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‫زبان تخصصی شیمی‬
‫و مهنذسی شیمی‬

‫مولف‪:‬‬
‫دکتز ملیکب ملکآرا‬

‫نظارت بر محتوا‪:‬‬
‫دکتز فبطمٍ ػلمی‬

‫‪9911‬‬

‫‪www.takbook.com‬‬
 ‫‪ :‬ٲٯڃ‪٧‬ب ٲٯ‪٥‬آضا‪/ Molkara, Melika 1356 ،‬‬ ‫عزؽىبعٍ‬
‫ظثبٴ سرههځ قڃٳځ ٸ ٲٽٷسؾځ قڃٳځ‬ ‫ػىًان ي وبم پذیذآير‬
‫‪ :‬ٲٹٮ‪ :ٝ‬ز‪٦‬شط ٲٯڃ‪٧‬ب ٲٯ‪٥‬آضا‬
‫ٶٓبضر ثط ٲحشٹا‪ :‬ز‪٦‬شط ‪ٞ‬بَٳٻ ٖٯٳځ‬
‫‪ : :‬سٽطاٴ‪ :‬اٶسڂكٻ نٗٹز‪1399 ،‬‬ ‫مؾخقبت وؾز‬
‫‪ 135 :‬ل‬ ‫مؾخقبت ظبَزی‬
‫‪ 450/000 :‬ضڂب‪978-622-97053-7-7 / ٬‬‬ ‫ؽبثک‬
‫يضؼیت فُزعت وًیغی ‪ٞ :‬ڃذب‬
‫‪ٞ :‬بضؾځ ‪ -‬اٶ‪٫‬ٯڃؿځ‬ ‫یبدداؽت‬
‫‪ :‬ظثبٴ اٶ‪٫‬ٯڃؿځ ; ‪٦‬شبثٽبڀ ‪٢‬طائز – قڃٳځ‬ ‫مًضًع‬
‫‪English language -- Readers -- Chemistry :‬‬ ‫مًضًع‬
‫‪ :‬ظثبٴ اٶ‪٫‬ٯڃؿځ ; ‪٦‬شبثٽبڀ ‪٢‬طائز – قڃٳځ‬ ‫مًضًع‬
‫‪English language -- Readers -- Chemical engineering :‬‬ ‫مًضًع‬
‫‪ :‬ظثبٴ اٶ‪٫‬ٯڃؿځ – ضاټٷٳبڀ آٲٹظقځ (ٖبٮځ)‬ ‫مًضًع‬
‫‪)English language -- Study and teaching (Higher :‬‬ ‫مًضًع‬
‫‪ : :‬ٲٯ‪٥‬آضا‪ ،‬ٲٯڃ‪٧‬ب‪1356 /‬‬ ‫ؽىبعٍ افشيدٌ‬
‫‪ٖ : :‬ٯٳځ‪ٞ ،‬بَٳٻ ‪1356 /‬‬ ‫ؽىبعٍ افشيدٌ‬
‫‪ :‬ذٹضؾٷس‪ ،‬اٮٽبٰ‪ ،-1363 ،‬ٸڂطاؾشبض‬ ‫ؽىبعٍ افشيدٌ‬
‫‪PE1127 :‬‬ ‫ردٌ ثىذی کىگزٌ‬
‫‪427/6402454 :‬‬ ‫ردٌثىذی دیًیی‬
‫ؽمبرٌ کتبةؽىبعی ملی ‪7310943 :‬‬
‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬
‫ظثبٴ سرههځ قڃٳځ ٸ ٲٽٷسؾځ قڃٳځ‬ ‫ػىًان کتبة‬
‫‪ :‬اٶشكبضار اٶسڂكٻ نٗٹز‬ ‫وبؽز‬
‫‪ :‬سٽطاٴ ‪ -‬خ آڂز اهلل ‪٦‬بقبٶځ‪ ،‬خ ٲٽطاٴ‪٦ ،‬ٹچٻ ُٖبضاٴ‪ ،‬ح ‪ ،24‬ٸاحس ‪2‬‬ ‫دفتز اوتؾبرات‬
‫‪ :‬ز‪٦‬شط ٲٯڃ‪٧‬ب ٲٯ‪ ٥‬آضا‬ ‫مًلف‬
‫‪ :‬اٮٽبٰ ذٹضؾٷس‬ ‫يیزاعتبر‬
‫‪ :‬ز‪٦‬شط ‪ٞ‬بَٳٻ ٖٯٳځ‬ ‫وظبرت ثز محتًا‪:‬‬
‫‪ :‬ا‪٦‬بزٲڃ‪٥‬‬ ‫عطح‪:‬‬
‫‪:‬ٲطڂٱ دڃ‪ٛ‬بٲځ اقط‪ٞ‬ځ ٶٹثط‬ ‫گزافیغت ي طزاح جلذ‬
‫‪ 1000 :‬خٯس‬ ‫ؽمبرگبن‬
‫‪ :‬اٸ‪1399 ،٬‬‬ ‫وًثت چبح‬
‫‪ :‬اٶشكبضار اٶسڂكٻ نٗٹز‪.1399 .‬‬ ‫چبح ي فحبفی‬
‫‪ :‬اٶشكبضار اٶسڂكٻ نٗٹز‪.1399 .‬‬ ‫وبظز چبح‬
‫‪ 450/000 :‬ضڂب‪٬‬‬ ‫قیمت‬

‫ؽبثک‪978-622-97053-7-7 :‬‬

‫‪ISBN: 978-622-97053-7-7‬‬

‫‪www.takbook.com‬‬
 ‫فهرست‬
Elecrtonegativity ....................................................................................... 1
Bonding Molecular Orbital ....................................................................... 1
Bonding Pair Of Electrons ........................................................................ 1
Molecular Crystals. ................................................................................... 2
Industrial Uses of Hydrogen ..................................................................... 3
Industrial Uses of Oxygen ......................................................................... 4
Periococity of the Elements....................................................................... 5
Properties of Ionic Substances .................................................................. 6
Occurrence of Ionic Bonding .................................................................... 9
Potentiometric Methods .......................................................................... 11
Indicator Electrodes ................................................................................. 11
Inorganic Polarographic Analysis ........................................................... 11
Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation................................................. 12
Wave Properties ...................................................................................... 13
The Microscopic World .......................................................................... 14
The Stetes of Matter ................................................................................ 15
Elements Of Chemical Thermodynamics ............................................... 17
First Law of Thermodynamics ................................................................ 18
Second Law of Thermodynamics ............................................................ 20
Standared Free Energies .......................................................................... 21
Stereochemistry and Stereoisomerisms ................................................... 21
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons ...................................................................... 22
Reactions of Alkenes ............................................................................... 23
Alkynes .................................................................................................... 23
Determination of Structure: Spectroscopic Methods .............................. 24
The Mass Spectrum ................................................................................. 25
The Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectrum ............................. 25
Occu, rence and Composition of Fats ..................................................... 26
Carbohydrates .......................................................................................... 27

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Definition and Classification ................................................................... 28
Proteins .................................................................................................... 28
Preliminary Steps to an Analysis ............................................................ 29
Sampling .................................................................................................. 29
Production of alaboratory Sample ........................................................... 32
Determination of Water ........................................................................... 33
Decomposing and Dissolving the Sample ............................................... 35
Analytical Separations ............................................................................. 36
An Introduction to Chromatograpjic Separations ................................... 37
General Description of Chromatography ................................................ 39
Types of Stationary Phases ..................................................................... 40
An Introduction to Electrochenistry ........................................................ 42
Oxidation – Reduction Processes ............................................................ 42
Ocidizing and Reducing Agents .............................................................. 43
Electrochemical Cells .............................................................................. 43
Nature of Electrode Potentials................................................................. 45
Oxidation-Reduction Indicators .............................................................. 47
Potentiometric Methods .......................................................................... 47
Indicator Electrodes ................................................................................. 48
Metallic Indicator Electrodes .................................................................. 48
Electrogravimetric and Coulometric Methods ........................................ 49
Electrogravimetric Methods of Analysis................................................. 51
Coulometric Methods of Analysis........................................................... 51
Ploarographic Apparatus ......................................................................... 52
Inorganic Polarographic Analysis ........................................................... 53
Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation................................................. 53
Wave Properties ...................................................................................... 55
Line and Band Emission Spectra ............................................................ 56
Continuous Emission Spectra.................................................................. 56
Fluorescence and Phosphorescence ........................................................ 57

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Opticak Spectroscopic Instruments ......................................................... 59
Absorption of Ultraviolet and Visibie Radiation by Organic Compounds
................................................................................................................. 60
Absorption of Infrrared Radiation ........................................................... 60
Instruments for Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy .................................. 61

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬1

Elecrtonegativity
Electro negativity is a measure of the relative ability of an atom in a
molecule to attract electrons to itself. These values can be used to
rate the reactivities of metals and nometals and to make predictions
concerning the nature of the bounding in a compound.
:‫الکتزيوگبتیًی‬

‫شطٸٴ ثٻ ذٹز‬٧‫ ثطاڀ خصة اٮ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ ٲٹٮ‬٥‫ اسٱ زض ڂ‬٥‫ ٲڃعاٴ سٹاٶبڂځ ٶؿجځ ڂ‬،‫بسڃٹڀ‬٫‫شطٸٶ‬٧‫اٮ‬

‫ٯعار ٸ دڃفثڃٷځ ٲبټڃّز‬ٞ‫ٯعار ٸ ٶب‬ٞ ‫ٷفدصڂطڀ‬٦‫بڂؿٻ ٸا‬٣‫بزڂط ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثطاڀ ٲ‬٣‫ اڂٵ ٲ‬.‫اؾز‬

.‫ز‬ٞ‫ط‬٪ ‫بض‬٦ ‫ڃجبر قڃٳڃبڂځ ثٻ‬٦‫دڃٹٶس زض سط‬

Bonding Molecular Orbital

A molecular orbital in which electron density is high in the
internuclear region. The two electrons in a bonding molecular
orbital have lower energies than they would if they were in the
atomic orbital from which the bonding molecular orbital was
desived.
:‫ايرثیتبل مًلکًلی پیًوذی‬

‫ ڂب اٶطغڀ‬،‫شطٸٴ زض ٶبحڃٿ ثڃٵ ټؿشٻاڀ ظڂبز اؾز‬٧‫بٮځ اٮ‬٫‫ چ‬،‫ٻ زض آٴ‬٦ ‫ٹٮځ‬٧‫ ٲٹٮ‬٬‫ اٸضثڃشب‬٥‫ڂ‬

‫ټبڀ‬٬‫ دبڂڃٵسط اظ اٶطغڀ آٶٽب زض اٸضثڃشب‬،‫ٹٮځ دڃٹٶسڀ‬٧‫ ٲٹٮ‬٬‫ اٸضثڃشب‬٥‫شطٸٴ ٲٹخٹز زض ڂ‬٧‫زٸ اٮ‬

.‫ٹٮځ دڃٹٶسڀ ٸ يس دڃٹٶسڀ اؾز‬٧‫ټبڀ ٲٹٮ‬٬‫ڃ٭ اٸضثڃشب‬٧‫شٻ ثطاڀ سك‬ٞ‫بض ض‬٦ ‫اسٳځ ثٻ‬

Bonding Pair Of Electrons

A pair of electrons used to from a covalent bond between two
atoms,
:‫سيج الکتزين پیًوذی‬

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2 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫ٹٸاالٶؿځ‬٦ ‫ڃ٭ دڃٹٶس‬٧‫شٻ ثطاڀ سك‬ٞ‫بض ض‬٦ ‫شطٸٴټبڀ ثٻ‬٧‫ سٗساز اٮ‬ٝ‫ ٶه‬،‫ زٸ اسٳځ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ ٲٹٮ‬٥‫زض ڂ‬

.‫ثڃٵ زٸ اسٱ اؾز‬

Avogadro‟s principle Equal volumes of all gases at the same

temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.
،‫ؿبٴ‬٧‫كبض ڂ‬ٞ ‫بظټب زض زٲب ٸ‬٪ ٰ‫ټب زض حدٱټبڀ ٲؿبٸڀ اظ سٳب‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ ٖسپ ٲٹٮ‬:‫افل آييگبدري‬

.‫ثطاثط اؾز‬

‫ځ زض‬ٟ‫بټساضٶسٺڀ ڂٹٴټبڀ ٲثجز ٸ ٲٷ‬٫‫ ٖبٲ٭ ٶ‬،‫ځ‬٧‫شطٸاؾشبسڃ‬٧‫ خبشثٻ اٮ‬،‫ ثلًرَبی یًوی‬-

‫ ثٯٹضټبڀ‬.‫ زٲڃب شٸة اخؿبٰ ڂٹٶځ ثبالؾز‬،‫ٹڀ ثٹزٴ اڂٵ ٶڃطٸټب‬٢ ‫ ثٻ ٖٯّز‬.‫ؾبذشبض ثٯٹضڀ اؾز‬

‫ ڂٹٴټبڀ‬،‫ط‬٫‫حٻ زڂ‬ٟ‫حٻ اظ ڂٹٴټب اظ ضٸڀ ن‬ٟ‫ز اڂٵ ن‬٦‫ ثٻ ٖٯّز حط‬.‫ٷٷسٺاٶس‬٧‫ ؾرز ٸ ق‬،‫ڂٹٶځ‬

.‫ؿشٵ ثٯٹض اؾز‬٧‫بض ق‬٦ ‫ ٶشڃدٻڀ اڂٵ‬.‫ز‬ٞ‫ط‬٪ ‫طاض ذٹاټٷس‬٢ ‫ط‬٫‫سڂ‬٧‫ٷبض ڂ‬٦ ‫زاضاڀ ثبض ټٳٷبٰ زض‬

‫ اٲّب‬،‫شطڂؿڃشٻاٶس‬٧‫ ضؾبٶبټبڀ ذٹثځ ثطاڀ خطڂبٴ اٮ‬،٬‫ ثٻ نٹضر ٲصاة ڂب زض ٲحٯٹ‬،‫ڃجبر ڂٹٶځ‬٦‫سط‬

.‫ ٶبضؾبٶب ټؿشٷس‬،‫ز ٶساضٶس‬٦‫ٻ ڂٹٴټب آظاز حط‬٦ ‫زض حبٮز خبٲس‬

Molecular Crystals.
Moleculs occupy positions in crystals of covalent compounds. The
intermolecular forces hat hold the molecules in the crystal structure
are not nearly so strong as the electrostatic forces that bold ionic
crystals together. Molecular crystals, therefore, are soft and have
low melting points, usually below 300 C .
Indicators are weak acids or weak bases. Since they are intensely
colores, only a few drops of a dilute solution of an indicator need be
employed in any determination. Hence, the acidity of the solution in
question is not significantly altered by the addition of the indicator.

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬3

‫ٍ چٷس‬٣ٞ ،‫ قسڂسقبٴ‬٩‫ٻ ثٻ ٖٯّز ضٶ‬٦ ‫ځ ټؿشٷس‬ٟ‫ اؾڃسټبڀ ا ثبظټبڀ يٗڃ‬،‫ؽىبعبگزَب‬

‫سضر اؾڃسڀ‬٢ ‫ ثٻ اڂٵ سطسڃت‬.‫ځ اؾز‬ٞ‫ب‬٦ ‫ڃطڀ‬٪‫ط ثطاڀ اٶساظٺ‬٪‫ قٷبؾب‬٥‫ ڂ‬١‫ڃ‬٢‫ ض‬٬‫ُطٺ اظ ٲحٯٹ‬٢
.‫ٷس‬٦‫ڃڃط ٶٳځ‬ٛ‫بث٭ ٲالحٓٻاڀ س‬٢ ‫ط ثٻَٹض‬٪‫عاڂف قٷبؾب‬ٞ‫ ٲٹضز ٶٓط زض اثط ا‬٬‫ٲحٯٹ‬
The common-ion effect is used to repress the ionization of weak
electrolytes. The extent of the dissociation of a weak acid or a weak
base in a solution is reduced if a compound that contains an ion in
common with the weak electrolyte is added to the solution.
‫ ٲڃعاٴ‬.‫بض ٲځضٸز‬٦ ‫ ثٻ‬ٝ‫شطٸٮڃزټبڀ يٗڃ‬٧‫ڃطڀ اظ ڂٹٶف اٮ‬٪‫اثز یًن مؾتزک ثطاڀ خٯٹ‬

‫ڃت ثب‬٦‫ سط‬٥‫ٻ ڂ‬٦ ‫ زض نٹضسځ‬،٬‫ زض ٲحٯٹ‬ٝ‫ ثبظ يٗڃ‬٥‫ ڂب ڂ‬،ٝ‫ اؾڃس يٗڃ‬٥‫ ڂ‬٥‫ڃ‬٧ٟ‫س‬

.‫ز‬ٞ‫بټف ذٹاټس ڂب‬٦ ،‫ ثبقس‬٤‫ ڂٹٴ ٲكشط‬٥‫ زاضاڀ ڂ‬٬‫ٻ قسٺ ثٻ ٲحٯٹ‬ٞ‫شطٸٮڃز ايب‬٧‫اٮ‬
Industrial Uses of Hydrogen
The principal industrial uses of hydrogen are
1. Production of ammonia from N2 and H2 by the Haber process.
2. Production of hydrogen chloride from Cl 2 and H2 .

3. Synthesis of methyl alcohol from CO and H2 .

4. Refining of petroleum.
5. Hydrogenation of edible oils (corn. Cotton seed, soy bean,
peanut, and others) to produce shortening and other foods.
6. Reduction of oxide ores to produce certain metals.
7. As a rocket fuel.
8. As a fule in oxyhydrogen welding, atomic hydrogen wekding,
annealing furnaces, and electronic component fabrication.
:‫کبرثزدَبی فىؼتی َیذريصن‬

:‫بضثطزټبڀ نٷٗشځ ٲٽٱ ټڃسضٸغٴ ٖجبضسٷس اظ‬٦

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4 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

.‫طآڂٷس ټبثط‬ٞ ‫ثب‬ H2 ‫ٸ‬ N2 ‫ اظ‬٤‫ سٹٮڃس آٲٹٶڃب‬-1

. H2 ‫ٸ‬ Cl 2 ‫ٯطڂس اظ‬٦ ‫ سٹٮڃس ټڃسضٸغٴ‬-2

. H2 ‫ٸ‬ CO ‫٭ اظ‬٧‫ ؾٷشع ٲشڃ٭ اٮ‬-3

.‫ز‬ٟ‫ دبالڂف ٶ‬-4

‫ڃطٺ) ثطاڀ‬ٚ ‫ ٸ‬،‫ ثبزاٰ ظٲڃٷځ‬،‫ ؾٹڂب‬،‫ دٷجٻ زاٶٻ‬،‫ځ (شضر‬٦‫ٵټبڀ ذٹضا‬ٚ‫طزٴ ضٸ‬٦ ‫ ټڃسضٸغٴزاض‬-5

.‫صاڂځ‬ٚ ‫طآٸضزٺټبڀ‬ٞ ٔ‫سٹٮڃس اٶٹا‬

.‫ٯعار ٲٗڃّٵ‬ٞ ‫ؿڃسڀ ثطاڀ سٹٮڃس‬٦‫بٶٻټبڀ ا‬٦ ‫بټف‬٦ -6

.٥‫ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ؾٹذز ٲٹق‬-7

‫ٹضٺټبڀ‬٦ ،‫بضڀ ټڃسضٸغٴ اسٳځ‬٧‫ خٹق‬،‫ؿځ ټڃسضٸغٴ‬٦‫بضڀ ا‬٧‫ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ؾٹذز ٸ خٹق‬-8

.‫ځ‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫ ٸ ؾبذز ازٸار اٮ‬،)‫بضڀ (ثبظدرز‬٧‫سبث‬

Industrial Uses of Oxygen

Most of the commercial uses of oxygen stem from its ability to
support combustion and sustain life, In many applications, the use
of oxygen or oxygen-enriched air thereby lowers costs and
improves yields. The principal uses of oxygen are:
1- Production steel.
2- Processing and fabrication of metals.
3 - Production of oxygen-containing compounds such as sodium
peroxide and organic compounds.
4 - Oxidizer for rocket fuels.
5 - The oxyacetylene torch.
6 - Biological treatment of waste water.

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬5

7 - Life support in medicine, in air and space travel, and in

submarines.
:‫کبرثزدَبی فىؼتی اکغیضن‬

‫ زض‬.‫ ضڂكٻ زض سٹاٶبڂځ آٴ ثطاڀ ؾٹظاٶسٴ ٲٹاز ٸ ازاٲٻ حڃبر زاضز‬،‫ؿڃػٴ‬٦‫بضثطزټبڀ ا‬٦ ‫ثڃكشط‬

‫ ٲڃ٭ ٸ‬،‫ؿڃػٴ ثٻ خبڀ ټٹاڀ خٹ‬٦‫ٷځ اظ ا‬ٚ ‫ؿڃػٴ ڂب ټٹاڀ‬٦‫ ا‬ٜ‫ ٲهط‬،‫بضثطزټب‬٦ ‫ثؿڃبضڀ اظ‬

.‫ ثبظزٺ ثبال ٲځضٸز‬،‫بټف ټعڂٷٻټب‬٦ ‫ ثب‬،‫عاڂف ٲځزټس ٸ ثٻ اڂٵ سطسڃت‬ٞ‫ٷف ضا ا‬٦‫ؾطٖز ٸا‬

:‫طاض ظڂطٶس‬٢ ‫ؿڃػٴ ثٻ‬٦‫ ا‬ٜ‫ٲٽٱسطڂٵ ٲٹاضز ٲهط‬

‫ٹالزؾبظڀ‬ٞ -1

‫ٯعڀ‬ٞ ‫طاٸضـ ٸ ؾبذز اقڃبڀ‬ٞ -2

‫ڃجبر آٮځ‬٦‫ؿڃس ٸ سط‬٦‫ ٲبٶٷس ؾسڂٱ دطا‬،‫ؿڃػٴزاض‬٦‫ڃجبر ا‬٦‫ سٹٮڃس سط‬-3

٥‫ٷٷسٺ ثطاڀ ؾٹذز ٲٹق‬٦ ‫ؿڃس‬٦‫ ٲبزٺ ا‬-4

‫ؿځ اؾشڃٯٵ‬٦‫ ٲكٗ٭ ا‬-5

‫بيالة‬ٞ ‫ځ‬٧‫ڃٻ ثڃٹٮٹغڂ‬ٟ‫ سه‬-6

‫ ٸ زض ظڂطزضڂبڂځټب‬،‫ًبڂځ‬ٞ ‫طټبڀ ټٹاڂځ ٸ‬ٟ‫ زض ؾ‬،‫ځ‬٧‫ّ حڃبر زض دعق‬ٟ‫ ؾڃؿشٱ ح‬-7

Periococity of the Elements

For chemists working with several elements the periodic chart of
the elements is so indispensable that one is apt to forget that, far
from being divinely inspires, it resulted from the hard work of
countless chemists. True, there is a quantum-mechanical basis for
the periodicity of the elements, as we shall see shortly. But the
inspiration of such scientists as Mendeleev and the perspiration of a

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6 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

host of nineteenth-century chemists provided the chemist with the

benefits of the periodic table about half a century before the
existence of the electron was proved! The confidence that
Mendeleev had in his chart and his predictions based on it should
make fascinating reading for any chemist.
:‫خبفیّت تىبيثی ػىبفز‬

‫ سٷبٸثځ ٖٷبنط آٶچٷبٴ يطٸضڀ ٸ‬٬‫بض زاضٶس خسٸ‬٦ ‫ٻ ثب چٷس ٖٷهط ؾط ٸ‬٦ ‫ثطاڀ قڃٳځزاٶبٴ‬

‫ٹقځ‬٦‫ اظ ؾرز‬٬‫ اڂٵ خسٸ‬،‫ٻ ثٻ زٸض اظ اٮٽبٰ اٮٽځ‬٦ ‫ٷس‬٦‫طاٲٹـ ٲځ‬ٞ ‫ٻ اٶؿبٴ‬٦ ‫ٸاخت اؾز‬

‫ٻ ثٻ ذٹاټڃٱ‬٦ ‫ٻ ټٳچٷبٴ‬٦ ‫ اڂٵ زضؾز اؾز‬.‫طزڂسٺ اؾز‬٪ ‫قڃٳځزاٶبٴ ثځقٳبضڀ ٶشڃدٻ‬

‫ٵ ثركځ‬٧‫ ٮ‬.‫ٹاٶشبئځ ٸخٹز زاضز‬٦ ٥‫بٶڃ‬٧‫ اؾبؼ ٲ‬٥‫ ثطاڀ ذبنڃّز سٷبٸثځ ٖٷبنط ڂ‬،‫زڂس‬

‫طٴ ثڃف‬٢ ‫ زض حسٸز‬،‫طٴ ٶٹظزټٱ‬٢ ‫ٹقف ؾذبټځ اظ قڃٳځزاٶبٴ‬٦ ‫ ٸ‬ٝ‫زاٶكٳٷساٶځ ٶٓڃط ٲٷسٮڃ‬

‫ ثٻ‬ٝ‫ٻ ٲٷسٮڃ‬٦ .‫ سٷبٸثځ ثٽطٺٲٷس ؾبذز‬٬‫ٕ خسٸ‬ٞ‫شطٸٴ قڃٳځزاٶبٴ ضا اظ ٲٷب‬٧‫اظ ثجٹر ٸخٹز اٮ‬

‫ ثبڂس ثطاڀ ټط زاؾشبٶځ ٲدصٸة‬،٬‫ ذٹز زاقز ٸ دڃف ثڃٷځټبڂف ثطاؾبؼ اڂٵ خسٸ‬٬‫خسٸ‬

.‫ٷٷسٺ ثبقس‬٦

Properties of Ionic Substances

Several properties distinguish ionic compounds from covalent
compounds. These may be related rather simply to the crystal
structure of ionic compounds, namely, a lattic composed of positive
and negative ions in such a way that the attractive forces between
oppositely charged ions are maximized and the repulsive forces
between ions of the same charge are minimized. Before discussing
some of the possible geometries, a few simple properties of ionic

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬7

compounds may be mentioned.

