successfully.

TEXTBOOK REFERENCE
Parasites

This study unit is based on chapter 1 (pp 1 to 23) of Modern parasitology.

Parasites

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this study unit, you should be able to
¡¡ list and discuss the taxa to which protozoa belong
¡¡ describe the kinetoplastid and other intestinal flagellates that infect humans, as
well as the effect of such infections on humans
¡¡ describe the parasitic amoebae common in especially Entamoeba, Toxoplasma,
Cryptosporidium, malaria parasites, Babesia, Theileria and Balantidium
¡¡ compare the life cycles of Trypanosoma and Plasmodium
¡¡ evaluate the symptoms of a parasitic infection, with reference to the position that
the parasite occupies in the body

INTRODUCTION
This study unit introduces you to a number of unicellular organisms that thrive as parasites
in humans and animals. Be aware that for some parasites humans are the only hosts,
whereas other parasites have more than one host. Note also that these parasites enter the
host’s body in some or other way and cause infection/disease in the host. The symptoms
related to the infection/disease often relate to the organs or tissues in which the parasites
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

establish themselves in the body. Pay particular attention to these issues when you study
the following headings in the study unit (references are to Modern parasitology):

¡¡ Trypanosomes of humans in Africa

Please read through section 1.4.2 and indicate the differences (in table form) between
T.b. gambiense and T.b. rhodesiense as regards their vectors, geographic distribution
and habitat, as well as the type of disease that they cause.
 1
 ¡¡ Leishmania as regards infections in humans
¡¡ Intestinal and related flagellates in humans
¡¡ Parasitic amoebae as regards Entamoeba
¡¡ Coccidia as regards Toxoplasma and Cryptosporidium
¡¡ All malaria parasites of humans

Read through section 1.8.1 and compare the various Plasmodium species with one
another with regard to fever patterns and the type of malaria that each species causes.

¡¡ Piroplasms as regards Babesia and Theileria

¡¡ Ciliophora as regards Balantidium

After studying this study unit, make sure you have mastered the learning outcomes. This is
important because in other study units you will learn how parasites function physiologically,
how the immune system fights them, and how their geographic distribution and transfer
to humans can be controlled.
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2
 STUDY UNIT 2
Parasites of animals and humans

andhumans
humans
Parasitic Helminths
2
of animalsand
of animals

TIME
You need 12 hours to be able to complete this study unit successfully.

TEXTBOOK REFERENCE
Parasites

This study unit is based on chapter 2 (pp 24 to 52) of Modern parasitology.

Parasites

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this study unit, you should be able to
¡¡ list the taxa to which the helminths belong
¡¡ discuss the structure and function of the helminths
¡¡ compare the overall biology of the Cestoda, the Digenea and the Nematoda
¡¡ compare the life cycles of Trypanosoma and Plasmodium
¡¡ present the life cycles of representatives of the Cestoda, the Digenea and the
Nematoda

INTRODUCTION

This study unit introduces you to a number of worm parasites that infect humans. These
parasites are placed in different taxonomical groups because they differ morphologically
and therefore also function differently. You will also notice that the method in which the
various parasites are transmitted to humans relates strongly to their way of living, and that
their place of infection in humans relates to the symptoms, and state of disease, that arise
in humans. Please pay particular attention to these issues when you study the following
headings in the study unit (the references are to Modern parasitology):
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

¡¡ Classification of the helminths as given in table 2.1

¡¡ Structure and function of helminths

Read through section 2.2 and list the main differences between the Digenea, the
Cestoda and the Nematoda.

 3
 ¡¡ Cestoda, Digenea and Nematoda
Study sections 2.4.1, 2.4.4 and 2.5 and compare these groups as regards their general
morphology, life cycles, transmission and propogation.

¡¡ Life cycles of the Cestoda

Study figure 2.3 and note the difference that can arise between the life cycles of two
respresentatives of the Cestoda.

¡¡ Human cestodiasis
Study section 2.4.2 and compare Taenia solium and Echinococcus with regard to how
people become infected, and the disease that each causes in humans. Also compare
adult Cestoda as regards the abovementioned issues.

¡¡ Human schistosomiasis
Study section 2.4.5 and table 2.7 and discuss the four species of Schistosoma.