:‫خقًفیّبت اجغبم یًوی‬

.‫ٹٸاالٶځ ٲشٳبڂع ٲځؾبظٶس‬٦ ‫ڃجبر‬٦‫ڃجبر ڂٹٶځ ضا اظ سط‬٦‫ٻ سط‬٦ ‫ذهٹنڃّبر چٷسڀ ٸخٹز زاضٶس‬

‫ٻاڀ‬٧‫ ڂٗٷځ ثب قج‬،‫ڃجبر ڂٹٶځ‬٦‫اڂٵ ذٹال ضا ٲځقٹز ثٻَٹض ٶؿجشبً ؾبزٺاڀ ثب ؾبذشٳبٴ ثٯٹض سط‬

‫ٻ ٶڃطٸټبڀ خبشثٻ ثڃٵ ڂٹٴټبڀ ثب ثبض‬٦ ‫ ثٻ ٶحٹڀ‬،‫ځ اضسجبٌ زاز‬ٟ‫ت اظ ڂٹٶٽبڀ ٲثجز ٸ ٲٷ‬٦‫ٲط‬

‫ ثطذځ اظ آضاڂفټبڀ‬.‫طزز‬٪ ‫٭‬٢‫ٗٻ ثڃٵ ڂٹٴټبڀ ټٱ ثبض حسا‬ٞ‫ ٸ ٶڃطٸټبڀ زا‬،‫ثط‬٦‫ حسا‬ٝ‫ٲربٮ‬

‫ځ اڂٵ‬٫‫ٹٶ‬٫‫ٷٹٴ ثطاڀ ٶكبٴ زازٴ چ‬٦‫ٵ ا‬٧‫ٻټب ثٗساً ثحث ذٹاټٷس قس ٮڃ‬٧‫ٵ قج‬٧‫ټٷسؾځ ٲٳ‬

.‫ڃجبر ڂٹٶځ ضا ثڃبٴ ٲځقٹز‬٦‫ٶٓطار ٲځقٹز چٷس ذهٹنڃّز ؾبزٺ سط‬

1. Ionic compounds tend to have very low electrical conductivities

as solids, but cinduct electricity quite well when molten. This
conductivity is attributed to the presence of ions, atoms charged
either positively or negatively, which are free to move under the
influence of an electric field. In the solid, the ions are bound tightly
in the lattice and are not free to migrate and carry electrical current.
It should be noted that we have no absolute proof of the existence
of ions in solid chloride, for example.
The fact that ions are found when sodium chloride is melted or
dissolved in water does not prove that they existed in the solid
crystal. Jowever, their existence in the solid is usually assumed,
since the properties of these materials may readily be interpreted in
terms of electrostatic attractions.
‫ٵ زض حبٮز‬٧‫ٳځ زاضٶس ٮ‬٦ ‫ځ ثؿڃبض‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫بثٯڃّز ټساڂز اٮ‬٢ ‫ڃجبر ڂٹٶځ ثٻ نٹضر خبٲس‬٦‫ سط‬-1

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8 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫بثٯڃّز ټساڂز زض حبٮز ٲصاة ثٻ ٸخٹز‬٢ .‫ٷٷس‬٦‫شطڂؿڃشٻ ضا ثؿڃبض ذٹة ټساڂز ٲځ‬٧‫ٲصاة اٮ‬

‫ٻ سحز سأثڃط ٲڃساٴ‬٦ ‫ ٶؿجز زازٺ قسٺ اؾز‬،‫ځ‬ٟ‫ چٻ ٲثجز ٸ چٻ ٲٷ‬،‫ڂٹٴټب ڂب اسٱټبڀ ثبضزاض‬

‫ٱ ثٻ ټٱ چؿجڃسٺاٶس‬٧‫ٻ ٲح‬٧‫ ڂٹٴټب زض قج‬،‫ زض حبٮز خبٲس‬.‫ٷٷس‬٦‫ز ٲځ‬٦‫ځ آظازاٶٻ حط‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫اٮ‬

‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ ثبڂس سٹخّٻ قٹز‬٬‫ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ٲثب‬.‫ځ آظاز ٶڃؿشٷس‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫ٸ ثطاڀ ٲٽبخطر ٸ حٳ٭ خطڂبٴ اٮ‬

.‫ ثبثز ٶكسٺ اؾز‬١‫ٯطڂس خبٲس ثٻَٹض ٲُٯ‬٦ ‫ٸخٹز ڂٹٴټب زض ؾسڂٱ‬

‫ آٴ زض آة ڂٹٴټب ٲٹخٹزڂّز دڃسا‬٬‫ٯطڂس ٸ ڂب اٶحال‬٦ ‫بٰ شٸة ؾسڂٱ‬٫‫ٻ ټٷ‬٦ ‫ز‬٣‫ڃ‬٣‫اڂٵ ح‬

‫ ٲٗٳٹالً ٸخٹزقبٴ ضا زض حبٮز‬،٬‫ زض ٖڃٵ حب‬،‫ٷس‬٦‫ٷٷس ٸخٹز ڂٹٴټب ضا زض ثٯٹض ثبثز ٶٳځ‬٦‫ٲځ‬

٥‫شطٸاؾشبسڃ‬٧‫ٷٷس ظڂطا ذٹال اڂٵ ٲٹاز ضا ثٻ ؾٽٹٮز ثطاؾبؼ خبشثٻټبڀ اٮ‬٦‫طو ٲځ‬ٞ ‫خبٲس‬

.‫ؿڃط ٸ سٗجڃط ٶٳٹز‬ٟ‫ٲځقٹز س‬

2. Ionic compounds tend to have high melting points. Ionic bons

usually are quite strong and they are omnidirectional. The second
point is quite important, since ignoring it could lead one to conclude
that ionic bonding was much stronger than covalent bonding-which
is not the case. We shall see that substances containing strong,
multidirectional covalent bonds, such as diamond, also have very
high melting points. The high melting point of sodium chloride, for
example, results from the strong electerostatic attractions between
the sodium chloride, for example, results from the strong
electrostatic attractions between the sodium cations and the chloride
anions.
‫بٌ شٸة ٸ خٹـ ثبالڂځ ټؿشٷس دڃٹٶسټبڀ ڂٹٶځ‬٣‫ڃجبر ڂٹٶځ ٲشٳبڂ٭ ثٻ زاقشٵ ٶ‬٦‫ سط‬-2

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬9

.‫شٵ آٴ‬ٞ‫ط‬٪ ‫ ظڂطا زض ٶٓط‬،‫شٻ اذڃط ثؿڃبض ٲٽٱ اؾز‬٧‫ ٶ‬.‫ٹڀ ثٹزٺ ٸ سٳبٰ خٽشځاٶس‬٢ ً‫بٲال‬٦ ً‫ٲٗٳٹال‬

3. Ionic compounds usually are very hard but brittle substances. The
hardness of ionic substance follows naturally from the argument
presents above, except in this case we are relating the multivalent
attractions between the ions with mechanical separation rather than
separation through thermal energy. The tendency toward brittleness
results from the nature of ionic bonding If one can apply sufficient
force to displace the ions slightly (e.g, the length of one-half of the
unit cell in NaCl), the formerly attractive forces.
ً‫ ؾرشځ اخؿبٰ ڂٹٶځ َجڃٗشب‬.‫ٷٷسٺاٶس‬٧‫ڃجبر ڂٹٶځ ٲٗٳٹالً اخؿبٲځ ثؿڃبض ؾرز ٸٮځ ق‬٦‫ سط‬-3

،‫ٻ زض ٲٹضز ؾرشځ اخؿبٰ ڂٹٶځ‬٦ ‫ ثٻ خع اڂٵ‬،‫ٷس‬٦‫طزڂسٺاٶس سجٗڃّز ٲځ‬٪ ‫جالً اضائٻ‬٢ ‫ٻ‬٦ ‫اظ زالئٯځ‬

ٌ‫ٻ اظ ثڃٵ ثطزٴ خبشثٻټبڀ چٷس خبٶجځ ثڃٵ ڂٹٴټب ضا ثٻ اٶطغڀ حطاضسځ ٲطثٹ‬٦ ‫ثٻ خبڀ اڂٵ‬

‫ؿشٻ قسٴ اظ ٲبټڃّز دڃٹٶس ڂٹٶځ ٶبقځ‬٧‫ سٳبڂ٭ ثٻ ق‬.‫ځ اضسجبٌ ٲځزټڃٱ‬٧‫بٶڃ‬٧‫ٷڃٱ ثٻ ضٸـ ٲ‬٦

٬‫ َٹ‬ٝ‫طزٴ ڂٹٴټب (ٲثالً ثٻ اٶساظٺ ٶه‬٦ ‫ځ ثطاڀ خبثٻخب‬ٞ‫ب‬٦ ‫ چٷبٶچٻ ثشٹاٴ ٶڃطٸڀ‬.‫طزز‬٪‫ٲځ‬

‫بسڃٹٴ‬٦ ‫بسڃٹٴ ثب‬٦ ‫ٻ ثڃٵ آٶڃٹٴ ثب آٶڃٹٴ ٸ‬٦ ‫ ثٻ ٲحى اڂٵ‬،‫طزز‬٪ ‫ٯطڂس) ٸاضز‬٦ ‫ؾ٭ ٸاحس ؾسڂٱ‬

‫طزٶس ٸ ثسڂٵ سطسڃت ثٯٹض‬٪‫ٗٻ سجسڂ٭ ٲځ‬ٞ‫جٯځ ثٻ زا‬٢ ‫سٳبؼ حبن٭ قٹز ٶڃطٸټبڀ خبشثٻ‬

.‫ٷس‬٧‫ٲځق‬

4. Ionic compounds are often soluble in polar solvents with high

permittivities (dielectric constants) The energy of intraction of two
charged particles is given by.
Occurrence of Ionic Bonding
Simple ionic compounds from only between very active metallic

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10 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

elements and very active nometals, Two important requisites are

that the ionization to form the cation and the electron affinity to
from the anion must be energetically favorable. This does not mean
that these two reactions must be exothermic but means, rather, that
they must not cost too much energy, Thus the requirements for
ionic bonding are: (1) The atoms of one element must be able to
lose one or two (rarely three) electrons without undue energy input
and (2) the atoms of the other element must be able to accept one or
two electrons (almost never three) without undue energy input. This
restricts ionic bonding to compounds between the most active
metals-Groups IA, IIA, part of IIIA and some lower oxidation states
of the transition metals (forming cations) – and thw most active
nonmetals-Groups VIIA, VIA, and nitrogen (forming anions). All
ionization energies are endothermic, but for the metals named
above they are not prophbitively so. Electron affinities are
exothermic only for the halogens but are not excessively
endothermic for chalcogens and nitrogen.
:‫يجًد پیًوذ یًوی‬

‫طزٶس زٸ‬٪‫ اقٳڃ٭ ٲځ‬٬‫ٗب‬ٞ ‫ٯعڀ ثؿڃبض‬ٞ ‫ڃط‬ٚ ‫ٯعڀ ٸ‬ٞ ‫ٍ ثڃٵ ٖٷبنط‬٣ٞ ‫ڃجبر ڂٹٶځ‬٦‫ٖٳٹٲبً سط‬

‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫بسڃٹٴ ٸ اٮ‬٦ ‫ڃ٭‬٧‫ اٶطغڀ ڂٹٶف ثطاڀ سك‬،‫ٻ‬٦ ‫قطٌ الظٰ ثطاڀ اڂٵ اٲط ٖجبضسٷس اظ اڂٵ‬

‫ اڂٵ ٲٹيٹٔ ثٻ اڂٵ ٲٗٷځ‬.‫ ٲؿبٖس ثبقٷس‬٥‫ڃ٭ آٶڃٹٴ ثبڂؿشځ اظ ٶٓط اٶطغسڃ‬٧‫ذٹاټځ ثطاڀ سك‬

.‫ٻ ثبڂس ظڂبزٺ اظ حس اٶطغڀ الظٰ ٶساقشٻ ثبقٷس‬٧‫طٲب ظا ثبقٷس ثٯ‬٪ ‫ٷف ثبڂس‬٦‫ٻ ټط زٸ ٸا‬٦ ‫ٶڃؿز‬

‫ اٶطغڀ‬ٜ‫ ٖٷهط ثبڂس ثشٹاٶٷس ثسٸٴ ٲهط‬٥‫) اسٱټبڀ ڂ‬1( :‫ڃ٭ دڃٹٶس ڂٹٶځ ٖجطسٷس اظ‬٧‫قطاڂٍ سك‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬11

.‫ط ثبڂس ثشٹاٶٷس‬٫‫) ٸ اسٱټبڀ ٖٷهط زڂ‬2( ‫شطٸٴ اظ زؾز ثسټٷس‬٧‫ ڂب زٸ (ثٻ ٶسضر ؾٻ) اٮ‬٥‫ظڂبز ڂ‬

Potentiometric Methods
The potential of an electrode is determined by the concentration (or,
more correctly, the activity) of one or more species in a solution.
The equipment required for a potentiometer measyremsnt includes a
reference electrode, an indicator electrode and a potential
measuring device.
:‫ريػَبی پتبوغیل عىجی‬

٥‫ٹٶٻ زض ڂ‬٪ ‫ ڂب چٷس‬٥‫ٗبٮڃّز) ڂ‬ٞ ‫ نحڃحسط‬،‫ٯٓز (ڂب‬ٚ ‫شطٸز ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ‬٧‫ اٮ‬٥‫دشبٶؿڃ٭ ڂ‬

٥‫ڃطڀ دشبٶؿڃ٭ ؾٷدځ قبٲ٭ ڂ‬٪‫ اٶساظٺ‬٥‫ ٮٹاظٰ ٲٹضز ٶڃبظ ثطاڀ ڂ‬.‫ سٗڃڃٵ ٲځقٹز‬٬‫ٲحٯٹ‬

.‫ڃطڀ دشبٶؿڃ٭ اؾز‬٪‫ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ اٶساظٺ‬٥‫شطٸز قبذم ٸ ڂ‬٧‫ اٮ‬٥‫ ڂ‬،ٕ‫شطٸز ٲطخ‬٧‫اٮ‬

Indicator Electrodes
Indicator electrodes for potentiometer measurements are of two
basic types, namely, metallic and membrane. The latter are also
referred to as specific or selective ion electrodes.
:‫الکتزيدَبی ؽبخـ‬

‫ڃ٭ قسٺاٶس ڂٗٷځ‬٧‫طٸٺ انٯځ سك‬٪ ‫ڃطڀ دشبٶؿڃ٭ اظ زٸ‬٪‫شطٸزټبڀ قبذم ثطاڀ اٶساظٺ‬٧‫اٮ‬

‫عڂٵ ڂب‬٪ ‫شطٸزټبڀ ڂٹٴ‬٧‫كبڂځ ضا اٮ‬ٚ ‫شطٸزټبڀ‬٧‫كبڂځ اٮ‬ٚ ‫شطٸزټبڀ‬٧‫ٯعڀ ٸ اٮ‬ٞ ‫شطٸزټبڀ‬٧‫اٮ‬

.‫شطٸزټبڀ ڂٹٴ ٸڂػٺ ٶڃع ٲځٶبٲٷس‬٧‫اٮ‬

Inorganic Polarographic Analysis

The polarographic method is generally applicable to the analysis of
inorganic substances. Most metallic cations, for example, are
reduced at the dropping electrode to from a metal amalgam or on

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12 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

ion of lower oxidation state. Even the alkali-and alkaline-earth

methods are reducible, provided the supporting elevtrolyte used
does not decompose at the high potentials required. The tetraalkyl
ammonium halides serve this function well.
:‫تجشیة پًالريگزافی مًاد مؼذوی‬

‫ثط‬٦‫ ا‬،٬‫ ثطاڀ ٲثب‬.‫بض ثطز‬٦ ‫ځ ضا ٲٗٳٹالً ٲځسٹاٴ ثطاڀ سدعڂٿ اخؿبٰ ٲٗسٶځ ثٻ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫ضٸـ دٹالضٸ‬

٥‫ ڂ‬٥‫ٯعڀ ڂ‬ٞ ‫ٳٿ‬٣‫ڃ٭ ٲٯ‬٧‫بټڃسٺ ٲځقٹٶس ٸ سك‬٦ ‫بٴ‬٧‫ُطٺچ‬٢ ‫ٯعڀ زض اٮٳشطٸز‬ٞ ‫بسڃٹٴټبڀ‬٦

‫بټف‬٦ ‫ځ ٶڃع‬٦‫ٯڃبڂځ ذب‬٢ ‫ٯڃبڂځ ٸ‬٢ ‫ٯعار‬ٞ ‫ حشّځ‬.‫ؿبڂف دبڂڃٵسط ضا ٲځزټٷس‬٦‫ڂٹٴ ثب حبٮز ا‬

‫ زض دشبٶؿڃ٭ټبڀ ٲٹضز ٶڃبظ ثبال‬،‫بض ثطزٺ قسٺ‬٦ ‫ځ ثٻ‬٧‫ٳ‬٦ ‫شطٸٮڃز‬٧‫ٻ اٮ‬٦ ‫ ٲكطٸٌ ثط اڂٵ‬،‫دصڂطٶس‬

.‫ٻ ضا ثٻ ذٹثځ اٶدبٰ ٲځزټٷس‬ٟ‫ڃ٭ آٲٹٶڃٱ اڂٵ ٸْڃ‬٧‫ ټبٮڃسټبڀ سشطااٮ‬.‫سدعڂٻ ٶكٹز‬

Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation

Electromagnetic radiation is a type of energy that is transmitted
through space at cnormous velocity. Many of the properties of
electromagnetic radiation are conveniently described by means of a
classical wave model that employs such parameters as wavelength,
frequency, velocity, and amplitude. In contrast to other wave
phenomena, such as sound, electromagnetic radiation requires no
supporting medium for its transmission, thus, it readily passes
through a vacuum.
Phenomena associated with the absorption or emission of radiant
energy cannot be explained adequately by treating radiation as
waves, here, it is necessary to view electromagnetic radiation as a
stream of discrete particles of energy called photons with energies

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 ‫‪ 13‬سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫‪that are particles and waves are not mutually exclusive. Indeed, the‬‬
‫‪duality is found to apply to the behavior of streams of electrons and‬‬
‫‪other elementary particles as well and is rationalized by wave‬‬
‫‪mechanics.‬‬
‫خًاؿ تبثؼ الکتزيمغىبطیغی‪:‬‬

‫سبثف اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٲ‪ٛ‬ٷبَڃؿځ ٶٹٖځ اٶطغڀ اؾز ‪٦‬ٻ ثب ؾطٖز ذبض‪ ٠‬اٮٗبزٺاڀ اظ ‪ًٞ‬ب ٖجٹض ٲځ‪٦‬ٷس‪.‬‬

‫ثؿڃبضڀ اظ ذٹال سبثف اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٲ‪ٛ‬ٷبَڃؿځ ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ ٲس‪ ٬‬ٲٹخځ ‪٦‬الؾڃ‪٧‬ځ ‪٦‬ٻ‬

‫دبضاٲشطټبڂځ ٲبٶٷس َٹ‪ ٬‬ٲٹج‪ٞ ،‬ط‪٦‬بٶؽ‪ ،‬ؾطٖز ٸ زاٲٷٻ ضا ثٻ ‪٦‬بض ٲځ‪٪‬ڃطز‪ ،‬ثٻ آؾبٶځ سٹنڃ‪ٝ‬‬

‫‪٦‬طز‪ .‬ثطذال‪ ٜ‬ؾبڂط دسڂسٺټبڀ ٲٹخځ ٲبٶٷس نسا‪ٖ ،‬جٹض سبثف اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٲ‪ٛ‬ٷبَڃؿځ ثٻ ٲحڃٍ‬

‫ٲبزڀ ٶڃبظڀ ٶساضز‪ ،‬ثسڂٵ سطسڃت ثٻ ضاحشځ اظ ذأل ٖجٹض ٲځ‪٦‬ٷس‪.‬‬

‫دسڂسٺټبڀ زض اضسجبٌ ثب خصة ڂب ٶكط اٶطغڀ سبثكځ ضا ٶٳځسٹاٴ ثب زض ٶٓط ‪٪‬ط‪ٞ‬شٵ سبثف ثٻ‬

‫نٹضر اٲٹاج‪٦ ،‬بٲالً سكطڂح ‪٦‬طز‪ ،‬زض اڂٷدب‪ ،‬سبثف اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٲ‪ٛ‬ٷبَڃؿځ ضا ثبڂس ثٻ نٹضر خطڂبٶځ‬

‫اظ شضار ٲدطاڀ اٶطغڀ ثٻ ٶبٰ ‪ٞ‬ٹسٹٴ ‪٦‬ٻ اٶطغڀ آٶٽب ثب ‪ٞ‬ط‪٦‬بٶؽ سبثف ٲشٷبؾت اؾز زض ٶٓط‬

‫‪٪‬ط‪ٞ‬ز‪ ،‬اڂٵ زڂس‪٪‬بٺ زٸ ‪٦‬بٶٿ سبثف ثٻ نٹضر شضار ٸ اٲٹاج ٲش‪٣‬بثالً اٶحهبضڀ ٶڃؿشٷس‪ .‬زض ٸا‪،ٕ٢‬‬

‫اڂٵ زٸ‪٪‬بٶ‪٫‬ځ زض ض‪ٞ‬شبض خطڂبٴټبڀ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٴ ٸ ټٳچٷڃٵ ؾبڂط شضار ثٷڃبزڀ ٲالحٓٻ ٲځقٹز‪.‬‬

‫ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٿ ٲ‪٧‬بٶڃ‪ ٥‬ٲٹخځ سٽڃّٻ ٲځ‪٪‬طزز‪.‬‬

‫‪Wave Properties‬‬
‫‪For many purposes electromagnetic radiation is conveniently‬‬
‫‪treated as an oscillating electrical forecc field in space; associated‬‬
‫‪with the electrical field and right angles to ti is a magnetic force‬‬
‫‪field.‬‬

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14 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

The electrical and magnetic fieds associated with radiation are

vector quantities; at any instant, they can be represented by an
arrow whose kength is proportional to the magnitude of the force
and whose direction is parallel to that of the force. A graphic
representation of a beam of radiation can be obtained by plotting
one of these vector quantities as a function of time as the radiation
passes a fixed point in space. Alternatively the vector can be plotted
as a function of distance, with time held constant.
:‫خًاؿ مًج‬

‫ ٲڃساٴ ٶڃطٸڀ‬٥‫ٷبَڃؿځ ثٻ آؾبٶځ ٲځسٹاٴ ٲبٶٷس ڂ‬ٛ‫شطٸٲ‬٧‫ ثب سبثف اٮ‬،ٜ‫ثطاڀ ثؿڃبضڀ اظ اټسا‬

٥‫ ڂ‬،‫ ٸ زض ضاؾشبڀ ٖٳٹز ثط آٴ‬،‫ځ‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫ ټٳطاٺ ثب ٲڃساٴ اٮ‬،‫طز‬٦ ‫شبض‬ٞ‫ٷٷسٺ ض‬٦ ‫ځ ٶٹؾبٴ‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫اٮ‬

.‫ٷبَڃؿځ ٸخٹز زاضز‬ٛ‫ٲڃساٴ ٲ‬

‫ٳڃّزټب‬٦ ‫ اڂٵ‬،‫ٳڃّزټبڀ ثطزاضڀ ټؿشٷس‬٦ ،‫ٷبَڃؿځ ټٳطاٺ ثب سبثف‬ٛ‫ځ ٸ ٲ‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫ٲڃساٴټبڀ اٮ‬

‫ ٸ ضاؾشبڀ آٴ‬،‫ځ ٶڃطٸ ٲشٷبؾت‬٪‫ آٴ ثب ثع‬٬‫ٻ َٹ‬٦ ‫بٶځ‬٧‫ضا ٲځسٹاٴ زض ټط ٮحٓٻ ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ دڃ‬

‫ٸزاضڀ زؾشٻ دطسٹ سبثف ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثب ضؾٱ‬+‫ ٶٳبڂف ٶٱ‬.‫ ٶٳبڂف زاز‬،‫ٲٹاظڀ ضاؾشبڀ ٶڃطٸ اؾز‬

‫ُٻ ثبثشځ زض‬٣‫ٻ سبثف اظ ٶ‬٦ ‫بٲځ‬٫‫ ټٷ‬،‫ٳڃّزټبڀ ثطزاضڀ ثٻ نٹضر سبثٗځ اظ ظٲبٴ‬٦ ‫ځ اظ اڂٵ‬٧‫ڂ‬

‫ز يٳٵ‬ٞ‫ٻ ٲځسٹاٴ ثطزاض ضا ثٻ نٹضر سبثٗځ اظ ٲؿب‬٦ ‫ ڂب اڂٵ‬.‫ ثٻ زؾز آٸضز‬،‫ٷس‬٦‫ًب ٖجٹض ٲځ‬ٞ

.‫طز‬٦ ‫ٻ زاقشٵ ظٲبٴ ضؾٱ‬٫‫ثبثز ٶ‬

The Microscopic World

At the center of an atom lies the nucleus. Almost the whole of the
mass of the atom is concentrated there even though it accounts for
only a minute proportion of the atom‟s total volume. Around the

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬15

nucleus cluster the electrons. They contribute very kittle to the total
mass of the atom but occupy an sppreciable volume, and are
responsible for the atom‟s bulk.
:‫جُبن میکزيعکًپی‬

‫٭ حدٱ‬٦ ‫ځ اظ‬٧‫ٹچ‬٦ ‫ٻ ټؿشٻ اسٱ ثرف‬٦ ‫طاض زاضز ثب ٸخٹز اڂٵ‬٢ ‫ ټؿشٻ آٴ‬،‫ع ټط اسٱ‬٦‫زض ٲط‬

‫ٻ‬٦ ،‫شطٸٴټب‬٧‫ اٮ‬.‫ع اؾز‬٦‫طڂجبً سٳبٰ خطٰ اسٱ زض آٴ ٲشٳط‬٣‫ س‬،‫اسٱ ضا ثٻ ذٹز اذشهبل زازٺ اؾز‬

‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ زض حبٮځ‬،‫ځ زاضٶس‬٧‫ٹچ‬٦ ‫٭ خطٰ اسٱ ؾٽٱ ثؿڃبض‬٦ ‫ اظ‬،‫ ټؿشٻټب خٳٕ قسٺاٶس‬ٜ‫زض اَطا‬

.‫ځ اسٱ ثٻ آٶٽب ٲطثٹٌ ٲځثبقس‬٪‫طزٺاٶس ٸ ثعض‬٦ ٬‫ب‬ٛ‫بث٭ سٹخّٽځ ضا اق‬٢ ‫حدٱ‬

The Stetes of Matter

Casual inspection of the familiar word indicates the existence of
three states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases. Closer inspection
shows that some solids can exist in different crystal forms (e.g.
diamond and graphite)
The term phase is applied to each of these different forms Then we
can talk of the solid, liquid, and gas phases of a substance, and also
of its various solid phases. In rare instances even the liquid state of
a material may be divided into different phases with sharply distinct
properties.
:ٌ‫حبلتَبی مبد‬

‫بظ ٸخٹز‬٪ ‫ ٲبڂٕ ٸ‬،‫ٻ ٲٹاز ثٻ ؾٻ حبٮز خبٲس‬٦ ‫ځ زٶڃبڀ ذٹزٲبٴ ٲٗٯٹٰ ٲځقٹز‬٢‫ب‬ٟ‫اظ ثطضؾځ اس‬

‫ٻ ثًٗځ اظ ٲٹاز خبٲس ٲځسٹاٶٷس ثٻ نٹضرټبڀ‬٦ ‫سط ٲًرّم ٲځقٹز‬١‫ڃ‬٢‫ زض ثطضؾځ ز‬.‫زاضٶس‬

‫ڃز ٸخٹز‬ٞ‫طا‬٪ ‫طثٵ ثٻ نٹضر اٮٳبؼ ڂب‬٦ ‫ٵ اؾز‬٧‫ځ ٸخٹز زاقشٻ ثبقٷس (ٲثالً ٲٳ‬ٟ‫ٲرشٯ‬

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‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی ‪16‬‬

‫زاقشٻ ثبقس)‪ .‬اڂٵ حبٮزټبڀ ٲش‪ٟ‬بٸر ٲبزٺ ضا اظ ‪ٞ‬بظټبڀ آٴ ٲځٶبٲٷس‪ .‬ا‪٦‬ٷٹٴ زض ٲٹضز ‪ٞ‬بظټبڀ‬

‫خبٲس‪ ،‬ٲبڂٕ ٸ ‪٪‬بظ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲبزٺ‪ ،‬ټٳچٷڃٵ زض ٲٹضز نٹضرټبڀ ٲرشٯ‪ ٝ‬خبٲس آٴ ؾٽٵ ٲځ‪٪‬ٹڂڃٱ‪.‬‬

‫حشّځ ثٻ ٶسضر زض ٲٹاضزڀ حبٮز ٲبڂٕ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲبزٺ ٲٳ‪٧‬ٵ اؾز ثٻ نٹضرټبڀ ٲش‪ٟ‬بٸسځ‪ ،‬ثب‬

‫ذٹال ‪٦‬بٲالً ٲشٳبڂع ٸخٹز زاقشٻ ثبقس‪.‬‬

‫‪The solid state. Pure solids may exist as crystals or as glasses. Fine‬‬
‫‪amorphous („formless‟) dusts also coour but in many cases these are‬‬
‫‪nothing more than finely ground crystals.‬‬
‫حبلت جبمذ‪:‬‬

‫خبٲسار ذبٮم ٲځسٹاٶٷس ثب شضاسځ ٲٷٓٱ ثٻ نٹضر ڂ‪ ٥‬ثٯٹض ٲطست قسٺ ثبقٷس ٸ ڂب اڂٵ ‪٦‬ٻ‬

‫ٲبٶٷس اٶٹأ قڃكٻټب‪ ،‬ثسٸٴ ٶٓٱ ‪٢‬طاض ‪٪‬ط‪ٞ‬شٻ ثبقٷس‪ .‬ټٳچٷڃٵ ثٻ نٹضر شضار ثځضڂرز (ثسٸٴ‬

‫ق‪٧‬٭) ضڂعڀ ٸخٹز زاضٶس‪ ،‬اٲّب زض ثؿڃبضڀ اظ ٲٹاضز آٶٽب ‪ ٍ٣ٞ‬ثٯٹضټبڀ ‪٦‬بٲالً دٹزض قسٺاڀ‬

‫ٲځثبقٷس‪.‬‬

‫حبلت مبیغ‪:‬‬

‫ٸ‪ٗ٢‬ځ ‪٦‬ٻ ڂ‪ ٥‬خبٲس ‪٪‬طٰ ٲځقٹز شضار آٴ ثب زاٲٷٻ ثعض‪٪‬شطڀ اضسٗبـ ٲځ‪٦‬ٷٷس ٸ زض زٲبڂځ ‪٦‬ٻ‬

‫ٶ‪ُ٣‬ٻ شٸة ٶبٰ زاضز ٲځسٹاٶٷس اظ ٲح٭ټبڀ اٸّٮڃٻ ذٹز زٸض قٹٶس‪.‬‬

‫حط‪٦‬ز ٲٹٮ‪٧‬ٹ‪٬‬ټب زض ثبالڀ ٶ‪ُ٣‬ٻ شٸة ثٻ حسڀ اؾز ‪٦‬ٻ قج‪٧‬ٻ ثٯٹضڀ زڂ‪٫‬ط اټٳڃّشځ ٶساضز ٸ‬

‫سٳبٰ ٶٳٹٶٻ س‪٣‬طڂجبً ثٻ نٹضر ڂ‪ ٥‬ؾڃب‪ ٬‬ٲشحط‪ ٤‬ٸ س‪٣‬طڂجبً ثځؾبذشبض ٲځثبقس‪.‬‬

‫‪The ordered structure of the solid may not be wholly lost. In the‬‬
‫‪case of water, for example, the liquid can be pictured as a collection‬‬
‫‪of ice-like regions separated by structureless zomes. These‬‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬17

structures are continuially forming and dispersing, and at one

moment a water molecule may be in an ice-like environment, and at
another in a structureless zone.
The gaseous state. The sord “gas” is derived from “chaos” We
picture a gas as a swarm of molecules in constant, chaotic motion.
Each particle travels in a straight line at high speed until it reaches
another, when it is deflected: or until it collides with the wall of the
vessel, when it might ricochet back into the bulk or stick until
dislodged by the vibration of the wall or the impact of another
molecule.
:‫حبلت گبسی‬

‫ٻ زائٳبً زض‬٦ ‫ټب‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫بظ ضا ثٻ نٹضر زؾشٻاڀ اظ ٲٹٮ‬٪ .‫ قسٺ اؾز‬١‫بظ اظ ټطج ٸ ٲطج ٲكش‬٪ ‫ٯٳٻ‬٦

‫ٳځ ثب ؾطٖز ظڂبز‬٣‫ زض ضاؾشبڀ ٲؿش‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٷڃٱ ټط ٲٹٮ‬٦‫ز ثځ ٶٓٱاٶس سهٹّض ٲځ‬٦‫ حط‬٬‫حب‬

‫ٻ ثب خساضٺ‬٦ ‫ ٲځقٹز ثب اڂٵ‬ٜ‫بٺ ٲٷحط‬٫‫ آٶ‬،‫طڀ ثطؾس‬٫‫ زڂ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٻ ثٻ ٲٹٮ‬٦ ‫ٷس سب اڂٵ‬٦‫ز ٲځ‬٦‫حط‬

‫ٻ زض اثط‬٦ ‫طزز ٸ ڂب ثٻ خساضٺ ٲځچؿجس سب اڂٵ‬٪‫بظ ثطٲځ‬٪ ‫ ثٗس ثٻ زضٸٴ‬،‫ٷس‬٦‫ ثطذٹضز ٲځ‬ٜ‫ْط‬

.‫ٷسٺ قٹز‬٦ ‫طڀ اظ حساضٺ‬٫‫ زڂ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫اضسٗبـ خساضٺ ڂب ثطذٹضز ثب ٲٹٮ‬

Elements Of Chemical Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the study of the energy changes that
accompany physical and chemical changes. An important aspect of
the laws of chemical thermodynamics is that they enable us to
predict whether a particular chemical reaction is theoretically
possible under a given set of conditions. A reaction that has a
natural tendency to occur of its own accord is said to be

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18 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

spontaneous. Thermodynamic principles can also be used to

determine the extent of a spontaneous reaction the position of
equilibrium.
:‫مجبوی تزمًدیىبمیک ؽیمیبیی‬

‫ځ اظ‬٧‫ ڂ‬.‫ځ ٸ قڃٳڃبڂځ اؾز‬٧‫ڃعڂ‬ٞ ‫ڃڃطار‬ٛ‫ڃڃطار اٶطغڀ ٲطثٹٌ ثٻ س‬ٛ‫ ٲُبٮٗٿ س‬،٥‫سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‬

‫بزض ٲځؾبظٶس سب ثجڃٷڃٱ آڂب‬٢ ‫ٻ ٲب ضا‬٦ ‫ قڃٳڃبڂځ آٴ اؾز‬٥‫ٹاٶڃٵ سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‬٢ ‫خٷجٻټبڀ ٲٽٱ‬

‫ٷكځ‬٦‫ ٸا‬.‫بٴدصڂط اؾز ڂب ٶٻ‬٧‫ځ اٲ‬٧‫ اظ ٮحبِ سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‬،‫ٷف ٲٗڃّٵ زض قطاڂٍ ٲكرّم‬٦‫ ٸا‬٥‫ڂ‬

‫ ضا ثطاڀ‬٥‫ سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‬٬‫ انٹ‬.‫ ذٹزثٻذٹز ٶبٰ زاضز‬،‫ٻ ثٻَٹض َجڃٗځ ٲڃ٭ ثٻ اٶدبٰ زاقشٻ ثبقس‬٦

.‫بض ثطز‬٦ ‫ ٶڃع ٲځسٹاٴ ثٻ‬،٬‫ٗڃّز سٗبز‬٢‫ ڂٗٷځ ٲٹ‬،‫ٷف ذٹزثٻذٹز‬٦‫ ٸا‬٥‫ز ڂ‬ٞ‫سٗڃڃٵ ٲڃعاٴ دڃكط‬

First Law of Thermodynamics

Many scientists of the late-eighteenth and early-nineteenth centuries
studied the relationship between work and heat. Thermodynamics
had its origins in these studies. By the 1840s it became clear that.
1. Work and jeat are both forms of a larger classification called
energy.
2. One form of energy can be converted into another form.
3. Energy cannot be created or desyroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of
energy: energy can be converted from one form into another but it
cannot be created or destroyed. In other words, the total energy
universe is a constant.
In applying thermodynamic concepts, we frequently confine our
attention to the changes that occur within definite boundaries. The

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 ‫‪ 19‬سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫‪portion of nature that is included that occur within definite‬‬

‫‪boundaries is called a system. The remainder is called the‬‬
‫‪surroundings. A mixture of chemical compounds, for example, can‬‬
‫‪constitute a system. The container and everything else around the‬‬
‫‪system make up what is called the surroundings.‬‬
‫قبوًن ايّل تزمًدیىبمیک‪:‬‬

‫ثؿڃبضڀ اظ زاٶكٳٷساٴ اٸاذط ؾسپ ټڃدسټٱ ٸ اٸاڂ٭ ؾسپ ٶٹظزټٱ ٲڃالزڀ‪ ،‬ضاثُٻ ثڃٵ ‪٦‬بض‬

‫ٲ‪٧‬بٶڃ‪٧‬ځ ٸ ‪٪‬طٲب ضا ٲُبٮٗٻ ‪٦‬طزٶس‪ .‬سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‪ ،٥‬ضڂكٻ زض اڂٵ اَالٖبر زاضز‪ .‬زض زټٿ ‪1840‬‬

‫ضٸقٵ قس ‪٦‬ٻ‪:‬‬

‫‪٦ -1‬بض ٸ ‪٪‬طٲب ټط زٸ خٯٹٺڀ ڂ‪َ ٥‬ج‪٣‬ٻثٷسڀ ثعض‪٨‬سط ثٻ ٶبٰ اٶطغڀ ټؿشٷس‪.‬‬

‫‪ -2‬ڂ‪ٞ ٥‬طٰ اٶطغڀ ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثٻ ‪ٞ‬طٰ زڂ‪٫‬ط آٴ سجسڂ٭ ‪٦‬طز‪.‬‬

‫‪ -3‬اٶطغڀ ضا ٶٳځسٹاٴ ثٻ ٸخٹز آٸضز ڂب اظ ثڃٵ ثطز‪.‬‬

‫‪٢‬بٶٹٴ اٸّ‪ ٬‬سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‪٢ ،٥‬بٶٹٴ ث‪٣‬بڀ اٶطغڀ اؾز‪ ،‬اٶطغڀ ضا ٲځسٹاٴ اظ ڂ‪ ٥‬نٹضر ثٻ نٹضر‬

‫زڂ‪٫‬ط سجسڂ٭ ‪٦‬طز ٸٮځ ٶٳځسٹاٴ آٴ ضا ثٻ ٸخٹز آٸضز ڂب ٶبثٹز ؾبذز‪ .‬ثٻ ثڃبٴ زڂ‪٫‬ط‪ ،‬اٶطغڀ ‪٦‬٭‬

‫خٽبٴ ثبثز اؾز‪.‬‬

‫زض اٖٳب‪ ٬‬ٲ‪ٟ‬بټڃٱ سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‪٧‬ځ‪ ،‬ا‪ٚ‬ٯت سٹخّٻ ذٹز ضا ثٻ س‪ٛ‬ڃڃطار ٸا‪ ٕ٢‬قسٺ زض زاذ٭ ٲطظ‬

‫ٲٗڃّٷځ ٲُٗٹ‪ ٜ‬ٲځزاضڂٱ‪ .‬ثركځ اظ َجڃٗز ‪٦‬ٻ زض زاذ٭ اڂٵ ٲطظ ‪٢‬طاض ٲځ‪٪‬ڃطز‪ ،‬ؾڃؿشٱ ٶبٰ‬

‫زاضز‪ .‬ث‪٣‬ڃٿ َجڃٗز ضا دڃطاٲٹٶٳځٶبٲڃٱ‪ .‬ٲثالً ٲرٯٹَځ اظ سط‪٦‬ڃجبر قڃٳڃبڂځ ٲځسٹاٶس ڂ‪٥‬‬

‫ؾڃؿشٱ سك‪٧‬ڃ٭ زټس‪ْ .‬ط‪ ٜ‬ٸا‪٦‬ٷف ٸ ټط چڃع زڂ‪٫‬طڀ زض دڃطاٲٹٴ ؾڃؿشٱ‪ ،‬دڃطاٲٹٴ ضا ثٻ‬

‫ٸخٹز ٲځآٸضٶس‪.‬‬

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20 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The first law of thermodynamics puts only one restriction on
chemical or physical changes-energy must be conserved. The first
Law, however, provides no basis for determining whether a
proposed change will be spontaneous. The second law of
thermodynamics establishes criteria for making this important
prediction.
The thermodynamic function entropy, S, is central to the second
law. Entropy may be interpreted as a measure of the randomness, or
disorder, of a system. A highly disordered system is said to have a
high entropy. Since a disordered condition is more probable than an
ordered one, entropy may be regarded as a probability function,
One statement of the second law of thermodynamics is: every
spontaneous change is accompanied by an increase in entropy.
:‫قبوًن ديم تزمًدیىبمیک‬

‫ٷس‬٦‫ځ ڂب قڃٳڃبڂځ سحٳڃ٭ ٲځ‬٧‫ڃعڂ‬ٞ ‫ڃڃطار‬ٛ‫ ٲحسٸزڂّز ثط س‬٥‫ٍ ڂ‬٣ٞ ٥‫ سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‬٬ّ‫بٶٹٴ اٸ‬٢

‫ڃط‬ٛ‫ س‬٥‫ٽڃ‬٦ ‫ ٲجٷبڂځ ثطاڀ سٗڃڃٵ اڂٵ‬٬ّ‫بٶٹٴ اٸ‬٢ ‫ ٸٮځ‬.‫ٻ اٶطغڀ اظ ٲڃبٴ ٶٳځضٸز‬٦ ‫ٸ آٴ اڂٵ‬

٥‫بٶٹٴ زٸٰ سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‬٢ .‫ ثٻ زؾز ٶٳځزټس‬،‫ڃطز ڂب ٶٻ‬٪‫ٲٗڃّٵ ذٹزثٻذٹز نٹضر ٲځ‬

.‫طاض ٲځؾبظز‬٢‫ٲٗڃبضټبڂځ ثطاڀ اڂٵ دڃفثڃٷځ ٲٽٱ ثط‬

‫ آٶشطٸدځ ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ٲڃعاٴ‬.‫بٶٹٴ زٸٰ اؾز‬٢ ‫ ٲحٹض‬،S ،‫ځ آٶشطٸدځ‬٧‫سبثٕ سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‬

‫ حبٮز ثځٶٓٱ اظ ٮحبِ آٲبضڀ‬٥‫ چٹٴ ڂ‬.‫طز‬٦ ‫ؿڃط‬ٟ‫ ؾڃؿشٱ س‬٥‫ځ ڂب ثځٶٓٳځ ڂ‬٫‫ش‬ٟ‫آق‬

‫ زض ٶٓط‬٬‫ سبثٕ احشٳب‬٥‫ آٶشطٸغڀ ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ڂ‬،‫ حبٮز ثب ٶٓٱ اؾز‬٥‫ٲحشٳ٭سط اظ ڂ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬21

‫عاڂف‬ٞ‫ڃڃط ذٹزثٻذٹز ټٳطاٺ ثب ا‬ٛ‫ ټط س‬:‫ اڂٵ اؾز‬٥‫بٶٹٴ زٸٰ سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‬٢ ‫ ثڃبٴ‬٥‫ ڂ‬.‫ز‬ٞ‫ط‬٪

.‫آٶشطٸدځ اؾز‬

Standared Free Energies

A standard free energy change, ehich is given the symbol  G , is
the free-energy change for a process at 1 atm in which the reactants
in their standard states are convertes to the products in their
standard states. The value of  G for a reaction can be derived from
standard free energies of formation in the same way that H values
can be calculated from standard enthalpies of formation. Tabulated
data usually consists of values measured at 25 C .
The standard free energy of formation of a compound,  G f , is
defined as the change in standard free energies when 1 mol of the
compound is formed from its constituent in their standard.
According to this definition, the standard free energy of formation
of any element in its standard state is zero. The Value of  G for a
reaction is equal to the sum of the standard free energies of
formation of the products minus the sum of the standard free
energies of formation of the reactants.
Stereochemistry and Stereoisomerisms
:‫اعتزئًؽیمی ي اعتزائًایشيمزی‬

The science of organic chemistry, we said, is based on the

relationship between molecular structre and properties. That part of
the science which deals with structure in three dimensions is called
stereochemistry. (Greek: stereos, solid).