¡¡ Human intestinal nematodes

Study figures 2.10, 2.11, 2.12, 2.13 and 2.14 and make sure you understand the differ-
ences in life cycles between these representatives of the nematodes. Also compare these
organisms with regard to how they are transmitted to humans and the pathogenesis
that each causes in humans.

¡¡ Human filariasis
Read through section 2.5.2 and discuss human filariasis under the following headings:
lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis.

¡¡ Other human nematode diseases

Study section 2.5.3 and discuss Dracuncula, Trichinella and Toxocara with regard to
infection in humans and the diseases that they cause in humans.

After studying this study unit, make sure you have mastered the learning outcomes. This
is important because in study units to follow you will learn how parasites function physi-
ologically, how the immune system fights them, and how their geographic distribution and
transfer to humans can be controlled.
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

4
 STUDY UNIT 3
Parasites of animals and humans

andhumans
humans
Vectors
3
of animalsand
of animals

TIME
You need 8 hours to be able to complete this study unit successfully.

TEXTBOOK REFERENCE
Parasites

This study unit is based on chapter 3 (pp 53 to 74) of Modern parasitology.

Parasites

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this study unit, you should be able to
¡¡ list the different vectors involved in the transfer of pathogens to humans
¡¡ describe the life cycles of these vectors
¡¡ list the pathogens that are transferred to humans

INTRODUCTION
This study unit introduces you to a number of organisms that transfer pathogens to humans.
Although most of them are flying insects, freshwater snails also play an important role in
the transfer of disease-causing organisms. The lifestyle of these vectors gives a clear in-
dication of the habitat that these organisms occupy and how they can be controlled. The
latter issue will be dealt with in more detail in a later study unit. Please note the different
vectors, their life cycles and the pathogens that they transfer when you study this study unit
under the following headings (references are to Modern parasitology):

¡¡ Family Culicidae
¡¡ Family Simuliidae
¡¡ Family Psychodidae
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

¡¡ Family Glossinidae
¡¡ Family Ceratopogonidae
¡¡ Family Tabanidae
¡¡ Order Hemiptera
¡¡ Order Anoplura
¡¡ Order Siphonaptera
 5
 ¡¡ Family Argasidae
¡¡ Family Ixodidae
¡¡ Phylum Mollusca

After studying this study unit, make sure you have mastered the learning outcomes. This is
important because in a study unit to follow you will learn how these vectors can be controlled.
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

6
 STUDY UNIT 4
Parasites of animals and humans

andhumans
humans
Physiology and Nutrition
4
of animalsand

TIME
of animals

You need 30 hours to be able to complete this study unit successfully.

TEXTBOOK REFERENCE
This study unit is based on chapter 7 (pp 157 to 192) of Modern parasitology.
Parasites
Parasites

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this study unit, you should be able to
¡¡ describe the ways in which parasites can live outside the host
¡¡ describe the ways in which parasites find and enter the host, and draw conclusions
about how they can therefore be controlled
¡¡ list mechanisms that parasites use to help them live inside and outside of the host
¡¡ explain how their methods of reproduction contribute to their survival, and the
implications for their control
¡¡ describe how their sense organs and locomotive organs help them to find hosts
¡¡ discuss their feeding methods in light of the position that they inhabit in the body
¡¡ discuss the mechanisms that they use to get rid of waste products

INTRODUCTION
This study unit presents a broad overview of the physiology of parasites. We focus specifi-
cally on the aspects of physiology that can have an effect on the more applied aspects of
the discipline and which can contribute to the eventual control of parasites as this relates
to human intervention. Parasites have unique physiological characteristics because they
must be able to sustain themselves both inside and outside of the body of the host. It will
become clear from this study unit that a thorough knowledge of the parasite’s physiology
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

can make a significant contribution to how they can be controlled. Please focus on this
when you study this study unit under the following headings (references are to Modern
parasitology):

¡¡ Survival outside the host

Read through section 7.2 and in table form indicate the different stages that different
species of parasites release to be able to live outside the host.
 7
 ¡¡ Mechanisms for locating the host
Compare the mechanisms that the Monogenea and the Digenea use to find their hosts.