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22 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

One aspect of stereochemistry is stereoisomerisms. Isomers, we

recall, are different compounds that have the same molecular
formula. The particular kind of isomers that are different from each
other only in the way the atoms are oriented in space (but are like
one another with respect to which atoms are joined to which other
atoms) are called stereosiomerisms.
‫ٹٮځ ٸ ذٹال اؾشٹاض‬٧‫ ثط دبڂٻ ضاثُٻ ثڃٵ ؾبذشٳبٴ ٲٹٮ‬،‫ٻ ٖٯٱ قڃٳځ آٮځ‬٦ ‫شٻ قسٺ‬ٟ٪

‫ٻ زضثبضٺ ؾبذشٳبٴ زض ؾٻ ثٗس ثحث ٲځٶٳبڂس ثٻ اؾشطئٹقڃٳځ‬٦ ‫ؿٳشځ اظ اڂٵ ٖٯٱ‬٢ .‫ٲځثبقس‬

.)‫ٲٹؾٹٰ اؾز (زض ظثبٴ ڂٹٶبٶځ اؾشطئٹؼ ثٻ ٲٗٷبڀ خبٲس ٲځثبقس‬

‫ځ‬ٟ‫ڃجبر ٲرشٯ‬٦‫ٻ اڂعٸٲطټب سط‬٦ ‫ ٲځزاٶڃٱ‬.‫ اؾشطئٹاڂعٸٲطڀ اؾز‬،‫ ؾڃٳبڀ اؾشطئٹقڃٳځ‬٥‫ڂ‬

‫ٻ سٷٽب زض‬٦ ‫ ٶٹٔ ذبنّځ اظ ٶٹٔ اڂعٸٲطټب‬.‫ؿبٴ ٲځثبقٷس‬٧‫ٹٮځ ڂ‬٧‫ ٲٹٮ‬٬‫طٲٹ‬ٞ ‫ٻ زاضاڀ‬٦ ‫ټؿشٷس‬

‫ اسٱټب‬٬‫ځ اسهب‬٫‫ٹٶ‬٫‫ زاضٶس (اٲّب اظ ٶٓط چ‬ٜ‫ط اذشال‬٫‫سڂ‬٧‫ًب ثب ڂ‬ٞ ‫شٵ اسٱټبڂكبٴ زض‬ٞ‫ط‬٪ ‫طاض‬٢ ‫َطظ‬

.‫ ٶبٲڃسٺ ٲځقٹٶس‬stereoisomers ‫ط ٲكبثٻ ٲځثبقٷس) اؾشطئٹاڂعٸٲط‬٫‫سڂ‬٧‫ثٻ ڂ‬

Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
:ٌ‫َذريکزثهَبی اؽجبٌ وؾذ‬

The alkenes, which contain less hydrogen, carbon for carbon, than
the alkanes, and which can be converted into alkanes by addition of
hydrogen. The alkenes were further described as being obtaines
from alkanes by loss of hydrogen in the cracking process.
‫ٻ‬ٞ‫ ٲځسٹاٶٷس ثب ايب‬،‫بٴټب ټؿشٷس‬٧‫ٳشطڀ اظ آٮ‬٦ ‫طثٵ زاضاڀ ټڃسضٸغٴ‬٦ ‫ٻ ثٻاظاءټط‬٦ ،‫ٵټب‬٧‫آٮ‬

،٩‫ڃٷ‬٦‫طا‬٦ ‫طآڂٷس‬ٞ ‫ زض‬،‫شٻ قس‬ٟ٪ ‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ ټٳبٴَٹض‬.‫بٴټب سجسڂ٭ قٹٶس‬٧‫ ثٻ آٮ‬،‫ٶٳٹزٴ ټڃسضٸغٴ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬23

.‫ ٲځقٹٶس‬٬‫ٵ ٲجس‬٧‫بٴټب ثب اظ زؾز زازٴ ټڃسضٸغٴ ثٻ آٮ‬٧‫آٮ‬

Reactions of Alkenes
The characteristic feature of the alkene structure, we have said, is
the carbon-carbon double bond. It ios thus the functional group of
alkenes and, as the functional group, it determines the characteristic
reactions that alkenes underoge.
:‫ياکىؼَبی آلکبنَب‬

‫طٸٺ‬٪ ‫ اڂٵ دڃٹٶس‬،‫ اظ اڂٵضٸ‬.‫طثٵ ٲځثبقس‬٦ ‫طثٵ ـ‬٦ ‫بٶٻ‬٪‫ ٸخٹز دطٸٶس زٸ‬،‫بٴټب‬٧‫ٲكرّهٿ ثبضظ آٮ‬

‫ٷفټبڂځ اؾز‬٦‫ٷٷسٺ ذهٹنڃّبر ٸا‬٦ ‫ سٗڃڃٵ‬،‫طٸٺ ٖبٲٯځ‬٪ ٥‫بٴټب ثٹزٺ ٸ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ڂ‬٧‫ٖبٲٯځ آٮ‬

.‫بٴټب اٶدبٰ ٲځزټٷس‬٧‫ٻ آٮ‬٦

These reactions are two kinds. (a) First, there are those that take
place at the double bond itself and on doing this destroy the double
bond.
‫ڃطٶس ٸ‬٪‫بٶٻ اٶدبٰ ٲځ‬٪‫ٻ ثط ضٸڀ دڃٹٶس زٸ‬٦ ‫ٷفټبڂځ‬٦‫ ٸا‬٬ّ‫ اٸ‬.‫ٷفټب زٸ ٶٹٔ ٲځثبقٷس‬٦‫اڂٵ ٸا‬

.‫بٶٻ ٲځقٹٶس‬٪‫ثبٖث سرطڂت دڃٹٶس زٸ‬

Alkynes
The carbon-carbon single bond is of low reactivity its main function
is to act as the principal cement holding most organic compounds
together.
The carbon-carbon double bond is unsaturated and hence highly
reactive toward a wide variety of reagents, as a substituebt it can
exert remarkable effects on the rest of the molecule.
:‫آلکیهَب‬

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24 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫ٯت‬ٚ‫ٽساقشٵ اسٱټبڀ ا‬٫‫ف انٯځ آٴ ٶ‬٣‫ٳځ زاضز ٸ ٶ‬٦ ‫ٗبٮڃّز‬ٞ ‫طثٵ‬٦ ‫طثٵ ـ‬٦ ‫دڃٹٶس ؾبزٺ‬

‫ڃط اقجبٖځ اؾز ٸ زض ٶشڃدٻ زض‬ٚ ‫طثٵ‬٦ ‫طثٵ ـ‬٦ ‫بٶٻ‬٪‫ دڃٹٶس زٸ‬.‫ط اؾز‬٫‫سڂ‬٧‫ڃجبر آٮځ ثٻ ڂ‬٦‫سط‬

‫ڃٻ‬٣‫ ٲځسٹاٶس زض ث‬ٜ‫ اؾشرال‬٥‫ٗبٮڃّز ظڂبزڀ زاضز ٸ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ڂ‬ٞ ‫طټب‬٫‫ٷك‬٦‫بث٭ اٶٹأ ٸا‬٣‫ٲ‬

.‫صاضز‬٫‫بث٭ ٲالحٓٻاڀ ث‬٢ ‫ اثطار‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٲٹٮ‬

Determination of Structure: Spectroscopic Methods

At every stage structure determination-from the isolation and
purification of the unknown substance to its final comparison with
an authentic sample-the use of instruments has, since World War II.
Revolutionized organic chemical practice. Instruments not only
help an organic chemist to do what he does faster but, more
important, let him do what could not be done at all before: to
analyze complicated mixtures of closely related compoundsl to
describe the structure of molecules in detail never imagined before;
to detect, identify, and measure the concentration of short-lived
intermediates whose very existence wasm not so long ago, only
speculation.
‫ ريطَبی طیفعىجی‬::‫تؼییه عبختمبن‬

‫طزٴ خؿٱ‬٦ ‫بٺټب زض ټط ٲطحٯٻ اظ سٗڃڃٵ ؾبذشٳبٴ ـ اظ خساؾبظڀ ٸ ذبٮم‬٫‫ڃطڀ زؾش‬٪‫بض‬٦ ‫ثٻ‬

ٰ‫ خٽبٶځ زٸ‬٩‫ اظ خٷ‬،‫ځ ٸ قٷبذشٻ قسٺ‬٣‫ڃ‬٣‫بڂؿٻ ٶٽبڂځ آٴ ثب ٶٳٹٶٻ ح‬٣‫شٻ سب ٲ‬ٞ‫ط‬٪ ‫ٶبقٷبذشٻ‬

٥‫ٳ‬٦ ‫بٺټب ٶٻ سٷٽب ثٻ قڃٳځزاٶبٴ آٮځ‬٫‫ زؾش‬.‫ٹٴ ؾبذشٻ اؾز‬٪‫ط‬٪‫ٖٳٯڃّبر قڃٳځ اٮځ ضا ز‬

‫بضټبڂځ ضا‬٦ ٰ‫ٻ ٲٽٱسط اظ آٴ ثٻ اٸ اخبظٺ اٶدب‬٧‫ ثٯ‬،‫بض ضا ؾطڂٕسط اٶدبٰ زټس‬٦ ‫ٲځٶٳبڂٷس سب‬

‫ سدعڂٻ ٸ سحٯڃ٭ ٲرٯٹٌټبڀ‬.‫سٸض ٶجٹزٺ اؾز‬٣‫جالً ثٻ ټڃچ ٖٷٹاٴ ثطاڂف ٲ‬٢ ‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ٲځزټٷس‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬25

‫ځ‬ٟ‫ټب ثٻ َطڂ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ ؾبذشٳبٴ ٲٹٮ‬ٝ‫ ثٻ ټٱ سٹنڃ‬٥‫ڃجبسځ ثب ؾبذشٳبٴټبڀ ٶعزڂ‬٦‫دڃچڃسٺ اظ سط‬

٬‫ٯٓز ٲٹاز ٸاؾُٻ ثب َٹ‬ٚ ‫ڃطڀ‬٪‫ قٷبؾبڂځ ٸ اٶساظٺ‬،‫ز سٗڃڃٵ‬ٞ‫جالً حشّځ سهٹّض آٴ ٶٳځض‬٢ ‫ٻ‬٦

.‫طيڃٻ ثٹزٺ اؾز‬ٞ ٥‫ٍ ثٻ نٹضر ڂ‬٣ٞ ‫ج٭‬٢ ‫ٻ حشّځ ٸخٹزقبٴ سب ٲسّسځ‬٦ ‫ٹسبٺ‬٦ ‫ٖٳط‬

The Mass Spectrum

In the mass spectrometer, molecules are bombarded with a beam of
energetic electrons. The molecules are ionized and broken up into
many fragments, some of which are positive ions. Each kind of ion
has a particular ratio of mass to charge, or m/e value. For most ions,
the charge is 1, so that m/e is simply the mass of the ion.
:‫طیف جزمی‬

.‫طزٶس‬٪‫شطٸٴټبڀ دط اٶطغڀ ثٳجبضاٴ ٲځ‬٧‫ټب سٹؾٍ دطسٹئځ اظ اٮ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ ٲٹٮ‬،‫ خطٲځ‬ٝ‫زض َڃ‬

‫ٻ ثًٗځ اظ آٶٽب ڂٹٴټب ٲثجز‬٦ ،‫ؿشٻ ٲځقٹٶس‬٧‫ ق‬ٝ‫ټب ڂٹٶڃعٺ قسٺ ٸ ثٻ اخعاء ٲرشٯ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٲٹٮ‬

،‫ثط ڂٹٴټب‬٦‫ ثطاڀ ا‬.‫ ذبنّځ ٲځثبقس‬m/e ‫ ټط ٶٹٔ ڂٹٴ زاضاڀ ٶؿجز خطٰ ثٻ ثبض ٸ ڂب‬.‫ٲځثبقٷس‬

.‫ خطٰ ڂٹٴ ٲځثبقس‬m/e ‫ اؾز ٸ ثٷبثطاڂٵ‬٥‫ثبض ڂ‬

The Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectrum

Like electrons, the nuclei of certain atoms are considered to spin.
The spinning of these charged particles-the circukation of charge-
generates a magnetic moment along the axis of spin, so that these
nuclei act like tiny bar magnets. One such nucleus-and the one we
shall be mostly concerned with-is the proton, the nucleus of
ordinary hydrogen, 1H.
:ٍ‫طیف رسوبوظ مغىبطیغی َغت‬

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26 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫ چطذڃسٴ اڂٵ شضار ثبضزاض ـ‬.‫شطٸٴټب زض چطذف ٲځثبقٷس‬٧‫ټؿشٻ ثطذځ اظ اسٱټب ٲبٶٷس اٮ‬

‫ٻ اڂٵ‬٦ ‫ ثٻَٹضڀ‬.‫ٷبَڃؿځ زض اٲشساز ٲحٹض چطذف ٲځٶٳبڂس‬ٛ‫كشبٸض ٲ‬٪ ٥‫زٸضاٴ ثبض ـ اڂدبز ڂ‬

‫ځ اظ اڂٵ ټؿشٻټب‬٧‫ ڂ‬.‫ٷبَڃؿځ ٖٳ٭ ٲځٶٳبڂٷس‬ٛ‫ ٲ‬٥‫ٹچ‬٦ ‫ټؿشٻټب ٲبٶٷس ٲڃٯٻټبڀ‬

‫بض‬٦ ‫ٻ ثڃف اظ ټط ټؿشٻاڀ ثب آٴ ؾط ٸ‬٦ 1H ،‫ ټؿشٻ ټڃسضٸغٴ ٲٗٳٹٮځ‬،‫دطٸسٹٶٳځثبقس‬

.‫ذٹاټڃٱ زاقز‬

Occu, rence and Composition of Fats

Biochemists have found it convenient to define one of
biomolecules, the lipids, as substances, insoluble in water, thst can
be extracted from cells by organic splvents of low polarity like
ether or chloroform. This is a catch-all sort of definition, and lipids
include compounds of many different kinds. Steroids for example,
and terpenes Of the lipids, we shall take up only the fats and certain
closely related compounds. These are not the only important
lipidindeed every compound in an organism seems to play an
important role, if only as an unavoidable waste product of
metabolism-but they are the most abundant.
:‫فزاياوی ي تزکیت چزثیَب‬

‫ زض آة‬٬‫ ٮڃذڃسټب ضا ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ٲٹازڀ ٶبٲحٯٹ‬،‫ټب‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ ؾطڀ اظ ثڃٹٲٹٮ‬٥‫ثڃٹقڃٳڃؿزټب ڂ‬

ٰ‫ط‬ٞ‫ٯطٸ‬٦‫ٱ ٲث٭ اسطٸ‬٦ ‫ُجڃّز‬٢ ‫ټبڀ آٮځ ثب‬٬‫ټب ثب حال‬٬‫ٻ ٲځسٹاٴ آٶٽب ضا اظ ؾٯٹ‬٦ ‫ٲځزاٶٷس‬

‫ڃجبر‬٦‫ڃطٶسٺ ثؿڃبضڀ اظ سط‬٪‫ ٸ ٮڃذڃسټب زضثط‬.‫ٯځ اؾز‬٦ ‫ځ‬ٟ‫ چٷڃٵ سٗطڂ‬٥‫ ڂ‬.‫طز‬٦ ‫اؾشرطاج‬

.‫ ٲث٭ اؾشطٸئڃسټب ٸ سطدٵټب ټؿشٷس‬ٝ‫ٲرشٯ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬27

‫ اڂٵ‬.‫طز‬٦ ‫ ثٻ آٶٽب ضا ثطضؾځ ذٹاټڃٱ‬٥‫ڃجبر ٶعزڂ‬٦‫ٍ چطثځټب ٸ ثطذځ اظ سط‬٣ٞ ‫اظ ثڃٵ ٮڃذڃسټب‬

‫ط ثٻ‬٪‫بٶڃؿٱ حشّځ ا‬٪‫ اض‬٥‫ڃت زض ڂ‬٦‫ٲٹاز سٷٽب ٮڃذڃسټبڀ ٲٽٱ ٶڃؿشٷس ثٻ ٶٓط ٲځضؾس ټط سط‬

‫طاٸاٴسط‬ٞ ‫ٷس ٸٮځ اظ ټٳٻ‬٦‫ب ٲځ‬ٟ‫ف اؾبؾځ اڂ‬٣‫ ٶ‬،‫بٮٻ حبن٭ اظ ٲشبثٹٮڃؿٱ ثبقس‬ٟ‫نٹضر س‬

.‫ٲځثبقٷس‬

Carbohydrates
Introduction
In the leaf of a plant, the simple compounds carbon dioxide and
water are combined to form the sugar (+) –glucose. This process,
known as photosynthesis, requires catalysis by the green coloring
matter chlorophyll, and requires energy in the form of light.
Thousands of (+) –glucose molecules can then be combined to form
the much larger molecules of cellulose, which constitutes the
supporting framework of the plant. (+) –Glucose molecules can also
be combined in a somewhat different way, to from the large
molecules of starch, which is then stored in the seeds to serve as
food for a new growing plant.
:‫کزثًَیذراتَب‬

:ٍ‫مقذم‬

-)+( ‫ٷس‬٢ ‫ڃت قسٺ ٸ‬٦‫ط ٶط‬٫‫سڂ‬٧‫طثٵ ٸ آة ثب ڂ‬٦ ‫ؿڃس‬٦‫ڃجبر ؾبزٺ زڀا‬٦‫ڃبٺ سط‬٪ ٥‫ ڂ‬٨‫زض ثط‬

‫بسبٮڃعٸض‬٦ ‫شٹؾٷشع ٶبٲڃسٺ ٲځقٹز ٸ ثطاڀ اٶدبٰ ٶڃبظ ثٻ‬ٞ ‫طآڂٷس‬ٞ ‫ع ضا ثٻ ٸخٹز ٲځآٸضٶس اڂٵ‬٦‫ٯٹ‬٪

‫ط‬٫‫سڂ‬٧‫ع ثب ڂ‬٦‫ٯٹ‬٪ -)+( ٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ڃ٭ ٸ اٶطغڀ ثٻ نٹضر ٶٹض زاضز ټعاضاٴ ٲٹٮ‬ٞ‫ٯطٸ‬٦ ‫ڃبٺ ڂٗٷځ‬٪ ‫ؾجعڂٷٻ‬

‫ڃبٺ‬٪ ‫بْشځ‬ٟ‫ٻ چٽبضچٹة ح‬٦ ‫سط ثٻ ٶبٰ ؾٯٹٮع ضا ٲځؾبظٶس‬٨‫ٹٮځ ثؽ ثعض‬٧‫٭ قسٺ ٸ ٲٹٮ‬٧‫ٲشك‬

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28 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫طڀ ثب ټٱ‬٫‫ زڂ‬١‫ع ٲځسٹاٶٷس ثٻ َطڂ‬٦‫ٯٹ‬٪ -)+( ‫ټبڀ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ڃ٭ ٲځزټس ټٳچٷڃٵ ٲٹٮ‬٧‫ضا سك‬

‫ڃبٺ شذڃطٺ‬٪ ‫ٻ ؾذؽ زض زاٶٻ‬٦ ‫ ٶكبؾشٻ ضا ثسټٷس‬٨‫ټبڀ ثعض‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ڃ٭ ٲٹٮ‬٧‫٭ قٹٶس ٸ سك‬٧‫ٲشك‬

.‫ ٲځقٹز‬ٜ‫ ضقس ٲهط‬٬‫ڃبٺ سبظٺ زض حب‬٪ ‫صا ثطاڀ‬ٚ ‫قسٺ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ‬

Definition and Classification

Carbohydrates are polyhdroxy aldehydes, polyhdroxy ketones, or
compounds that can be hydrolyzed to them. A carbohydrate that
cannot be hydrolyzed to simpler compounds is called a
monosaccharide. A carbohydrate that can be hydrate hat can be
hydrolyzed to many Monosaccharide molecules is called a
polysaccharide.
:‫تؼبریف ي طجقٍثىذی‬

‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ڃجبسځ‬٦‫شٹٴټب ټؿشٷس ٸ ڂب سط‬٦ ‫ؿځ‬٦‫ؿځ آٮسئڃسټب ٸ دٯځټڃسضٸ‬٦‫طثٹټڃسضارټب دٯځ ټڃسضٸ‬٦

‫ڃت ؾبزٺسطڀ ټڃسضٸٮڃع‬٦‫ٻ ٶشٹاٶس ثٻ سط‬٦ ‫طثٹټڃسضار‬٦ ٥‫ ڂ‬.‫طزٶس‬٪ ‫ٲځسٹاٶٷس ثٻ آٶٽب ټڃسضٸٮڃع‬

٥‫بضڂس سجسڂ٭ قٹز ڂ‬٦‫ٻ ثشٹاٶس ثٻ زٸ ٲٷٹؾب‬٦ ‫طثٹټڃسضاسځ‬٦ .‫بضڂس ذٹاٶسٺ ٲځقٹز‬٦‫ ٲٷٹؾب‬،‫قٹز‬

‫ټبڀ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٻ ثشٹاٶس ثٻ ثؿڃبضڀ اظ ٲٹٮ‬٦ ‫طثٹټڃسضار‬٦ ٥‫ ڂ‬.‫بضڂس ٶبٲڃسٺ ٲځقٹز‬٦‫زڀؾب‬

.‫ڃطز‬٪‫بضڂس ٶبٰ ٲځ‬٦‫ دٯځؾب‬٥‫بضڂس سجسڂ٭ قٹز ڂ‬٦‫ٲٷٹؾب‬

Proteins
The name protein is taken from the Greek proteios, which means
first. This name is well cjosen. Of all chemical compounds, proteins
must almost certainly be ranked first, for they are the substance of
life.
:‫پزيتئیهَب‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬29

‫ اٶشربة چٷڃٵ ٶبٲځ‬،‫ اؾز‬٬ّ‫ٻ ٲٗٷبڀ آٴ اٸ‬٦ ‫شٻ قسٺ‬ٞ‫ط‬٪ ‫ز ڂٹٶبٶځ دطٸسڃٹؼ‬ٛ‫ٶبٰ دطٸسئڃٵ اظ ٮ‬

‫ٻ ٲبزٺ حڃبر ټؿشٷس‬٦ ‫ڃجبر قڃٳڃبڂځ دطٸسئڃٵټب‬٦‫ٯڃٻ سط‬٦ ‫اٶشربثځ ثدب اؾز ظڂطا زض ثڃٵ‬

.‫ڃطٶس‬٪ ‫ خبڀ‬٬ّ‫ اٸ‬ٝ‫ڃٷبً ثبڂؿشځ زض ضزڂ‬٣‫ڂ‬

Preliminary Steps to an Analysis

A chemical analysis is ordinarily preceded by steps that are
necessary if the analytical data are to have significance. These steps
include (1) sampling, (2) production of a homogeneous mixture for
analysis, and (3) drying the sample or, alteratively determining its
moisture content.
ٍ‫مزاحل مقذمبتی در تجشی‬

‫ج٭ اظ سدعڂٻڀ‬٢ ‫ ؾطڀ ٲطاح٭‬٥‫ اٶدبٰ ڂ‬،‫ٻ زازٺټبڀ سدعڂٻاڀ ٲٗٷځزاض ثبقٷس‬٦ ‫ثطاڀ آٴ‬

ٌ‫ ٲرٯٹ‬٥‫) سٹٮڃس ڂ‬2( ،‫) ٶٳٹٶٻثطزاضڀ‬1( :‫قڃٳڃبڂځ يطٸضڀ ذٹاټس ثٹز اڂٵ ٲطٮح٭ ٖجبضسٷس اظ‬

.‫ ڂب سٗڃڃٵ ضَٹثز آٴ‬،‫طزٴ ٶٳٹٶٻ‬٦ ٥‫) ذك‬3( ،‫ٵ ثطاڀ سدعڂٻ‬٫‫ټٳ‬

Sampling
Generally, a chemical analysis is preformed on a fraction of the
material whose composition is of onterest. It is evident that the
composition of this fraction must reflect as closely as possible the
average composition of the bulk of the material if the analysis is to
be of any value. The process by which a representative fraction is
ecquired is termed sampling. Often, sampling is the most difficult
step in the entire analytical process. This statement is particularly
applicable when the material to be sampled is an item of commerce
weighing several tons or several hundreds of tons.