¡¡ Entry mechanisms and heat shock proteins

Read through section 7.2.4 and identify the mechanisms that parasites use to enter the
host and survive inside the host.

¡¡ Circadian rhythms and parasite transmission

Read through section 7.2.6. Discuss the circadian rhythms and explain how these
rhythms can contribute to parasite transmission.

¡¡ Establishment and survival within the host

Read through section 7.3 and compare the Protozoa, the Digenea, the Cestoda and
the Nematoda as regards their hatching and survival mechanisms.

¡¡ The role of bile salts in parasite establishment

Read through section 7.3.3 and discuss the role of bile salts in parasite establishment.

¡¡ Hypobiosis
What does hypobiosis entail?

¡¡ Migration and site selection

Read through sections 7.3.5 and 7.3.6 and discuss the role of migration and position-
ing for the parasite’s survival. Also discuss this phenomenon as it occurs in Plasmodium
and other parasites.

¡¡ Reproductive physiology
Read through section 7.4 and discuss the different asexual and sexual reproductive
mechanisms of parasites. Also explain how these can contribute to their survival.

¡¡ Chemical communication
Read through section 7.5 and discuss chemical communication in schisto­somes and
parasitic nematodes.

¡¡ Nutrition of parasites
Read through section 7.8.2 and discuss how parasites get their nutrition by referring
specifically to the role of the parasite’s surface (7.8.3). Explain how membrane transport
takes place in Plasmodium, Trypanosoma and the Digenea. Also indicate how the ex-
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

cretion of waste products takes place in parasites by making use of suitable examples.

After working through this study unit, make sure you have mastered the learning outcomes.
This is important because the information contained in this study unit is relevant to chemo-
therapy and the control of parasites, which will be dealt with in study units 6 and 7.

8
 STUDY UNIT 5
Parasites of animals and humans

andhumans
humans
Immunology
5
of animalsand
of animals

TIME
You need 24 hours to be able to complete this study unit successfully.

TEXTBOOK REFERENCE
Parasites

This study unit is based on chapter 8 (pp 193 to 218) of Modern parasitology.
Parasites

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this study unit, you should be able to
¡¡ describe the various components of the immune system
¡¡ explain the ways in which each component functions
¡¡ explain the interaction between the various components
¡¡ compare the immune reactions that take place in the various parasites

INTRODUCTION
Humans live in a potentially dangerous world in which they encounter a number of infectious
agents of which the form, size and composition differ substantially. In defence, a number of
defence mechanisms have been developed which are effective in most cases. In the case
of parasitic infections, these mechanisms are often not adequate and other interventive
steps must be taken to fight the infections. In this study unit, you will be kept abreast of the
various components that form the immune system, the structure of each component and
how it func­tions. When you study this study unit under the following headings (references
are to Modern parasitology), pay particular attention to the role of the immune system in
destroying parasites:
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

¡¡ The immune response

Read through section 8.2 and identify the various components of the immune system.
Explain what each component consists of, how it functions, how it communciates in
interaction with the other components of the immune system, what hypersensitivity
involves, and how the immune response is regulated.

 9
 ¡¡ Immunity to Protozoa
Read through section 8.5 and compare, without referring to laboratory experi­ments,
the specific immune reactions that take place against the intestinal protozoa African
typanosomes and Plasmodium.

¡¡ Immunity to helminths
Read through section 8.6 and give a brief overview of what immunity to helminths
entails.

¡¡ Immunity to intestinal nematodes, filarial worms, schistosomes and cestodes

Read through sections 8.6.1, 8.6.2, 8.6.3 and 8.6.4 and compare the various immune
reactions to these organisms.

¡¡ Evasion of the immune response

Read through section 8.7 and explain how parasites can evade the body’s immune
response. Illustrate your discussion with examples. Identify all possible mechanisms that
can arise in parasites to help them in this regard.

¡¡ Immunopathology
Read through section 8.8 and discuss, by giving examples, how this phe­nomenon
manifests in parasitic infections.

After studying this study unit, make sure you have mastered the learning out­comes. The
information contained in this study unit is important for chemotherapy which will be dealt
with in study unit 6.
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10
 STUDY UNIT 6
Parasites of animals and humans

andhumans
humans
Chemotherapy
6
of animalsand
of animals

TIME
You need 20 hours to be able to complete this study unit successfully.

TEXTBOOK REFERENCE
Parasites

This study unit is based on chapter 9 (pp 219 to 242) of Modern parasitology.
Parasites

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this study unit, you should be able to
¡¡ list certain drugs that can be used against each parasite group
¡¡ identify the various mechanisms of drug action
¡¡ identify and briefly discuss the mechanisms of selective toxicity
¡¡ explain the mechanisms of resistance to drugs that develop in parasites

INTRODUCTION
According to Gutteridge (2003:219), chemotherapy involves the use of small, usually
organic, molecules to treat diseases in humans. This approach was developed towards
the end of the 19th century by Ehrlich and his colleagues in Germany. He conceived the
idea that it should be possible to find dyes that would selectively destroy the pathogens
but leave the host cells undamaged. The first successes were achieved with parasitic in-
fections and by 1930 various antiparasitic drugs were available. However only a handful
were regarded as natural products. Today all parasitic infections, with the exception of
cryptospori­diosis, can be treated with drugs. For some parasites, prophylactic drugs are
also available. When you study this study unit under the following headings (references
are to Modern parasitology), you will learn more about the drugs that are available, how
ZOL3703/3/2013–2019

they work and how resistance to them is built up.

¡¡ Current drugs and their limitations

Read through section 9.2 and identify the drugs that are usually used against the vari-
ous parasites. Note that this can differ between the adult and larval stages of a specific
parasite species.

 11
 ¡¡ Biochemistry of drug action
Read through section 9.4 and identify the seven mechanisms of action.
Illustrate each mechanism with suitable examples.

¡¡ Mechanisms of selective toxicity

Read through section 9.4.2 and identify the mechanisms of selective toxicity. Briefly
explain these mechanisms by making use of suitable examples.

¡¡ Mechanisms of resistance to drugs

Read through section 9.4.3 and discuss what resistance to drugs entails. Illustrate your
discussion with examples.

¡¡ Evasion of the immune response

Read through section 8.7 and explain how parasites can evade the body’s immune
reactions. Illustrate your discussion with examples. Identify all possible mechanisms
that arise in parasites that can help them to succeed in this.

After studying this study unit, make sure you have mastered the learning out­comes. It is
important to be able to integrate the information contained in this study unit with that in
study units 4 and 5.
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 STUDY UNIT 7
Parasites of animals and humans

andhumans
humans
Control
7
of animalsand
of animals

TIME
You need 14 hours to be able to complete this study unit successfully.

TEXTBOOK REFERENCE
Parasites

This study unit is based on chapter 10 (pp 243 to 263) of Modern parasitology.
Parasites

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this study unit, you should be able to
¡¡ identify and explain the various components of control
¡¡ discuss the methods of control
¡¡ evaluate vector control by giving examples
¡¡ explain snail control
¡¡ discuss the importance of sanitation in control

INTRODUCTION
The success of control measures against parasites depends on knowledge of the behaviour
and epidemiology of the organism responsible, including the mode of transmission and
how it is spread. Whichever control method is used, we need to keep in mind the biology
of the organism, the methods and logistics of adminis­tration, the relative cost-effectiveness,
the potential for ecological damage and the target community. Studying this study unit
under the following headings will bring you up to date with the abovementioned issues
(references are to Modern parasitology):

¡¡ Components of control
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Read through section 10.2 and identify all the components of control. Discuss each
one.

¡¡ Methods of control
Read through section 10.3 and explain what each method of control involves. Using
examples, also discuss the application of each method.

 13
 ¡¡ Vector control
Read through section 10.4 and briefly explain what control of the various vectors
involves.

¡¡ Snail control
Read through section 10.5 and describe how snails can be controlled. Give your own
opinion on the feasibility of this method.

¡¡ Sanitation
Read through section 10.7 and discuss how parasites can be controlled through proper
sanitation. Illustrate the applicability of this method by giving examples.

After working through this study unit, make sure you have achieved the learning outcomes.
It is important that you are able to integrate the information in this study unit with that in
study unit 4.

I trust you have found this module interesting and informative. I wish you success in the
examination and with your practical application of thisstudy material.
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14