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30 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

:‫ومًوٍثزداری‬

،‫ڃت ٶؿجځ آٴ ٲٹضز سٹخّٻ اؾز‬٦‫ٻ سط‬٦ ‫ؿطڀ اظ ٲبزٺ‬٦ ‫ سدعڂٻ قڃٳڃبڂځ ثط ضٸڀ‬،‫ٯځ‬٦ ‫ثٻَٹض‬

‫ؿط ثبڂس‬٦ ‫ڃت اڂٵ‬٦‫ٻ سط‬٦ ‫ ثسڂٽځ اؾز‬،‫ٻ سدعڂٻ ثب اضظـ ثبقس‬٦ ‫ ثطاڀ آٴ‬.‫اٶدبٰ ٲځقٹز‬

‫ٻ ثٻ‬٦ ‫طآڂٷسڀ‬ٞ .‫ ٲبزٺڀ ٲٹضز آظٲبڂف ثبقس‬٨‫ڃت ٲشٹؾٍ سٹزٺڀ ثعض‬٦‫سٸض ثبظسبة سط‬٣‫حشځاٮٳ‬

‫ٯت ٶٳٹٶٻثطزاضڀ‬ٚ‫ ا‬.‫ ٶٳٹٶٻثطزاضڀ ٶبٲڃسٺ ٲځقٹز‬،‫طزز‬٪‫ؿط ٶٳبڂٷسٺ سٽڃّٻ ٲځ‬٦ ٥‫ٸؾڃٯٻڀ آٴ ڂ‬

‫ٻ ٲبزٺڀ‬٦ ‫ٷس‬٦‫ ٲځ‬٠‫شځ نس‬٢‫ اڂٵ ازٖب ثٻ ٸڂػٺ ٸ‬.‫طآڂٷس سدعڂٻ اؾز‬ٞ ‫٭‬٦ ‫٭سطڂٵ ٲطحٯٻڀ‬٧‫ٲك‬

.‫بالڀ سدبضڀ ثٻ ٸظٴ چٷس سٵ ڂب چٷسڂٵ سٵ ثبقس‬٦ ٥‫ٲٹضز ٶٳٹٶٻثطزاضڀ ڂ‬

Sampling homogemeous solutions of liquids and gases. For

solution of liquids or gases, the gross sample can be relatively
small, since ordinarily nonhomogeneity first occurs at the molecular
level, and even small volumes of smaple will contain a tremendous
number of particles. Whenever possible the material to be analyzed
should be well stirred prior to removal of the sample to make sure
that homogeneity does indeed exist With large volumes of solutions
mixing may be impossible; it bottle that can be opened and filled at
any desired location in the solution. This type of sampling, for
example, is important in determining the constituents of liquids
exposed to the atmosphere. Thus the oxygen content of lake water
may very by a factor as larger as 1000 over a depth difference of a
few feet.
،‫بظټب‬٪ ‫ټبڀ ٲبڂٗبر ڂب‬٬‫ ثطاڀ ٲحٯٹ‬:‫ومًوٍثزداری اس محلًلَبی َمگه مبیؼبت ي گبسَب‬

‫ ٶرؿز زض ؾُح‬،‫ٷځ ٲٗٳٹٮځ‬٫‫ ظڂطا ٶبټٳ‬،‫ ثبقس‬٥‫ٹچ‬٦ ً‫ٵ اؾز ٶؿجشب‬٧‫ ٲٳ‬٨‫ٶٳٹٶٻ ثعض‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬31

‫ زض‬.‫ځ اظ شضار زاضز‬٪‫ځ اظ ٶٳٹٶٻ ٶڃع سٗساز ثعض‬٧‫ٹچ‬٦ ‫ ٲځڂبثس ٸ حشّځ حدٱ‬١٣‫ٹٮځ سح‬٧‫ٲٹٮ‬

‫بٲالً ثٻ ټٱ‬٦ ‫ج٭ اظ ثطزاقشٵ ٶٳٹٶٻ‬٢ ‫طاض اؾز سدعڂٻ قٹز ثبڂس‬٢ ‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ ٲبزٺاڀ ضا‬،‫بٴ‬٧‫نٹضر اٲ‬

،‫ټب‬٬‫ ٲحٯٹ‬٨‫ زض ٲٹضز حدٱټبڀ ثعض‬.‫ٵ قسٺ اؾز‬٫‫ٗبً ټٳ‬٢‫ٻ ٸا‬٦ ‫ثعٶٷس سب اَٳڃٷبٴ حبن٭ قٹز‬

‫ ٸؾڃٯٻ‬٥‫ ڂ‬٥‫ٳ‬٦ ‫ٻ ثٻ‬٦ ‫بض اڂٵ اؾز‬٦ ‫ ثٽشطڂٵ‬،‫ٵ اؾز زقٹاض ثبقس ثٷبثطاڂٵ‬٧‫اذشالٌ ٲٳ‬

‫طز ٸؾڃٯٻڀ ٶٳٹٶٻثطزاضڀ‬٦ ‫ ٶٳٹٶٻثطزاضڀ‬ٜ‫ؿٳز ْط‬٢ ‫ٶٳٹٶٻثطزاضڀ (زظز ٶٳٹٶٻ) اظ چٷس‬

،٬‫ ٲځقٹز ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ٲثب‬٬‫ ثبظ ٸ دط اظ ٲحٯٹ‬،٬‫ٻ ټط ٲٹيٕ زٮرٹاٺ زضٸٴ ٲحٯٹ‬٦ ‫ثُطڀاڀ اؾز‬

‫طاض‬٢ ‫ٻ زض ٲٗطو ټٹاڀ آظاز‬٦ ‫ڃ٭ زټٷسٺڀ ٲبڂٗبسځ‬٧‫ڂٵ ٶٹٔ ٶٳٹٶٻثطزاضڀ زض سٗڃڃٵ اخعاڀ سك‬

‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ځ‬٢‫ٵ اؾز زض اٖٳب‬٧‫ؿڃػٴ ٲٹخٹز زض آة زضڂبچٻ ٲٳ‬٦‫ ا‬،‫ اظ اڂٵضٸ‬.‫ حبئع اټٳڃّز اؾز‬،‫زاضٶس‬

.‫ٷس‬٦ ‫ڃڃط‬ٛ‫ ثطاثط س‬1000 ‫بٸر زاضٶس ثڃف اظ‬ٟ‫ٹر ثب ټٱ س‬ٞ ‫چٷس‬

Sampling metals and alloys. Sample of metals and alloys are

obtained by sawing, milling, or drilling. In general it is not safe to
assume that chips of the metal removed from the surface will be
representative of the entire bulk; sampling billets or ingots of metal,
a representative sample can be obtained by awing across the piece
at regularly spaced intervals and collecting the “sawdust” as the
sample. Alternatively the specimen may be drilled, again at various
regularly spaced intervals, and the drillings collected as the sample;
the drill should pass entirely through the block or halfway through
from opposite sides. The drillings can then be briken up and mixed
or melted together in a graphite crucible. A granular sample can
often then be produced the melt into distilled water.
،‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫ٯعار ٸ آٮڃبغټب ضا ثب اضٺ‬ٞ ‫ ٶٳٹٶٻټبڀ آظٲبڂكځ‬:‫ومًوٍثزداری اس فلشات ي آلیبصَب‬

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‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی ‪32‬‬

‫آؾڃبة ‪٦‬طزٴ‪ ،‬ڂب ٲشٻ ‪٦‬طزٴ ثٻ زؾز ٲځآٸضٶس‪ .‬ثٻَٹض ‪٦‬ٯځ‪ٞ ،‬طو ‪٦‬طزٴ اڂٵ ٲٹيٹٔ ‪٦‬ٻ‬

‫ثطازٺټبڀ ‪ٞ‬ٯعڀ خسا قسٺ اظ ؾُح ٶٳٹٶٻ ٶٳبڂٷسٺڀ ‪٦‬٭ سٹزٺ ذٹاټس ثٹز‪ ،‬اَٳڃٷبٴثرف‬

‫ٶڃؿز‪ ،‬ٶٳٹٶٻثطزاضڀ ثبڂس قبٲ٭ شضار خبٲس حبن٭ اظ زضٸٴ ‪ُٗ٢‬ٻ ٸ ټٳچٷڃٵ ؾُح ‪ُٗ٢‬ٻ‬

‫ثبقس‪ .‬زض ٲٹضز ٸض‪٠‬ټب ٸ قٳفټبڀ ‪ٞ‬ٯعڀ‪ ،‬ٶٳٹٶٻڀ ٶٳبڂٷسٺ ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثب اضازٺ ‪٦‬طزٴ ٖطيځ‬

‫‪ُٗ٢‬ٻ زض ‪ٞ‬ٹان٭ ٲٷٓٱ ٸ ‪٪‬طزآٸضڀ «ثطازٺڀ اضٺ‪٦‬كځ» ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ٶٳٹٶٻڀ آظٲبڂكځ سٽڃّٻ ‪٦‬طز‪.‬‬

‫ڂب اڂٵ ‪٦‬ٻ‪ ،‬ٲځسٹاٴ ‪ُٗ٢‬ٻ ضا ثبظ ټٱ زض ‪ٞ‬ٹان٭ ٲٷٓٱ ٲشٻ‪٦‬بضڀ ‪٦‬طز ٸ ثطازٺټبڀ ٲشٻ‪٦‬بضڀ ضا ثٻ‬

‫ٖٷٹاٴ ٶٳٹٶٻ آظٲبڂكځ ‪٪‬طزآٸضڀ ‪٦‬طز‪ ،‬ٲشٻ ثبڂس زض ثٯٹ‪ٞ ٤‬ٯعڀ ثٻَٹض ‪٦‬بٲ٭ ڂب سب ٶه‪ٝ‬‬

‫يربٲز آٴ اظ زٸ َط‪ ٜ‬ٲ‪٣‬بث٭‪ٞ ،‬طٸ ضٸز‪ .‬ؾذؽ ثطازٺټب ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ‪٦‬بٲالً ذطز ٸ ٲرٯٹٌ ‪٦‬طز ٸ‬

‫ڂب ثب ټٱ زض ڂ‪ ٥‬ثٹسٻڀ ‪٪‬طا‪ٞ‬ڃشځ شٸة ‪٦‬طز‪ .‬ٶٳٹٶٻ زاٶٻ زاٶٻ‪ ،‬اظ ضڂرشٵ ٲبزٺ ٲصاة زض آة ٲ‪ُ٣‬ط‬

‫ثٻ زؾز ٲځآڂس‪.‬‬

‫‪Production of alaboratory Sample‬‬

‫‪For nonhomogeneous materials, the gross sample may weigh‬‬
‫‪several hundred pounds or more. Here, a considerable decrease in‬‬
‫‪size is desirable before the sample is brought into the laboratory,‬‬
‫‪where a few pounds at most are all that can be conveniently‬‬
‫‪handled. The process of reducing the sample volume by a factor of‬‬
‫‪100 or more is orfinarily multistage, involving repeated grinding,‬‬
‫‪mixing, and dividing. Diminution in particle size is essential as the‬‬
‫‪weight of sample is decreased to assure that the sample composition‬‬
‫‪continues to be representative of the original material.‬‬
‫تًلیذ ومًوٍ آسمبیؾگبَی‪:‬‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬33

‫ زض اڂٷدب دڃف اظ اڂٵ‬.‫ ٲځسٹاٶس چٷس نس دٹٶس ڂب ثڃكشط ثبقس‬٨‫ ٶٳٹٶٻ ثعض‬،‫ٵ‬٫‫ثطاڀ ٲٹاز ٶبټٳ‬

،‫بټف ٲځزټٷس‬٦ ‫بث٭ ٲالحٓٻاڀ‬٢ ‫ ٸظٴ آٴ ضا ثٻ ٲڃعاٴ‬،‫٭ قٹز‬٣‫بٺ ٲٷش‬٫‫ٻ ٶٳٹٶٻ ثٻ اظٲبڂك‬٦

‫طآڂٷس‬ٞ .‫ چٷس دٹٶس اؾز‬،‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫بض‬٦ ‫بٺ ثبالسطٶځ ٸظٴ ٲٷبؾت ثطاڀ خبثٻخبڂځ ٸ‬٫‫ظڂطا زض آظضٲبڂك‬

،‫ ٲطسجٻ ڂب حشّځ ثڃكشط‬100 ‫بؾشٵ حدٱ ٶٳٹٶٻ ٲٗٳٹالً زض چٷس ٲطحٯٻ اٶدبٰ ٲځقٹز ٸ ٶٳٹٶٻ‬٦

‫ ثب‬.‫ؿڃٱ اؾز‬٣‫ ٸ س‬،ٌ‫ اذشال‬،‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫ آؾڃبة‬٬‫طاض اٖٳب‬٧‫ ٲشًٳٵ س‬،‫بض‬٦ ‫ اڂٵ‬.‫ ٲځقٹز‬٥‫ٹچ‬٦

‫ٻ‬٦ ‫سط ٲځقٹز سب اَٳڃٷبٴ حبن٭ قٹز‬٥‫ٹچ‬٦ ‫ اٶساظٺڀ شضار آٴ ٶڃع‬،‫ٳشط قسٴ ٸظٴ ٶٳٹٶٻ‬٦

.‫شٻ اؾز ٸ ټٳچٷبٴ ٶٳبڂٷسٺ ٲبزٺ انٯځ اؾز‬ٞ‫ڃت ٶٳٹٶٻ ثٻَٹض دڃٹؾشٻ ازاٲٻ ڂب‬٦‫سط‬

Determination of Water
Drying Procedures
Without question, oven drying is the most common method for
determining the water content of samples. The amount evolved
from a known weight of sample is established either from the loss
in weight of the sample or by the gain in weight of an absorbent for
water. The great virtue of the procedure is its simplicity
unfortunately this simplicity does not necessarily extend to the
interpretation of the water may also occur during the heating. Thus
one may also encounter volatilization of other components,
decomposition of one or more of the constituents to give gaseous
products, or oerhaps air oxidation of a component in the sample.
The first two of these effects will cause a decrease in sample
weight, oxidation will cause an increase if the products of the
reaction are nonvolatile and a decrease if they are volatile.

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‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی ‪34‬‬

‫‪Superimposed on these difficulties is the uncertainty with respect to‬‬

‫‪the temperature required to cause complete evolution of water.‬‬
‫‪Heating at 105 C will accomplish removal of adsorbed moisture‬‬
‫‪and, in some instances, essential water as well. On the other hand,‬‬
‫‪removal of sorbed and occluded water is often quite incomplete at‬‬
‫‪this temperature. Many minerals, as well as such substances as‬‬
‫‪alumina and silica, require temperatures of 1000 C or more.‬‬

‫تؼییه آة‪:‬‬

‫ريػَبی خؾک کزدن‪:‬‬

‫ثسٸٴ سطزڂس‪ ،‬ذك‪٦ ٥‬طزٴ ٲٹاز زض آٸٴ‪ ،‬ٲشساٸ‪٬‬سطڂٵ ضٸـ سٗڃڃٵ آة ٲٹخٹز زض ٶٳٹٶٻټبڀ‬

‫آظٲبڂك‪٫‬بټځ اؾز‪ .‬ٲ‪٣‬ساض ٲشهبٖس قسٺ اظ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٸظٴ ٲٗٯٹٰ اظ ٶٳٹٶٻ آظٲبڂك‪٫‬بټځ اظ ضٸڀ‬

‫‪٦‬بټف زض ٸظٴ ٶٳٹٶٻ‪ ،‬ڂب سٹؾٍ ا‪ٞ‬عاڂف زض ٸظٴ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲبزٺڀ خبشة آة‪ ،‬سٗڃڃٵ ٲځقٹز‪ .‬اٲشڃبظ‬

‫ثعض‪ ٨‬اڂٵ ضٸـ ‪٦‬بض‪ ،‬ؾبز‪٪‬ځ آٴ اؾز‪ ،‬ٲشأؾ‪ٟ‬بٶٻ اڂٵ ؾبز‪٪‬ځ ٮعٸٲبً ثٻ س‪ٟ‬ؿڃط زازٺټبڂځ ‪٦‬ٻ‬

‫اڂٵ ضٸـ ‪ٞ‬طاټٱ ٲځؾبظز سٗٳڃٱ زازٺ ٶٳځقٹز ظڂطا چٷس ‪ٞ‬طآڂٷس زڂ‪٫‬ط‪ٖ ،‬الٸٺ ثط ٲشهبٖس قسٴ‬

‫آة اظ ٶٳٹٶٻ ٶڃع ٲٳ‪٧‬ٵ اؾز زض ټٷ‪٫‬بٰ ‪٪‬طٰ ‪٦‬طزٴ ٶٳٹٶٻ‪ ،‬سح‪ ١٣‬ڂبثٷس‪ .‬ثسڂٵ سطسڃت اٲ‪٧‬بٴ‬

‫ضٸثٻضٸ قسٴ ثب ‪ٞ‬طاضڂز ؾبڂط اخعاڀ ؾبظٶسٺ‪ ،‬سدعڂٻ ڂ‪ ٥‬ڂب چٷس خعء ؾبظٶسٺ ٸ سٹٮڃس‬

‫ٲحهٹالر ٲٹخت ٶ‪٣‬هبٴ ٸظٴ ٶٳٹٶٻ ٲځقٹٶس ا‪٦‬ؿبڂف ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻ ټٹا ٸظٴ ٶٳٹٶٻ ضا ا‪ٞ‬عاڂف‬

‫زټس ٸ اڂٵ ا‪ٞ‬عاڂف ٸظٴ زض نٹضسځ ٲالحٓٻ ٲځقٹز ‪٦‬ٻ ٲحهٹالر ٸا‪٦‬ٷف ‪ٞ‬طاض ٶجبقٷس‪ ،‬ٸٮځ‬

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 ‫‪ 35‬سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫ا‪٪‬ط ٲحهٹالر ٲعثٹض ‪ٞ‬طاض ثبقٷس‪ ،‬ٶ‪٣‬هبٴ ٸظٴ ثطٸظ ذٹاټس ‪٦‬طز‪ٖ .‬الٸٺ ثط اڂٵ ٲك‪٧‬الر‪ ،‬ٲؿئٯٻ‬

‫ٖسٰ ‪ُٗ٢‬ڃّز زض ٲٹضز زٲبڀ الظٰ ثطاڀ ٲشهبٖس قسٴ ‪٦‬بٲ٭ آة ٶڃع ٸخٹز زاضز حطاضر زازٴ‬

‫ٶٳٹٶٻ زض ‪ ، 105C‬ٲٹخت خساؾبظڀ آة خصة ؾُحځ قسٺ ٸ ټٳچٷڃٵ زض ثطذځ ٲٹاضز‪ ،‬آة‬

‫يطٸضڀ ذٹاټس قس‪ .‬اظ َط‪ ٜ‬زڂ‪٫‬ط‪ ،‬خساؾبظڀ آة خصة قسٺ ڂب آة ٲحجٹؼ‪ ،‬ا‪ٚ‬ٯت زض اڂٵ‬

‫زٲب ‪٦‬بٲالً ٶب‪٢‬م نٹضر ٲځ‪٪‬ڃطز‪ .‬ثؿڃبضڀ اظ ٲٹاز ٲٗسٶځ ٸ ٶڃع اخؿبٲځ ٲبٶٷس آٮٹٲڃٵ ٸ‬

‫ؾڃٯڃؽ ثٻ زٲبڀ ‪ 1000C‬ڂب ثبالسط ٶڃبظ زاضٶس‪.‬‬

‫‪Decomposing and Dissolving the Sample‬‬

‫‪Most analyses are completed performing measurements on a‬‬
‫‪solution (usually aqueous) of the analyte. Often, converting an‬‬
‫‪analyte to a solube form rewuires powerful reagents and strenuous‬‬
‫‪treatment. For example, the determination of halogens or nitrogen‬‬
‫‪on an organic compound requires vigorous treatment of the sample‬‬
‫‪to rupture the strong bonds between these elements and carbon.‬‬
‫‪Similarly, drastic conditions are usually required to destroy the‬‬
‫‪silicate structure of a siliceous mineral, thus rendering its carions‬‬
‫‪free for analysis.‬‬
‫ثؿڃبضڀ اظ سدعڂٻټب ثب اٶدبٰ اٶساظٺ ‪٪‬ڃطڀټبڀ ثط ضٸڀ ٲحٯٹ‪( ٬‬ٲٗٳٹالً آثځ) آٶبٮڃز س‪٧‬ٳڃ٭‬

‫ٲځقٹٶس‪ .‬ا‪ٚ‬ٯت سجسڂ٭ اٶبٮڃز ثٻ ق‪٧‬٭ اٶحال‪٬‬دصڂط‪ ،‬ثٻ ٸا‪٦‬ٷك‪٫‬طټبڀ ‪٢‬سضسٳٷس ٸ زؾش‪٧‬بضڀټبڀ‬

‫زقٹاض ٶڃبظ زاضز‪ .‬ٲثالً سٗڃڃٵ ټبٮٹغٴ ڂب ٶڃشطٸغٴ زض ڂ‪ ٥‬سط‪٦‬ڃت آٮځ ثٻ زؾش‪٧‬بضڀ ؾرز ٸ‬

‫قسڂس ٶٳٹٶٻ آظٲبڂك‪٫‬بټځ ثٻ ٲٷٓٹض ‪٪‬ؿؿشٵ دڃٹٶسټبڀ ثڃٵ اڂٵ ٖٷبنط ٸ ‪٦‬طثٵ احشڃبج دڃسا‬

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36 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

ً‫ ٲٗٳٹال‬،‫ ٲبزٺ ٲٗسٶځ ؾڃٯڃؿځ‬٥‫بر ڂ‬٧‫ ثٻَٹض ٲكبثٻ ثطاڀ اٶٽساٰ ؾبذشبض ؾڃٯڃ‬.‫ٷس‬٦‫ٲځ‬

.‫بسڃٹٴ آٴ ثطاڀ سدعڂٻ آظاز قٹز‬٦ ‫ سب‬،‫قطاڂٍ سٷس ٸ ٲؤثطڀ الظٰ اؾز‬

Analytical Separations
The physical and chemical properties upon which analytical
methods are based are seldom, if ever, entirely specific. Instead,
these properties are shared by numerous species as a consequence,
the elimination of interences is more often the rule than the
exception in a quantitative analysis.
:‫جذاعبسیَبی تجشیٍایی‬

‫ځ‬٪‫ٻ ٶسضسبً سع ٸڂػ‬٦ ‫ځ ٸ قڃٳڃبڂځاڀ ٲځثبقٷس‬٧‫ڃعڂ‬ٞ ‫ضٸـټبڀ سدعڂٻاڂځ ٲجشٷځ ثط ذٹال‬

‫ اڂٵ ذٹال زض ثڃٵ‬،‫ زض ٖٹو‬.‫ځ ٶڃؿشٷس‬٪‫ع زاضاڀ چٷڃٵ ٸڂػ‬٪‫بٲ٭ ثطذٹضزاضٶس ٸ ڂب ټط‬٦

‫ ٖٳٹٲبً (ثٻ خع زض ٲٹاضز‬،‫ٳځ‬٦ ‫ اؾز زض ٶشڃدٻ زض سدعڂٻټبڀ‬٤‫ٹٶٻټبڀ ٲشٗسز ٲكشط‬٪

.‫ٷٷس‬٦‫اؾشثٷبء) اخؿبٰ ٲعاحٱ ضا خسا ٲځ‬

Two general methods are available for coping with substances that
interfere in an analytical measurement. The first involves alteration
of the system to immobilize the potential interference and thereby
prevent its participation in the measurement step, clearly the
alteration must not affect the species being determined.
Immobilization is frequently accomplished by introducing a
complexing agent that reacts selectively with the interfering
substance. For example, in the iodometric determination of copper,
iron (III) can be rendered unreactive toward idide by complexation

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬37

with fluoride or phosphate ion, neither anion inhibits the oxidation

of iodide by copper (II).
The introduction of a reagent to eliminate an interference is called
masking.
،‫ٷٷس‬٦‫ڃطڀټب سدعڂٻاڀ سساذ٭ ٲځ‬٪ ‫ٻ زض اٶساظٺ‬٦ ‫ آٲسٴ ثط اخؿبٲځ‬١‫بئ‬ٞ ‫ ثطاڀ‬،‫ٯځ‬٦ ‫زٸ ضٸـ‬

‫ز ؾبذشٵ ٲعاحٳڃٵ‬٦‫ ثٻ ٲٷٓٹض ثځحط‬،‫ڃڃط ؾڃؿشٱ‬ٛ‫ قبٲ٭ س‬،‫ ضٸـ ٶرؿز‬.‫ٲٹخٹز اؾز‬

‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ ثسڂٽځ اؾز‬،‫ڃطڀ اؾز‬٪‫ز آٶٽب زض ٲطحٯٻڀ اٶساظٺ‬٦‫ڃطڀ اظ قط‬٫‫ ٸ ثساٴ ٸؾڃٯٻ دڃك‬،‫ٹٺ‬٣‫ثبٮ‬

‫بٮجبً ثٻ‬ٚ ،‫ ؾبذشٵ‬٤‫ ثځسحط‬.‫ٻ ثبڂس سٗڃڃٵ قٹز ٲؤثط ثبقس‬٦ ‫ٹٶٻاڀ‬٪ ‫ ٶجبڂس ثط‬،‫ڃڃط‬ٛ‫اڂٵ س‬

‫ٷف‬٦‫عڂٷكځ ٸا‬٪ ‫ٻ ثب اخؿبٰ ٲعاحٱ ثٻَٹض‬٦ ‫ؽؾبظ‬٧‫ٳذٯ‬٦ ‫ ٖبٲ٭‬٥‫طزٴ ڂ‬٦ ‫ٸؾڃٯٻڀ ٸاضز‬

‫( ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثٻ‬III) ‫ آټٵ‬،‫ ٲثالً زض سٗڃڃٵ ٲؽ ثٻ ضٸـ ڂسؾٷدځ‬.‫ڃطز‬٪‫ نٹضر ٲځ‬،‫ٲځزټس‬

‫ اظ‬٥‫طز ټڃچ ڂ‬٦ ٬‫ٗب‬ٞ ‫ڃط‬ٚ ‫بث٭ ڂڃس‬٣‫بر زض ٲ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ ‫ٯٹئٹضڂس ڂب‬ٞ ‫ؽؾبظڀ ڂب ڂٹٴ‬٧‫ٳذٯ‬٦ ‫ٸؾڃٯٻڀ‬

٥‫ ٸضٸز ڂ‬.‫( ٲٳبٶٗز ثٻ ٖٳ٭ ٶٳځآٸضز‬II) ‫ؿبڂف ڂسڂس ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻ ٲؽ‬٦‫ٹض اظ ا‬٦‫آٶڃٹٴټبڀ ٲص‬

.‫ خؿٱ ٲعاحٱ ضا دٹقبٶسٴ ٲځٶبٲٷس‬٥‫ ڂ‬ٜ‫ط ثطاڀ حص‬٪‫ٷف‬٦‫ٸا‬

An Introduction to Chromatograpjic Separations

Without question, the most widely used means of performing
analytical separations is chromatography, a procedure that finds
application to all branches of science. Chromatography was
invented and named by the Russian botanist Mikhail Tswett shortly
after the turn of the century, He employed the technique to separate
various plant pigments such as chlorophylls and xanthophylls by
passing a solution of these compounds through a glass column
packed with finely divided calcium carbonate. The separated

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‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی ‪38‬‬

‫‪species appeared as colored bands on the column, which accounts‬‬

‫‪for the name he chose for the method.‬‬
‫مقذمٍای ثزای جذاعبسیَبی کزيمبتًگزافی‪:‬‬

‫ثسٸٴ سطزڂس‪ ،‬دط ‪٦‬بضثطزسطڂٵ قڃٹٺڀ خساؾبظڀټبڀ سدعڂٻاڀ‪٦ ،‬طٸٲبسٹ‪٪‬طا‪ٞ‬ځ اؾز‪ ،‬اڂٵ ضٸـ‬

‫‪٦‬بض زض سٳبٲځ قبذٻټبڀ ٖٯٹٰ‪٦ ،‬بضثطز دڃسا ‪٦‬طزٺ اؾز‪٦ .‬طٸٲبسٹ‪٪‬طا‪ٞ‬ځ ضا‪ ،‬ٲسّر ‪٦‬ٹسبټځ دؽ‬

‫اظ ذبسٳٻ ‪٢‬طٴ دڃف‪ ،‬ڂ‪٪ ٥‬ڃبٺقٷبؼ ضٸؾځ ثٻ ٶبٰ ٲڃربئڃ٭ چٻٸر‪ ،‬اذشطأ ٸ ٶبٲ‪٫‬صاضڀ ‪٦‬طز‪.‬‬

‫اٸ اڂٵ س‪٧‬ٷڃ‪ ٥‬ضا ثطاڀ خساؾبظڀ ضٶ‪٫‬ساٶٻټبڀ ‪٪‬ڃبټځ ٲرشٯ‪ ٝ‬ٶٓڃط ‪٦‬ٯطٸ‪ٞ‬ڃ٭ټب ٸ ظاٶشٹ‪ٞ‬ڃ٭ټب‪ ،‬ثب‬

‫ٖجٹض زازٴ ٲحٯٹٮځ اظ اڂٵ سط‪٦‬ڃجبر اظ زضٸٴ ڂ‪ ٥‬ؾشٹٴ قڃكٻاڀ ‪٦‬ٻ ثب دٹزض ٶطٰ ‪٦‬ٯؿڃٱ‬

‫‪٦‬طثٷبر دط قسٺ ثٹز ثٻ ‪٦‬بض ‪٪‬ط‪ٞ‬ز‪٪ .‬ٹٶٻټبڀ خسا قسٺ ثٻ نٹضر ٶٹاضټبڀ ضٶ‪٫‬ځ ثط ضٸڀ ٲشٹٴ‬

‫ْبټط قسٶس ‪٦‬ٻ ٶبٰ اٶشربة قسٺ ثطاڀ اڂٵ ضٸـ ضا سٹخڃٻ ٲځ‪٦‬ٷس‪.‬‬

‫‪The applications of chromatography have grown explosively in the‬‬

‫‪last four decades, owing not only to the development of several new‬‬
‫‪types of chromatographic techniques but also to the growing need‬‬
‫‪by scientists for better methods for separating complex mixtures.‬‬
‫‪The tremendous impact of these methods on science is attested by‬‬
‫‪the 1952 Nobel prize that was awarded to A.J.P. Martin and R.L.M.‬‬
‫‪Synge for their discoveries in the field.‬‬
‫‪٦‬بضثطزټبڀ ‪٦‬طٸٲبسٹ‪٪‬طا‪ٞ‬ځ‪ ،‬زض چٽبض زټٻ اذڃط‪ ،‬ٶٻ سٷٽب ثٻ اڂٵ زٮڃ٭ ‪٦‬ٻ چٷس ٶٹٔ س‪٧‬ٷڃ‪٥‬‬

‫خسڂس ‪٦‬طٸٲبسٹ‪٪‬طا‪ٞ‬ځ اذشطٮٕ قسٺ ثٯ‪٧‬ٻ ثٻ اڂٵ ٖٯّز ٶڃع ‪٦‬ٻ زاٶكٳٷساٴ ٶڃبظ ‪ٞ‬عاڂٷسٺاڀ ثٻ‬

‫ضٸـټبڀ ثٽشط‪ ،‬خٽز خسا ‪٦‬طزٴ ٲرٯٹٌټبڀ ‪٦‬ٳذٯ‪٧‬ؽ دڃسا ‪٦‬طزٺاٶس‪ ،‬ثٻ َطظ اٶ‪ٟ‬دبضڀ‬

‫‪٪‬ٹٶٻاڀ‪ ،‬سٹؾٗٻ ڂب‪ٞ‬شٻ اؾز‪ .‬سأثڃط ق‪٫‬ط‪ ٜ‬اڂٵ ضٸـټب ضٸڀ ٖٯٹٰ‪ ،‬سٹؾٍ خبڂعٺڀ ٶٹث٭ ؾب‪٬‬‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬39

‫بر آٶٽب زض ټٳڃٵ ظٲڃٷٻ اُٖب‬ٞ‫شكب‬٦‫ؾڃٷح ثٻ ذبَط ا‬.ٰ‫ا‬.٬‫ا‬.‫ٲبضسڃٵ ٸ آض‬.‫دځ‬.‫ج‬.‫ٻ ثٻ اڀ‬٦ 1952

.‫طزڂس سأڂڃس قس‬٪

General Description of Chromatography

Chromatography encompasses a diverse and important group of
separation methods that permit the scientist to separate, isolate, and
identify closely related components of complex mixtures, many of
these separations are impossible by other means.
The term “chromatography” is difficult to define rigorously owing
to the variety of systems and techniques to which it has been
applied All of these methods, however, make use of a stationary
phase and a mobile phase.
Components of a mixture are carried through the stationary phase
by the flow of the mobile one, separations are based on differences
in migration rates among the sample components.
:‫تًفیف کلی کزيمبتًگزافی‬

‫ٻ ثٻ‬٦ ‫ٹٴ ٸ ٲٽٳځ اظ ضٸـټبڀ خساؾبظڀ ضا قبٲ٭ ٲځقٹز‬٪‫ٹٶب‬٪ ‫طٸٺ‬٪ ،‫ځ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦

،‫ؽ ضا خسا‬٧‫ٳذٯ‬٦ ‫ ثٻ ټٱ ٲرٯٹٌټبڀ‬٥‫بٴ ٲځزټس سب اخعاڀ ؾبظٶسٺ ٶعزڂ‬٧‫زاٶكٳٷساٴ اٲ‬

.‫ٵ اؾز‬٧‫ط ٶبٲٳ‬٫‫ ثٻ ضٸـټبڀ زڂ‬،‫ ثؿڃبضڀ اظ اڂٵ خساؾبظڀټب‬،‫ٷس‬٦ ‫ ٸ قٷبؾبڂځ‬،‫ٲٷعٸڀ‬

‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ټبڂځ‬٥‫ٷڃ‬٧‫ځ» ثٻ ٖٯّز سٷٹٔ ؾڃؿشٱټب ٸ س‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦« ‫ انُالح‬١‫ڃ‬٢‫ ز‬ٝ‫سٗطڂ‬

‫بظ‬ٞ ٥‫ ڂ‬،‫ ٲٕټصا زض ټٳٻ اڂٵ قٹضټب‬.‫ زقٹاض اؾز‬،‫شٻ ٲځقٹز‬ٞ‫ط‬٪ ‫بض‬٦ ‫ځ زض آٶٽب ثٻ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦

،٤‫بظ ٲشحط‬ٞ ‫ خطڂبٴ‬٥‫ٳ‬٦ ‫ ثٻ‬،ٌ‫ اخعاڀ ؾبظٶسٺ ٲرٯٹ‬.‫بض ٲځضٸز‬٦ ‫ ثٻ‬٤‫بظ ٲشحط‬ٞ ٥‫ٵ ٸ ڂ‬٦‫ؾب‬

‫بٸرټبڀ زض ؾطٖز ٲٽبخطر‬ٟ‫ ثطاؾبؼ س‬،‫ خساؾبظڀټب‬.‫ٷٷس‬٦‫ٵ ٖجٹض ٲځ‬٦‫بظ ؾب‬ٞ ‫اظ زضٸٴ‬

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40 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

.‫بټځ اؾشٹاض اؾز‬٫‫اخعاڀ ؾبظٶسٺ ٶٳٹٶٻ آظٲبڂك‬

Types of Stationary Phases

For successful chromatography, the components to be separated
must be soluble in the mobile phase. Thy must also be capable of
interacting with the stationary phase either by dissolving in it, being
adsorbed by it, or reacting chemically with it. As a consequence,
during the separations, the components become distributed between
the two phases.
:‫اوًاع فبسَبی عبکه‬

‫طاض اؾز خسا قٹٶس ثبڂس‬ٞ ‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ اخعاڀ ؾبظٶسٺاڀ‬،‫ڃّزآٲڃع ثبقس‬٣ٞ‫ځ ٲٹ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦ ‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ثطاڀ اڂٵ‬

‫ٵ ٶڃع‬٦‫بظ ؾب‬ٞ ‫ٷف ثب‬٦‫ يٳٷبً اڂٵ اخعا ثبڂس اظ ټٹال ثطټٱ‬.‫بث٭ ح٭ ثبقٷس‬٢ ٤‫بظ ٲشحط‬ٞ ‫زض‬

‫ ڂب ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ آٴ خصة ؾُحځ قٹٶس‬،‫ٻ ڂب زض آٴ ح٭ قٹٶس‬٦ ‫ ثسڂٵ سطسڃت‬،‫ثطذٹضزاض ثبقٷس‬

‫بظ‬ٞ ‫ٷف قڃٳڃبڂځ زټٷس زض ٶشڃدٻ زض َځ خساؾبظڀټب اخعاڀ ؾبظٶسٺ ثڃٵ زٸ‬٦‫ٸ ڂب ثب آٴ ٸا‬

.‫سٹظڂٕ ٲځقٹٶس‬

Column chromatography refers to methods in which the

stationary phase is contained in a narrow glass or metal tube. The
mobile phase, which may be a kiquid or a gas, is then forced
through the solid under pressure or allowed to percolate through it
by gravity. In planar chromatography the stationary phase is
supports on a flat glass or plastic plate; here the mobile phase
moves through the solid either by capillary action or under the
influence of gravity. In either type of chromatography the stationary

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬41

phase may be a finely divided solid or may consist of an

immobilized liquid that is immiscible with the mobile phase.
Several procedures are employed fo fix the stationary liquid in
place. For example a finely divided solid coated with a thin layer of
liquid may be held in a glass or metal tube through which the
mobile phase flows or percolates. Ordinarily, the solid plays no
direct part in the separation functioning only to hold the stationary,
liquid phase in place by adsorption. Alternatively the inner walls of
a capillary tube can be coated with a thin layer of liquid, a gaseous
mobile phase is then caused to flow though the tube. Finally, the
stationary liquid phase can be held in place on the fibers of paper or
on the surface of finely ground particals held on a glass plate.
‫ ٮٹٮٻ‬٥‫ٵ زض ڂ‬٦‫بظ ؾب‬ٞ ‫ٻ زض آٶٽب‬٦ ‫ٷٷس‬٦‫کزيمبتًگزافی عتًوی ثٻ ضٸـټبڂځ اضسجبٌ دڃسا ٲځ‬

‫ ثب‬،‫بظ ثبقس‬٪ ‫ٵ اؾز ٲبڂٕ ڂب‬٧‫ٻ ٲٳ‬٦ ،٤‫بظ ٲشحط‬ٞ .‫ٷدبٶسٺ ٲځقٹز‬٪ ٥‫ٯعڀ ثبضڂ‬ٞ ‫قڃكٻاڀ ڂب‬

.‫ٷس‬٦‫طاٶف ذٹز خطڂبٴ دڃسا ٲځ‬٪ ‫بظ خبٲس ٖجٹض زازٺ ٲځقٹز ڂب ٶڃطٸڀ‬ٞ ‫كبض اظ‬ٞ

‫ڃٻ‬٧‫ځ س‬٧‫حٻڀ دالؾشڃ‬ٟ‫ قڃكٻڀ ٲؿُح ڂب ن‬٥‫ٵ ثط ضٸڀ ڂ‬٦‫بظ ؾب‬ٞ ،‫ځ ٲؿُح‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦ ‫زض‬

‫بظ خبٲس‬ٞ ‫طاٶف اظ‬٪ ‫ اثط ٲٹڂڃٷٻاڀ ڂب زض اثط ٶڃطٸڀ‬٥‫ٳ‬٦ ‫ ڂب ثٻ‬٤‫بظ ٲشحط‬ٞ ،‫ زض اڂٷدب‬،‫ٷس‬٦‫ٲځ‬

‫ خبٲس دٹزض ٲبٶٷس‬٥‫ٵ اؾز ڂ‬٧‫ٵ ٲٳ‬٦‫بظ ؾب‬ٞ ‫ځ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦ ٔ‫ اظ اٶٹا‬٥‫ زض ټط ڂ‬.‫ٷس‬٦‫ٖجٹض ٲځ‬

‫ چٷسڂٵ ضٸـ‬.‫ڃ٭ قٹز‬٧‫ سك‬،‫ اٲشعاجٶبدصڂط ثبقس‬٤‫بظ ٲشحط‬ٞ ‫ٻ ثب‬٦ ‫ځ‬٦‫ثبقس ڂب اظ ٲبڂٕ ٶبٲشحط‬

‫ خبٲس دٹزض ٲبٶٷسڀ ضا‬٥‫ ٲثالً ڂ‬،‫شٻ ٲځقٹز‬ٞ‫ط‬٪ ‫بض‬٦ ‫ٵ زض ٲح٭ ذٹز ثٻ‬٦‫ثطاڀ سثجڃز ٲبڂٕ ؾب‬

‫ٻ زض آٴ‬٦( ‫ٯعڀ‬ٞ ‫ځ اظ ٲبڂٕ دٹقف قسٺ اؾز ٲځسٹاٴ زض ٮٹٮٻڀ قڃكٻاڀ ڂب‬٦‫ٻ ثب الڂٻڀ ٶبظ‬٦

‫ف‬٣‫ ٶ‬،‫ ٲبزٺڀ خبٲس‬،٬‫ ثٻَٹض ٲٗٳٹ‬.‫ٻ زاقز‬٫‫ٷس ڂب خبضڀ ٲځقٹز) ٶ‬٦‫ٹش ٲځ‬ٟ‫ ٶ‬٤‫بظ ٲشحط‬ٞ

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‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی ‪42‬‬

‫ٲؿش‪٣‬ٳځ زض خساؾبظڀ اڂ‪ٟ‬ب ٶٳځ‪٦‬ٷس‪٦ ،‬بض آٴ ‪ ٍ٣ٞ‬ٶ‪٫‬ٽساضڀ ‪ٞ‬بظ ٲبڂٕ ؾب‪٦‬ٵ‪ ،‬زض ٲح٭ ذٹز‪ ،‬ثٻ‬

‫ٸؾڃٯٻڀ خصة ؾُحځ اؾز‪ .‬ثٻ ضٸـ زڂ‪٫‬ط ٲځسٹاٴ خساض زاذٯځ ٮٹٮٻ ٲٹڂڃٷٻاڀ ضا ثب الڂٻ‬

‫ٶبظ‪٦‬ځ اظ ٲبڂٕ اٶسٸز ‪٦‬طز‪ ،‬زض اڂٵ حب‪ٞ ،٬‬بظ ٲشحط‪٪ ٤‬بظڀ زض ٮٹٮٻ خطڂبٴ دڃسا ٲځ‪٦‬ٷس‪ .‬ٶٽبڂشبً‬

‫‪ٞ‬بظ ٲبڂٕ ؾب‪٦‬ٵ ضا ٲځسٹاٴ زض خبڀ ذٹزـ ثط ضٸڀ اٮڃب‪٦ ٜ‬ب‪ٚ‬صڀ ڂب ؾُح شضار آؾڃبة قسٺ‬

‫ٶطٲځ ‪٦‬ٻ ثط ضٸڀ ڂ‪ ٥‬ن‪ٟ‬حٻ قڃكٻاڀ ٶ‪٫‬ٽساضڀ ٲځقٹٶس ح‪٦ ّٟ‬طز‪.‬‬

‫‪An Introduction to Electrochenistry‬‬

‫‪Many important analytical methods are based upon oxidation‬‬
‫‪reduction equilibria that occur rather within a homogeneous‬‬
‫‪solution or at the surface of the electrodes making up an‬‬
‫‪electrochemical cell.‬‬
‫مقذمٍای ثز الکتزيؽیمی‪:‬‬

‫ثؿڃبضڀ اظ ضٸـټبڀ سدعڂٻاڀ ٲٽٱ ثط دبڂٻڀ سٗبز‪٬‬ټبڀ ا‪٦‬ؿبڂف ‪٦‬بټف اؾشٹاضٶس ‪٦‬ٻ ڂب زض‬

‫ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲحٯٹ‪ ٬‬ټٳ‪٫‬ٵ ٸ ڂب زض ؾُح اٮ‪٧‬شطٸزټبڂځ ‪٦‬ٻ ڂ‪ ٥‬ؾٯٹ‪ ٬‬اٮ‪٧‬شطٸقڃٳڃبڂځ ضا سك‪٧‬ڃ٭‬

‫ٲځزټٷس ثط‪٢‬طاض ٲځقٹٶس‪.‬‬

‫‪Oxidation – Reduction Processes‬‬

‫‪In an oxidation – reduction (or redox) reaction, one of the reacting‬‬
‫‪species is converted to a higher oxidation state and as a‬‬
‫‪consequence is oxidized, the other reactant suffers a decrease in‬‬
‫‪oxidation state and is thus reduced.‬‬
‫فزآیىذَبی اکغبیؼ ـ کبَؼ‪:‬‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬43

‫ٷف زټٷسٺ ثٻ حبٮز‬٦‫ځ اظ اخعاڀ ٸا‬٧‫بټكځ) ڂ‬٦ ‫ؿب‬٦‫بټكځ (ڂب ا‬٦ ‫ؿبڂف ـ‬٦‫ٷف ا‬٦‫ ٸا‬٥‫زض ڂ‬

‫بټف‬٦ ٥‫ط سٵ ثٻ ڂ‬٫‫ٷف زټٷسٺڀ زڂ‬٦‫ ٸا‬،‫ؿڃس ٲځقٹز‬٦‫ؿبڂف ثبالسط ٲځضٸز ٸ زض ٶشڃدٻ ا‬٦‫ا‬

.‫بټڃسٺ ٲځقٹز‬٦ ‫ؿبڂف ٲځزټس ٸ ثٷبثطاڂٵ‬٦‫زض حبٮز ا‬

Ocidizing and Reducing Agents

Oxidizing agents or oxidants possess a strong tendency to cause
oxidation of other species. Reducing agents or reductants, on the
other hand, tend to cause reductuions to occur and in the process are
themselves oxidized.
:ٌ‫ػًامل اکغىذٌ ي کبَىذ‬

‫ط‬٫‫ زڂ‬ٜ‫ اظ َط‬.‫ط زاضٶس‬٫‫ؿبڂف اخعاڀ زڂ‬٦‫ؿٷسٺټب اٲبڂ٭ قسڂسڀ ثٻ ا‬٦‫ؿٷسٺ ڂب ا‬٦‫ٖٹاٲ٭ ا‬

‫ؿڃس‬٦‫طآڂٷس ا‬ٞ ‫بټف قٹٶس ٸ ذٹز زض اڂٵ‬٦ ‫بټٷسٺټب ٲڃ٭ زاضٶس سب ثبٖث‬٦ ‫بټٷسٺ ڂب‬٦ ‫ٖٹاٲ٭‬

.‫ٲځقٹٶس‬

Electrochemical Cells
Electrochemical cells can be conveniently classified as galvanic if
they produce electrical energy and electrolytic if their operation
requires electrical energy from an external source. Both types find
use in analytical chemistry. It is important to appreciate that many
cells can be operated in either a galvanic or an electrolytic mode by
modification of experimental conditions.
An electrochemical cell consists of two conductors called
electrodes, each immersed in a suitable electrolyte solution. For
electricity to flow it is necessary (1) that the electrodes be
connected externally by means of a mertal conductor and (2) that
the two electrolyte solutions be in contact to permit movement of

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‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی ‪44‬‬

‫‪ions from one to the other. The fitted glass disk is porous, so that‬‬
‫‪Zn2+, Cu2+ , HSO, SO, and other ions as well as HO molecules can‬‬
‫‪move across the juvtion between the two electrolyte solution the‬‬
‫‪reaction between the elemental zinc and copper ions.‬‬
‫علًلَبی الکتزيؽیمیبیی‪:‬‬

‫ؾٯٹ‪٬‬ټبڀ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸقڃٳڃبڂځ ضا ثٻ ؾٽٹٮز ٲځسٹاٴ ثٻ زٸ ‪٪‬طٸٺ َج‪٣‬ٻثٷسڀ ‪٦‬طز‪ .‬ؾٯٹ‪٬‬ټبڀ‬

‫‪٪‬بٮٹاٶځ ‪٦‬ٻ اٶطغڀ سٹٮڃس ٲځ‪٦‬ٷٷس ٸ ؾٯٹ‪٬‬ټبڀ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٮڃشځ ‪٦‬ٻ ثطاڀ ٖٳ٭ ٶڃبظ ثٻ اٶطغڀ‬

‫اٮ‪٧‬شطڂ‪٧‬ځ اظ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲٷجٕ ذبضخځ زاضٶس‪ .‬ټط زٸ ٶٹٔ اڂٵ ؾٯٹ‪٬‬ټب زض قڃٳځ سدعڂٻ ثٻ ‪٦‬بض‬

‫ٲځآڂٷس‪ .‬قبڂبٴ سٹخّٻ اؾز ‪٦‬ٻ ثؿڃبضڀ اظ ؾٯٹ‪٬‬ټب ٲځسٹاٶٷس ثب س‪ٛ‬ڃڃط زض قطاڂٍ آظٲبڂف ټٱ‬

‫ثٻ نٹضر ؾٯٹ‪٪ ٬‬بٮٹاٶځ ٸ ټٱ ثٻ نٹضر ؾٯٹ‪ ٬‬ثط‪٧٢‬ب‪ٞ‬شځ ٖٳ٭ ‪٦‬ٷٷس‪.‬‬

‫ڂ‪ ٥‬دڃ٭ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸقڃٳڃبڂځ ٲشك‪٧‬٭ اظ زٸ ټبزڀ ثٻ ٶبٰ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز اؾز ‪٦‬ٻ ټط ‪٦‬ساٰ زض ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲحٯٹ‪٬‬‬

‫اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٮڃز ٲٷبؾت ‪٢‬طاض زاضز‪ .‬ثطاڀ اڂٵ ‪٦‬ٻ اٮ‪٧‬شطڂؿڃشٻ خطڂبٴ ڂبثس‪ ،‬الظٰ اؾز ‪٦‬ٻ‪)1( :‬‬

‫اٮ‪٧‬شطٸزټب زض ذبضج ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ ڂ‪ ٥‬ټبزڀ ‪ٞ‬ٯعڀ ثٻ ټٱ ٲشه٭ قٹٶس ٸ (‪ )2‬زٸ ٲحٯٹ‪٬‬‬

‫اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٮڃز زض ‪٦‬بسڃٹٴټب اظ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز ضٸڀ زٸض ٲځقٹٶس ٸ ثٻ َط‪ ٜ‬ٲؽ ٲځضٸٶس ٸ آٶڃٹٴټب زض‬

‫خٽز ٖ‪٧‬ؽ حط‪٦‬ز ٲځ‪٦‬ٷٷس‪ .‬سٳبٰ ڂٹٴټبڀ ٲٹخٹز زض ٲحٯٹ‪ ٬‬زض اڂٵ ‪ٞ‬طاڂٷس قط‪٦‬ز‬

‫ٲځ‪٦‬ٷٷس‪.‬‬

‫ڂ‪ ٥‬ٶٹٔ ؾٹٰ ضؾبٶف زض ؾُح زٸ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز نٹضر ٲځ‪٪‬ڃطز‪ .‬زض اڂٵخب‪ ،‬ڂ‪ٞ ٥‬طاڂٷس ا‪٦‬ؿبڂف ڂب‬

‫‪٦‬بټف ٲ‪٧‬بٶڃؿٳځ زضاذشڃبض ٲځ‪٪‬صاضٶس ‪٦‬ٻ سٹؾٍ آٴ ضؾبٶف ڂٹٶځ ٲحٯٹ‪ ٬‬ثب ضؾبٶف‬

‫اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٶځ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸزټب ثبټٱ خ‪ٟ‬ز ٲځقٹٶس ٸ زضٶشڃدٻ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲساض ‪٦‬بٲ٭ ثطاڀ ڂ‪ ٥‬خطڂبٴ ‪ٞ‬طاټٱ‬

‫ٲځقٹز‪.‬‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬45

Anod and cathode By definition the cathode of an electrochemical

cell is the electrode at which reduction occurs while the anode is the
electrode where oxidation takes place. These definitions apply to
both galvanic and electrolytic cells.
‫بټف‬٦ ‫ٻ زض آٴ‬٦ ‫شطٸزڀ اؾز‬٧‫شطٸقڃٳڃبڂځ اٮ‬٧‫ اٮ‬٬‫ ؾٯٹ‬٥‫بسس ڂ‬٦ ٝ‫ سٗطڂ‬١‫آوذ ي کبتذ َج‬

.‫ؿبڂف اٶدبٰ ٲځقٹز‬٦‫ٻ زض آٴ ٖٳ٭ ا‬٦ ‫شطٸزڀ اؾز‬٧‫ اٮ‬،‫ٻ آٶس‬٦ ‫ڃطز زضنٹضسځ‬٪‫نٹضر ٲځ‬

.‫ ٲځقٹٶس‬٬‫شځ اٖٳب‬ٞ‫ب‬٧٢‫ ثط‬٬‫بٮٹاٶځ ٸ ټٱ زض ؾٯٹ‬٪ ٬‫ ټٱ زض ؾٯٹ‬ٝ‫اڂٵ سٗبضڂ‬

Nature of Electrode Potentials

At the outset, it should be emphasized that there is no way of
determining an absolute value for the potential of a single electrode,
since all voltage-measuring devices determine only differences in
potential. One conductor from such a device is connected to the
electrode in question, in order to measure a potential difference,
however, the second conductor most be brought in contact with the
electrolyte solution of the half-cell in question. This latter contact
inevitably involves a soid-solution interface and hence acts as a
second half-cell at which a chemical reaction must also take place if
electricity is to flow. A potential will be associated with this second
reaction. Thus, an absolute value for the desired half-cell at which a
chemical reaction must also take place if electricity is to flow. A
potential will be associated with this second reaction. Thus, an
absolute value for the desired half-cell potential is not realized,
instead. What is measured is a combination of the potential of
interest and the half-cell potential for the second contact between

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‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی ‪46‬‬

‫‪the voltage-measuring device and the solution.‬‬

‫‪Our inability to measure absolute potentials for half-cell processes‬‬
‫‪turn out not to be a serious handicap, because relative half-cell‬‬
‫‪potentials, measured against some reproducible reference half-cell,‬‬
‫‪are just as useful. These relative potentials can be combined to give‬‬
‫‪cell potentials, in addition they are useful for calculating‬‬
‫‪equilibrium constants for oxidation-reduction processes.‬‬
‫‪To be useful, relative electrode potentials must all be related to a‬‬
‫‪common reference half-cell.‬‬
‫مبَیت پتبوغیل الکتزيد‬

‫زض اثشسا ثبڂس سأ‪٦‬ڃس ‪٦‬طز ‪٦‬ٻ ټڃچ ضاټځ ثطاڀ اٶساظٺ‪٪‬ڃطڀ ٲ‪٣‬ساض ٲُٯ‪ ١‬دشبٶؿڃ٭ ڂ‪ ٥‬اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز‬

‫ٸخٹز ٶساضز‪ ،‬ظڂطا سٳبٰ زؾش‪٫‬بٺټبڀ اٶساظٺ‪٪‬ڃطڀ ٸٮشبغ‪ ٍ٣ٞ ،‬اذشال‪ ٜ‬دشبٶؿڃ٭ ضا سٗڃڃٵ‬

‫ٲځ‪٦‬ٷٷس‪ .‬ڂ‪ ٥‬ټبزڀ اظ چٷڃٵ زؾش‪٫‬بټځ ضا ثٻ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز ٲٹضز ٶٓط ٸن٭ ٲځ‪٦‬ٷٷس‪ .‬ٲٕ شٮ‪ ٥‬ثطاڀ‬

‫اٶساظٺ‪٪‬ڃطڀ اذشال‪ ٜ‬دشبٶؿڃ٭‪ ،‬ڂ‪ ٥‬ټبزڀ زٸٰ ثب ٲحٯٹ‪ ٬‬اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٮڃز ٶڃٱ ؾٯٹ‪ ٬‬ٲٹضزٶٓط سٳبؼ‬

‫حبن٭ ٲځ‪٦‬ٷس‪ .‬سٳبؼ اذڃط ثٻ ٶبچبض قبٲ٭ ڂ‪ ٥‬ؾُح ٲكشط‪ ٤‬خبٲس‪-‬ٲبڂٕ اؾز ٸ ثٷبثطاڂٵ‬

‫ثٻٖٷٹاٴ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٶڃٱؾٯٹ‪ٖ ٬‬ٳ٭ ٲځ‪٦‬ٷس‪ ،‬ثطاڀ اڂٵ‪٦‬ٻ خطڂبٴ اٮ‪٧‬شطڂؿڃشٻ ثشٹاٶس خبضڀ قٹز ڂ‪٥‬‬

‫ٸا‪٦‬ٷف قڃٳڃبڂځ ٶڃع ثبڂس زض اڂٵ ٶڃٱؾٯٹ‪ ٬‬نٹضر ‪٪‬ڃطز‪ .‬ثب اڂٵ ٸا‪٦‬ٷف زٸٰ ٶڃع دشبٶؿڃٯځ‬

‫ټٳطاٺ اؾز‪ .‬ثٷبثطاڂٵ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲ‪٣‬ساض ٲُٯ‪ ١‬ثطاڀ دشبٶؿڃ٭ ٶڃٱؾٯٹ‪ ٬‬ٲٹضزٶٓط ثٻزؾز ٶٳځآڂس ٸ ثٻ‬

‫خبڀ آٴ چڃعڀ ‪٦‬ٻ اٶساظٺ‪٪‬ڃطڀ ٲځقٹز سط‪٦‬ڃجځ اظ دشبٶؿڃ٭ ٲٹضزٶٓط‪ ،‬ٸ دشبٶؿڃ٭ ٶڃٱؾٯٹ‪٬‬‬

‫اسهب‪ ٬‬زٸٰ ثڃٵ زؾش‪٫‬بٺ اٶساظٺ‪٪‬ڃطڀ ٸٮشبغ ٸ ٲحٯٹ‪ ٬‬اؾز‪.‬‬

‫ٖسٰ سٹاٶبڂځ ٲب زض اٶساظٺ‪٪‬ڃطڀ دشبٶؿڃ٭ټبڀ ٲُٯ‪ٞ ١‬طاڂٷسټبڀ ٶڃٱ ؾٯٹ‪٬‬ټب ڂ‪ ٥‬اق‪٧‬ب‪ ٬‬خسڀ‬

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 ‫‪ 47‬سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫ٶڃؿز‪ .‬ظڂطا دشبٶؿڃ٭ټبڀ ٶؿجځ ٶڃٱؾٯٹ‪٬‬ټب ‪٦‬ٻ زض ٲ‪٣‬بث٭ ثًٗځ اظ ٶڃٱؾٯٹ‪٬‬ټبڀ س‪٧‬طاضدصڂط‬

‫ٲطخٕ اٶساظٺ‪٪‬ڃطڀ ٲځقٹٶس ٶڃع ثٻ ټٳبٴ اٶساظٺ ٲ‪ٟ‬ڃسٶس‪ .‬اڂٵ دشبٶؿڃ٭ټبڀ ٶؿجځ ضا ٲځسٹاٴ‬

‫سط‪٦‬ڃت ‪٦‬طز ٸ دشبٶؿڃ٭ ؾٯٹ‪٬‬ټب ضا ثٻ زؾز آٸضز‪ .‬ثٻٖالٸٺ‪ ،‬اڂٵ دشبٶؿڃ٭ټب ثطاڀ ٲحبؾجٿ‬

‫ثبثزټبڀ سٗبز‪ٞ ٬‬طاڂٷسټبڀ ا‪٦‬ؿبڂف‪٦-‬بټف ٲ‪ٟ‬ڃسٶس‪.‬‬

‫ثطاڀ اڂٵ‪٦‬ٻ دشبٶؿڃ٭ټبڀ ٶؿجځ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸزټب ٲ‪ٟ‬ڃس ثبقٷس‪ ،‬ثبڂس سٳبٰ آٴټب ٶؿجز ثٻ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٶڃٱ‬

‫ؾٯٹ‪ ٬‬ٲطخٕ ٲكشط‪ ٤‬اٶساظٺ‪٪‬ڃطڀ قٹٶس‪.‬‬

‫‪Oxidation-Reduction Indicators‬‬
‫‪We have seen that equivalence point in an oxidation- reduction‬‬
‫‪titration is characterized by a marked change in the electrode‬‬
‫‪potential of the system. Several methods exist for detecting such a‬‬
‫‪change these can serve to signal the end point in the titration.‬‬
‫ؽىبعبگزَبی اکغبیؼ‪-‬کبَؼ‬

‫‪٢‬جال زڂسڂٱ ‪٦‬ٻ ٶ‪ُ٣‬ٻ ټٱاضظڀ زض ڂ‪ ٥‬سڃشطاؾڃٹٴ ا‪٦‬ؿبڂف‪٦-‬بټف ثب س‪ٛ‬ڃڃط ‪٢‬بث٭ ٲالحٓٻاڀ‬

‫زض دشبٶؿڃ٭ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز ؾڃؿشٱ ٲكرم ٲځقٹز‪ .‬ضٸـټبڀ ٲرشٯ‪ٟ‬ځ ثطاڀ آق‪٧‬بضؾبظڀ چٷڃٵ‬

‫س‪ٛ‬ڃڃطڀ ٸخٹز زاضٶس‪ ،‬اڂٵ ضٸـټب ٲځسٹاٶٷس ثطاڀ ٖالٲز زازٴ ٶ‪ُ٣‬ٻ دبڂبٶځ زض سڃشطاؾڃٹٴ ثٻ‬

‫‪٦‬بض ثطزٺ قٹٶس‪.‬‬

‫‪Potentiometric Methods‬‬
‫‪The potential of an electrode is determined by the concentration (or,‬‬
‫‪more correctly, the activity) of one or more species in a solution.‬‬
‫‪The equipment required for a potentiometer measurement includes‬‬
‫‪a reference electrode, an indicator electrode and a potential‬‬
‫‪measuring device.‬‬

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48 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫ريػَبی پتبوغیلعىجی‬

٬‫ ٲحٯٹ‬٥‫ٹٶٻ زض ڂ‬٪‫ ڂب چٷس‬٥‫ٗبٮڃز) ڂ‬ٞ ‫ نحڃحسط‬،‫ٯٓز (ڂب‬ٚ ‫شطٸز ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٿ‬٧‫ اٮ‬٥‫دشبٶؿڃ٭ ڂ‬

‫شطٸز‬٧‫ اٮ‬٥‫ڃطڀ دشبٶؿڃ٭ؾٷدځ قبٲ٭ ڂ‬٪‫ اٶساظٺ‬٥‫ ٮٹاظٰ ٲٹضز ٶڃبظ ثطاڀ ڂ‬.‫سٗڃڃٵ ٲځقٹز‬

.‫ڃطڀ دشبٶؿڃ٭ اؾز‬٪‫ ٸؾڃٯٿ اٶساظٺ‬٥‫شطٸز قبذم ٸ ڂ‬٧‫ اٮ‬٥‫ ڂ‬،ٕ‫ٲطخ‬

Indicator Electrodes
Indicator electrodes for potentiometer measurements are of two
basic types, namely, metallic and membrane. The latter are also
referred to as specific or selective ion electrodes.
‫الکتزيدَبی ؽبخـ‬

‫ڃ٭ قسٺاٶس ڂٗٷځ‬٧‫طٸٺ انٯځ سك‬٪ ‫ڃطڀ دشبٶؿڃ٭ اظ زٸ‬٪‫شطٸزټبڀ قبذم ثطاڀ اٶساظٺ‬٧‫اٮ‬

‫عڂٵ ڂب‬٪ ‫شطٸزټبڀ ڂٹٴ‬٧‫كبڂځ ضا اٮ‬ٚ ‫شطٸټبڀ‬٧‫ اٮ‬،‫كبڂځ‬ٚ ‫شطٸزټبڀ‬٧‫ٯعڀ ٸ اٮ‬ٞ ‫شطٸزټبڀ‬٧‫اٮ‬

.‫شطٸزټبڀ ڂٹٴ ٸڂػٺ ٶڃع ٲځٶبٲٷس‬٧‫اٮ‬

Metallic Indicator Electrodes

Frist-order electrodes for cations. A frist-order electrode serves to
determine the concentration of the cation derived from the electrode
metal.
Several metals, such as silver, copper, mercury, lead, and cadmium,
exhibit reversible half-reactions with their ions and are satisfactory
as frist-order.
electrodes. In contrast, other metals are less suitable because thwy
tend to develop nonreproducible potentials that are influenced by
strains or crystal deformations in their structures and by oxide

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬49

coatings on their surfaces. Metals in this category include iron,

nickel, cobalt, tungsten, and chromium.
:‫الکتزيدَبی ؽبخـ فلشی‬

‫ٻ اظ‬٦ ‫بسڃٹٶځ‬٦ ‫ ثطاڀ سٗڃڃٵ‬٥‫شطٸز ٲطسجٻڀ ڂ‬٧‫ اٮ‬٥‫بسڃٹٴټب ڂ‬٦ ‫ ثطاڀ‬٥‫شطٸزټبڀ ٲطسجٻڀ ڂ‬٧‫اٮ‬

‫ ؾطة ٸ‬،‫ خڃٹٺ‬،‫ ٲؽ‬،‫طٺ‬٣‫ ٲبٶٷس ٶ‬،‫ځ‬ٟ‫ٯعار ٲرشٯ‬ٞ .‫بض ٲځضٸز‬٦ ‫ ثٻ‬،‫شطٸز اؾز‬٧‫ٯع اٮ‬ٞ ‫خٷؽ‬

‫شطٸزټبڀ‬٧‫كزدصڂطڀ ٲځزټٷس ٸ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ اٮ‬٪‫ٷفټبڀ ثط‬٦‫بزٲڃٱ ثب ڂٹٴټبڀ ذٹز ٶڃٱ ٸا‬٦

‫شطٸزټبڀ اڂٵ‬٧‫ ظڂطا اٮ‬،‫ٳشط ٲٷبؾتاٶس‬٦ ‫ط‬٫‫ٯعار زڂ‬ٞ ‫بث٭‬٣‫ زض ٲ‬.‫ ضيبڂزثرف اٶس‬٥‫ٲطسجٻڀ ڂ‬

‫ځټب ڂب‬٪‫كڃس‬٦ ‫ٻ سحز سأثڃط‬٦ ‫طاضٶبدصڂطڀ ْبټط قبظٶس‬٧‫ٯعار سٳبڂ٭ زاضٶس سب دشبٶؿڃ٭ټبڀ س‬ٞ

‫ٯعار‬ٞ .‫طاض زاضٶس‬٢ ‫ؿڃس ضٸڀ ؾُح آٶٽب‬٦‫ ٸ اٶسٸزٺټبڀ ا‬،‫ٯع‬ٞ ‫٭ټبڀ ثٯٹض زض ؾبذشٳبٴ‬٧‫ڃڃط ق‬ٛ‫س‬

.‫طٸٰ ٲځثبقٷس‬٦ ‫ؿٵ ٸ‬٫‫ سٷ‬،‫جبٮز‬٦ ،‫٭‬٧‫ ٶڃ‬،‫اڂٵ زؾشٻ قبٲ٭ آټٵ‬

Electrogravimetric and Coulometric Methods

Three related electroanalytical methods, namely, electrogravimetric
analysis, constant-potential coulometry, and coulometric titrations,
are discussed in this chapter. Each involves an electrolysis that is
carried on for a sufficient length of time to assure quantitative
oxidation or reduction of the analyte. In electrogravimetric
methods, the product of the electrolysis is weighed as a deposit on
of the electrodes (the working electrode). In ths two coulometric
procedures, on the other hand, the quantity of electricity needed to
complete the electrolysis serves as a measure of the amount of
analyte present.
The three methods have moderate sensitivity and speed for many

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‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی ‪50‬‬

‫‪applications they are among the most precise and accurate methods‬‬
‫‪available to the chemist, with attainable uncertainties, of the order‬‬
‫‪of a few tenths percent. In common with gravimetric methods, but‬‬
‫‪in contrast to all other methods discussed in this test, these‬‬
‫‪procedures require no calibration against standards, that is, the‬‬
‫‪functional relationship between the quantity measured and the‬‬
‫‪weight of analyte can be derived from theory.‬‬
‫ريػَبی الکتزي يسوی ي کًله عىجی‪:‬‬

‫ؾٻ ضٸـ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸآٶبٮڃشڃ‪٧‬ځ ٲطثٹٌ ثٻ ټٱ ڂٗٷځ سدعڂٻ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٸظٶځ‪٦ ،‬ٹٮٵ ؾٷدځ زض دشبٶؿڃ٭‬

‫ثبثز ٸ سڃشطاؾڃٹٴټبڀ ‪٦‬ٹٮٵ ؾٷدځ زض اڂٵ ‪ٞ‬ه٭ ٲٹضز ثطضؾځ ‪٢‬طاض ٲځ‪٪‬ڃطٶس ټط ‪٦‬ساٰ اظ اڂٵ‬

‫ضٸـټب قبٲ٭ ڂ‪ ٥‬ثط‪٧٢‬ب‪ٞ‬ز اؾز ‪٦‬ٻ سب اَٳڃٷبٴ ‪٦‬بٲ٭ اظ ا‪٦‬ؿبڂف ڂب ‪٦‬بټف ‪٦‬ٳځ آٶبٮڃز‪،‬‬

‫ازاٲٻ ٲځڂبثس‪ .‬زض ضٸـټبڀ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٸظٶځ ٲحهٹ‪ ٬‬ثط‪٧٢‬ب‪ٞ‬ز ‪٦‬ٻ زض ڂ‪٧‬ځ اظ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸزټب ضؾٹة‬

‫ٲځ‪٦‬ٷس (اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز ‪٦‬بض)‪ ،‬سٹظڂٵ ٲځقٹز اظ َط‪ ٜ‬زڂ‪٫‬ط زض زٸ ضٸـ ‪٦‬ٹٮٵ ؾٷدځ‪ ،‬ٲ‪٣‬ساض‬

‫اٮ‪٧‬شطڂؿڃشٻ ٲٹضز ٶڃبظ ثطاڀ ‪٦‬بٲ٭ قسٴ ثط‪٧٢‬ب‪ٞ‬ز ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ ٲ‪٣‬ڃبؾځ ثطاڀ سٗڃڃٵ ٲ‪٣‬ساض آٶبٮڃز‬

‫ٲٹخٹز ثٻ ‪٦‬بض ثطزٺ ٲځقٹز‪.‬‬

‫ؾٻ ضٸـ ٲعثٹض حؿبؾڃز ٸ ؾطٖز ٲٷبؾجځ زاضٶس ٸ زض ثؿڃبضڀ اظ ‪٦‬بضثطزټب زض ظٲطٺ‬

‫ز‪٢‬ڃ‪١‬سطڂٵ ٸ نحڃحسطڂٵ ضٸـټبڂځ ټؿشٷس ‪٦‬ٻ زض زؾشطؼ قڃٳځ زاٴټبؾز‪ٖ ،‬سٰ ‪ُٗ٢‬ڃّز‬

‫اڂٵ ضٸـټب زض حسٸز چٷس زټٱ زضنس اؾز‪ .‬اڂٵ ضٸـټب ټٳبٶٷس ضٸـټبڀ ٸظٴ ؾٷدځ‪ ،‬ٸٮځ‬

‫ثطٖ‪٧‬ؽ سٳبٰ ضٸـټبڀ زڂ‪٫‬ط ٲص‪٦‬ٹض زض اڂٵ ‪٦‬شبة‪ ،‬ثٻ زضخٻثٷسڀ زض ٲ‪٣‬بث٭ اؾشبٶساضز ٶڃبظڀ‬

‫ٶساضٶس‪ .‬ڂٗٷځ‪ ،‬ضاثُٻ ثڃٵ ‪٦‬ٳڃّز اٶساظٺ‪٪‬ڃطڀ قسٺ ٸٸظٴ آٶبٮڃز ٲځسٹاٶس ثٻ َٹض ٶٓطڀ ثٻ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬51

.‫زؾز آڂس‬

Electrogravimetric Methods of Analysis

Electrolytic precipitation has been used for over a century for thw
gravimetric determination of metals. In most applications, the metal
is deposited on a weighed platinum cathode, and the increase in
weight is determined. Important exceptions to this procedure
include the anodic depositions of lead as lead diocide on platinum
and chloride as silver chloride on silver.
:‫ريػَبی الکتزي يسوی تجشیٍای‬

‫بض ثطزٺ قسٺ‬٦ ‫ٯعار ثٻ‬ٞ ‫ٻ ثطاڀ سٗڃڃٵ ٸظٶځ‬٦ ‫طٴ اؾز‬٢ ٥‫شطٸٮڃشځ ثڃف اظ ڂ‬٧‫ڃطڀ اٮ‬٪‫ضؾٹة‬

‫عاڂف‬ٞ‫ٯع ثط ضٸڀ ٲبسس دالسڃٵ سٹظڂٵ قسٺ ضؾٹة زازٺ ٲځقٹز ٸ ا‬ٞ ،‫بضثطزټب‬٦ ‫ثط‬٦‫اؾز ٸ زض ا‬

‫ڃطڀ آٶسڀ ؾطة ثٻ‬٪‫ اؾشثٷبټبڀ ٲٽٱ اڂٵ ضٸـ ٖجبضسٷس اظ ضؾٹة‬،‫زض ٸظٴ ثٻ زؾز ٲځآڂس‬

.‫طٺ‬٣‫ٯطڂس ثط ضٸڀ ٶ‬٦ ‫ؿڃس ثط ضٸڀ دالسڃٵ ٸ‬٦‫نٹضر ضؾٹة زڂٹ‬

Coulometric Methods of Analysis

Coulometry encompasses a group of methods which invole
measuring the quantity of electricity (in coulombs) needed to
convert the analyte quantitatively to a different oxidation state. In
common with gravimetric methods, coulometer offers the
advantage that the proportionality constant between coulombs and
the weight of analyte can be derived from known physical
constants; thus, a calibration or standardization step is not ordinarily
required. Coulometric methods are often as accurate as gravimetric
or volumetric procedures, they are usually faster and more

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52 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

convenient than the former. Finally, coulmetric procedures are

readily adapted to automation.
:‫ريػَبی کًله عىجی تجشیٍای‬

‫ٹٮٵ) ٲٹضز‬٦ ‫شطڂؿڃشٻ (ثٻ‬٧‫ساض اٮ‬٣‫ڃطڀ ٲ‬٪‫ٻ اٶساظٺ‬٦ ‫ٹٮٵ ؾٷدځ زؾشٻاڀ اظ ضٸـټبڂځ اؾز‬٦

‫ ٲبٶٷس ضٸـټبڀ‬.‫ڃطٶس‬٪‫ط ضا زض ثط ٲځ‬٫‫ؿبڂف زڂ‬٦‫ حبٮز ا‬٥‫ٳځ آٶبٮڃز ثٻ ڂ‬٦ ‫ٶڃبظ ثطاڀ سجسڂ٭‬

‫ٹٮٵ ٸ ٸظٴ آٶبٮڃز ضا ٲځسٹاٴ اظ‬٦ ‫ٻ ثبثز سٷبؾت ثڃٵ‬٦ ‫ٹٮٵ ؾٷدځ اڂٵ ٲعڂز ضا زاضز‬٦ ،‫ٸظٶځ‬

‫ ثٻ زؾز آٸضز ثٷبثطاڂٵ ٲٗٳٹالً ثٻ ٲطحٯٻڀ زضخٻثٷسڀ ڂب اؾشبٶساضز‬،ٰ‫ځ ٲٗٯٹ‬٧‫ڃعڂ‬ٞ ‫ثبثزټبڀ‬

‫بضټبڀ‬٦ ‫بٮجبً ثٻ اٶساظٺ نحز زؾشٹض‬ٚ ‫ٹٮٵ ؾٷدځ‬٦ ‫ نحز ضٸـټبڀ‬.‫طزٴ ٶڃبظڀ ٶڃؿز‬٦

‫ٹٮٵ ؾٷدځ ٲٗٳٹالً ؾطڂٕسط ٸ ضاحزسط اظ ضٸـټبڀ ٸظٶځ ٸ‬٦ ‫ٸظٶځ ٸ حدٳځ اؾز ضٸـټبڀ‬

‫بض‬٦‫بٺټبڀ ذٹز‬٫‫ٹٮٵ ؾٷدځ ضا ثٻ ؾٽٹٮز ٲځسٹاٴ ثب زؾش‬٦ ‫ ضٸـټبڀ‬،‫ ثبالذطٺ‬.‫حدٳځ ټؿشٷس‬

.‫اٶدبٰ زاز‬

Ploarographic Apparatus
For palaeography, as well as the other voltametric techniques, the
working electrode at which the analyte rects must be small
typically, its surface area will range from 1 to 10 mm2. In addition
the electrode must be chemically inert. Thus, microelectrodes are
fabricated of conducting materials such as mercury, platinum, gold,
silver, and graphite. With the exception of mercury, the electrodes
usually are fine wires or disks that are sealed into glass tubing.
The most important microelectrode for voltammetery, and the one
used in Heyrovsk‟s early work, is the dropping mercury electrode.
:‫دعتگبٌ پًالري گزافی‬

‫ٻ زض آٴ آٶبٮڃز‬٦ ‫بض‬٦ ‫شطٸز‬٧‫ اٮ‬،‫ټبڀ ٸٮشبٲشطڀ‬٥‫ٷڃ‬٧‫ځ ٸ ټٳچٷڃٵ ؾبڂط س‬ٞ‫طا‬٪ ‫ثطاڀ دٹالضٸ‬

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 ‫‪ 53‬سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫ٸا‪٦‬ٷف ٲځزټس ثبڂس ‪٦‬ٹچ‪ ٥‬ثبقس ٶٹٖبً ٲؿبحز آٴ زض ‪٦‬ؿشطٺ ‪ 10‬سب ‪٢ 10 mm 2‬طاض زاضز‪.‬‬

‫ٖالٸٺ ثط اڂٵ‪ ،‬اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز ثبڂس اظ ٮحبِ قڃٳڃبڂځ ثځاثط ثبقس‪ .‬ٮصا‪ ،‬ٲڃ‪٧‬طٸ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸزټب اظ ٲٹاز ضؾبٶب‬

‫ٲبٶٷس خڃٹٺ‪ ،‬دالسڃٵ‪َ ،‬ال‪ ،‬ٶ‪٣‬طٺ ٸ ‪٪‬طا‪ٞ‬ڃز ؾبذشٻ ٲځقٹٶس‪ .‬ثبؾشثٷبڀ خڃٹٺ‪ ،‬اٮ‪٧‬شطٸزټب ٲٗٳٹالً‬

‫ؾڃٱټبڀ ٶبظ‪ ٤‬ڂب ن‪ٟ‬حبسځ ټؿشٷس ‪٦‬ٻ زض زضٸٴ ٮٹٮٻ قڃكٻاڀ ٲٽط ٸ ٲٹٰ قسٺاٶس‪.‬‬

‫ٲٽٱسطٶځ ٲڃ‪٧‬طٸ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸزټب ثطاڀ ٸٮشبٲشطڀ‪ ،‬ٸ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸزڀ ‪٦‬ٻ زض ‪٦‬بضټبڀ اٸّٮڃٻ ټڃطاٸؾ‪٧‬ځ ثٻ ‪٦‬بض‬

‫ثسضٺ قس‪ ،‬اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز خڃٹٺاڀ ‪ُ٢‬طٺ چ‪٧‬بٴ اؾز‪.‬‬

‫‪Inorganic Polarographic Analysis‬‬

‫‪The polarographic method is generally applicable to the analysis of‬‬
‫‪inorganic substances. Most metallic cations, for example, are‬‬
‫‪reduced at the dropping electrode to form a metal amalgam or an‬‬
‫‪ion of lower oxidation state. Even the alkali-and alkaline-earth‬‬
‫‪methods are reducible, provided the supporting electrolyte used‬‬
‫‪does not decompose at the high potentials required. The tetraalkyl‬‬
‫‪ammonium halides serve this function well.‬‬
‫تجشیٍی پًالريگزافی مًاد مؼذوی‪:‬‬

‫ضٸـ دٹالضٸ‪٪‬طا‪ٞ‬ځ ضا ٲٗٳٹالً ٲځسٹاٴ ثطاڀ سدعڂٻڀ اخؿبٰ ٲٗسٶځ ثٻ ‪٦‬بض ثطز‪ .‬ثطاڀ ٲثب‪،٬‬‬

‫ا‪٦‬ثط ‪٦‬بسڃٹٴټبڀ ‪ٞ‬ٯعڀ زض اٮ‪٧‬شطٸز ‪ُ٢‬طٺچ‪٧‬بٴ ‪٦‬بټڃسٺ ٲځقٹٶس ٸ سك‪٧‬ڃ٭ ٲٯ‪٣‬ٳٻڀ ‪ٞ‬ٯع ڂب ڂ‪٥‬‬

‫ڂٹٴ ثب حبٮز ا‪٦‬ؿبڂف دبڂڃٵسط ضا ٲځزټٷس‪ .‬حشځ ‪ٞ‬ٯعار ‪٢‬ٯڃبڂځ ٸ ‪٢‬ٯڃبڂځ ذب‪٦‬ځ ٶڃع ‪٦‬بټف‬

‫دصڂطٶس‪ ،‬ٲكطٸٌ ثط اڂٵ ‪٦‬ٻ اٮ‪٧‬شطٸٮڃز ‪٦‬ٳ‪٧‬ځ ثٻ ‪٦‬بض ثطزٺ قسٺ‪ ،‬زض دشبٶؿڃ٭ټبڀ ٲٹضز ٶڃبظ ثبال‬

‫سدعڂٻ ٶكٹز‪ .‬ټبٮڃسټبڀ سشطااٮ‪٧‬ڃ٭ آٲٹٶڃٱ اڂٵ ٸْڃ‪ٟ‬ٻ ضا ثٻ ذٹثځ اٶدبٰ ٲځزټٷس‪.‬‬

‫‪Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation‬‬

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54 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

Electromagnetic radiation is a type of energy that is transmitted

through space at enormous velocity. Many of the properties of
electromagnetic radiation are conveniently described by means of a
classical wave model that employs such parameters as wavelength,
frequency, velocity, and amplitude. In contrast to other wave
phenomena, such as sound, electromagnetic radiation requires no
supporting medium for its transmission, thus, it readily passes
through a vacuum.
Phenomena associated with the absorption or emission of eadiant
energy cannot be explained adequately by treating eadiation as
waves, here, it is necessary to view electromagmnetic radiation as a
stream of discrete particles of energy called photons with energies
that are particles and waves are not mutually exclusive. Indeed, the
duality is found to apply to the behavior of streams of electrons and
other elementary particles as well and is rationalized by wave
mechanics.
:‫خًاؿ تبثؼ الکتزيمغىبطیغی‬

.‫ٷس‬٦‫ًب ٖجٹض ٲځ‬ٞ ‫ اٮٗبزٺاڀ اظ‬٠‫ٻ ثب ؾطٖز ذبض‬٦ ‫ٷبَڃؿځ ٶٹٖځ اٶطغڀ اؾز‬ٛ‫شطٸٲ‬٧‫سبثف اٮ‬

‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ځ‬٧‫الؾڃ‬٦ ‫ ٲٹخځ‬٬‫ٷبَڃؿځ ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ ٲس‬ٛ‫شطٸٲ‬٧‫ثؿڃبضڀ اظ ذٹال سبثف اٮ‬

ٝ‫ ثٻ آؾبٶځ سٹنڃ‬،‫ڃطز‬٪‫بض ٲځ‬٦ ‫ ؾطٖز ٸ زاٲٷٻ ضا ثٻ‬،‫بٶؽ‬٦‫ط‬ٞ ،‫ ٲٹج‬٬‫دبضاٲشطټبڂځ ٲبٶٷس َٹ‬

ٍ‫ٷبَڃؿځ ثٻ ٲحج‬ٛ‫شطٸٲ‬٧‫ ٖجٹض سبثف اٮ‬،‫ ؾبڂط دسڂسٺټبڀ ٲٹخځ ٲبٶٷس نسا‬ٜ‫ ثطذال‬.‫طز‬٦

.‫ٷس‬٦‫ ثسڂٵ سطسڃت ثٻ ضاحشځ اظ ذأل ٖجٹض ٲځ‬،‫ٲبزڀ ٶڃبظڀ ٶساضز‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬55

‫شٵ سبثف ثٻ‬ٞ‫ط‬٪ ‫دسڂسٺټبڀ زض اضسجبٌ ثب خصة ڂب ٶكط اٶطغڀ سبثكځ ضا ٶٳځسٹاٴ ثب زض ٶٓط‬

‫ٷبَڃؿځ ضا ثبڂس ثٻ نٹضر خطڂبٶځ‬ٛ‫شطٸٲ‬٧‫ سبثف اٮ‬،‫ زض اڂٷدب‬،‫طز‬٦ ‫بٲالً سكطڂح‬٦ ،‫نٹضر اٲٹاج‬

‫بٶؽ سبثف ٲشٷبؾت اؾز زض ٶٓط‬٦‫ط‬ٞ ‫ٻ اٶطغڀ آٶٽب ثب‬٦ ‫ٹسٹٴ‬ٞ ٰ‫اظ زضار ٲدعاڀ اٶطغڀ ثٻ ٶب‬

،ٕ٢‫ زض ٸا‬.‫بثالً اٶحهبضڀ ٶڃؿشٷس‬٣‫بٶٻڀ سبثف ثٻ نٹضر شضار ٸ اٲٹاج ٲش‬٪‫بٺ زٸ‬٪‫ اڂٵ زڂس‬،‫ز‬ٞ‫ط‬٪

.‫شطٸٴ ٸ ټٳچٷڃٵ ؾبڂط شضار ثٷڃبزڀ ٲالحٓٻ ٲځقٹز‬٧‫شبض خطڂبٴټبڀ اٮ‬ٞ‫ځ زض ض‬٫‫ٯٷ‬٪‫اڂٵ زٸ‬

.‫طزز‬٪‫خځ سٽڃّٻ ٲځ‬.٤ ٥‫بٶڃ‬٧‫ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ ٲ‬

Wave Properties
For many purposes electromagnetic radiation is conveniently
treated as an oscillating electrical force field in space; associated
with the electrical field and right angles o ti is a magnetic force
field.
The electrical and magnetic fieds associated with radiation are
vector quantities; at any instant, they can be represented by an
arrow whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the force
and whose direction is parallel to that of the force. A graphic
representation of a beam of radiation can be obtained by plotting
one of these vector quantities as a function of time as the radiation
passes a fixed point in space. Altematively the vector can be plotted
as a function of distance, with time held constant.
:‫خًاؿ مًج‬

‫ ٲڃساٴ ٶڃطٸڀ‬٥‫ٷبَڃؿځ ثٻ آؾبٶځ ٲځسٹاٴ ٲبٶٷس ڂ‬ٛ‫شطٸٲ‬٧‫ ثب سبثف اٮ‬،ٜ‫ثطاڀ ثؿڃبضڀ اظ اټسا‬

٥‫ ڂ‬،‫ ٸ زض ضاؾشبڀ ٖٳٹز ثط آٴ‬،‫ځ‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫ ټٳطاٺ ثب ٲڃساٴ اٮ‬،‫طز‬٦ ‫شبض‬ٞ‫ٷٷسٺ ض‬٦ ‫ځ ٶٹؾبٴ‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫اٮ‬

.‫ٷبَڃؿځ ٸخٹز زاضز‬ٛ‫ٲڃساٴ ٲ‬

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‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی ‪56‬‬

‫ٲڃساٴټبڀ اٮ‪٧‬شطڂ‪٧‬ځ ٸ ٲ‪ٛ‬ٷبَڃؿځ ټٳطاٺ ثب سبثف‪٦ ،‬ٳڃّزټبڀ ثطزاضڀ ټؿشٷس‪ ،‬اڂٵ ‪٦‬ٳڃّزټب‬

‫ضا ٲځسٹاٴ زض ټط ٮحٓٻ ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ دڃ‪٧‬بٶځ ‪٦‬ٻ َٹ‪ ٬‬آٴ ثب ثعض‪٪‬ځ ٶڃطٸ ٲشٷبؾت‪ ،‬ٸ ضاؾشبڀ آٴ‬

‫ٲٹاظڀ ضاؾشبڀ ٶڃطٸ اؾز‪ ،‬ٶٳبڂف زاز‪ .‬ٶٳبڂف ٶٳٹزاضڀ زؾشٻ دطسٹ سبثف ضا ٲځسٹاٴ ثب ضؾٱ‬

‫ڂ‪٧‬ځ اظ اڂٵ ‪٦‬ٳڃّزټبڀ ثطزاضڀ ثٻ نٹضر سبثٗځ اظ ظٲبٴ‪ ،‬ټٷ‪٫‬بٲځ ‪٦‬ٻ سبثف اظ ٶ‪ُ٣‬ٻ ثبثشځ زض‬

‫‪ًٞ‬ب ٖجٹض ٲځ‪٦‬ٷس‪ ،‬ثٻ زؾز آٸضز‪ .‬ڂب اڂٵ ‪٦‬ٻ ٲځسٹاٴ ثطزاض ضا ثٻ نٹضر سبثٗځ اظ ٲؿب‪ٞ‬ز يٳٵ‬

‫ثبثز ٶ‪٫‬ٽساقشٵ ظٲبٴ ضؾٱ ‪٦‬طز‪.‬‬

‫‪Line and Band Emission Spectra‬‬

‫‪Radiation form a source is conveniently characterized by means of‬‬
‫‪an emission spectrum, which usually takes the form of a plot of‬‬
‫‪relative power of the radiation as a function of wavelength or‬‬
‫‪frequency. Three types of spectra can be distinguished, namely,‬‬
‫‪line, bamd, and continuous. All are of importance in analytical‬‬
‫‪chemistry.‬‬
‫طیفَبی وؾزی خطی ي وًاری‪:‬‬

‫سبثف حبن٭ اظ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲٷجٕ‪ ،‬ثٻ ؾٽٹٮز ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ ڂ‪َ ٥‬ڃ‪ ٝ‬ٶكطڀ ‪٦‬ٻ ٲٗٳٹالً ثٻ نٹضر‬

‫ٶٳٹزاضڀ اظ سٹاٴ ٶؿجځ سبثف ‪٦‬ٻ ثطحؿت َٹ‪ ٬‬ٲٹج ڂب ‪ٞ‬ط‪٦‬بٶؽ ثٻ زؾز ٲځآڂس‪ ،‬ٲكرّم‬

‫ٲځقٹز‪ .‬ؾٻ ٶٹٔ َڃ‪ ٝ‬ضا ٲځسٹاٴ اظ ڂ‪٧‬سڂ‪٫‬ط ٲشٳبڂع ‪٦‬طز‪ ،‬ذُځ‪ ،‬ٶٹاضڀ‪ ،‬ٸ دڃٹؾشٻ ‪٦‬ٻ ټط ؾٻ‬

‫اظ زڂس‪٪‬بٺ قڃٳځ سدعڂٻ حبئع اټٳڃّزاٶس‪.‬‬

‫‪Continuous Emission Spectra‬‬

‫‪Truly continuous radiation is produced when solids are heated to‬‬
‫‪incandescence. Thermal radiation of this kind, which is called‬‬
‫‪black-body radiation is more characteristic of the temperature of the‬‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬57

emitting surface than the material of which that surface is

composed. Black-body radiation is produced solid by the
innumerable atomic and molecular oscillations excied in the
condensed solid by the thermal energy.
Theortical treatment of black-body radiation leads to the following
conclusions: (1) the radiation exhibits a maximum emission at a
wavelength that varies inversely with the absolute temperature, (2)
the total energy by a black body (per unit of time and area) varies as
the fourth power of temperature, and (3) the emissive power at a
given temperature varies inversely as the fifth power of wavelength.
:ٍ‫طیفَبی وؾزی پیًعت‬

‫ٗځ حبن٭‬٢‫ سبثف دڃٹؾشٻ ٸا‬،‫طٰ قٹٶس‬٪ ‫ سب ضؾڃسٴ ثٻ حبٮز اثشٽبة‬،‫ٻ خبٲسار‬٧‫زض نٹضسڃ‬

‫ځ زٲبڀ‬٪‫ٻ سبثف خؿٱ ؾڃبٺ ٶبٲڃسٺ ٲځقٹز ٖٳسسبً ثٻ ٸڂػ‬٦ ،‫طٲبڂځ‬٪ ‫ اڂٵ ٶٹٔ سبثف‬.‫ٲځقٹز‬

.‫ٻ ؾُح ٲعثٹض اظ آٴ ؾبذشٻ قسٺ اؾز‬٦ ‫ ٶٻ ٲبزٺاڀ‬،‫ځ زاضز‬٫‫ٷٷسٺ ثؿش‬٦ ‫ؾُح ٶكط‬

‫ٱ ثٻ‬٦‫ٻ زض خبٲس ٲشطا‬٦ ‫بث٭ قٳبضـ‬٢ ‫ڃط‬ٚ ‫ٹٮځ‬٧‫سبثف خؿٱ ؾڃبٺ اظ ٶٹؾبٴټبڀ اسٳځ ڂب ٲٹٮ‬

‫ ثطضؾځ ٶٓطڀ سبثف خؿٱ ؾڃبٺ ثٻ‬.‫ حبن٭ ٲځقٹز‬،‫ڃرشٻ قسٺاٶس‬٫‫طٲبڂځ ثطاٶ‬٪ ‫ٸؾڃٯٻ اٶطغڀ‬

‫ ٲٹج ٶكبٴ‬٬‫ َٹ‬٥‫ؿڃٳٳځ زض ڂ‬٦‫ ٶكط ٲب‬،‫) سبثف‬1( :‫ڃطڀټبڀ ظڂط ٲٷدط ٲځقٹز‬٪ ‫ٶشڃدٻ‬

‫٭ ٶكط قسٺ ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ‬٦ ‫) اٶطغڀ‬2( ‫ٷس‬٦‫ڃڃط ٲځ‬ٛ‫ س‬١‫ٹؼ ثب زٲبڀ ٲُٯ‬٧ٗ‫ٻ ثٻَٹض ٲ‬٦ ‫ٲځزټس‬

‫) سٹاٴ‬3( ‫ٷس ٸ‬٦‫ڃڃط ٲځ‬ٛ‫خؿٱ ؾڃبٺ (زض ٸاحس ظٲبٴ ٸ زض ٸاحس ؾُح) ثب سٹاٴ چٽبضٰ زٲب س‬

.‫ٷس‬٦‫ڃڃط ٲځ‬ٛ‫ٹؼ س‬٧ٗ‫ ٲٹج ثٻَٹض ٲ‬٬‫ ثب سٹاٴ دٷدٱ َٹ‬،‫ زٲبڀ ٲٗڃّٵ‬٥‫ځ زض ڂ‬٪‫ٷٷس‬٦ ‫ٶكط‬

Fluorescence and Phosphorescence

Fluorescene and phosphorescence analytically important emission

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58 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

processes in which atoms or molecules are excited by absorption of

a beam of electromagnetic radiation, radiant emission then occurs
as the excited species return to the ground stste. The resulting
emission spectrum serves as the basis for analysis.
Fluorescence differs from phosphorescence in the respect that it
occurs much more rapidly and is generally complete after about
10+5 s (or less) from the time of excitation. Phosphorescence
emission takes place over periods longer than 10 s and may indeed
continue for minutes or even hours after irradiation has ceased.
Geberally, fluorescence and phosphorescence are observed at a 90-
deg angle to the excitation beam. Of the two, fluorescence has
found much more widespread application.
:‫فلًئًرعبوظ ي فغفزعبوظ‬

،‫ٻ زض آٶٽب‬٦ ‫طآڂٷسټبڀ ٶكطڀ ٲٽٳځ ټؿشٷس‬ٞ ‫طؾبٶؽ اظ ٮحبِ سدعڂٻاڀ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ ‫ٯٹئٹضؾبٶؽ ٸ‬ٞ

،‫ڃرشٻ ٲځقٹٶس‬٫‫ٷبَڃؿځ ثطاٶ‬ٛ‫شطٸٲ‬٧‫ټب ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻ خصة زؾشٻ دطسٹ سبثف اٮ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫اسٱټب ڂب ٲٹٮ‬

ٝ‫ َڃ‬.‫ٹٔ ٲځدڃٹٶسز‬٢‫ ٶكط سبثف ثٻ ٸ‬،‫ڃرشٻ ثٻ حبٮز دبڂٻ‬٫‫ٹٶٻټبڀ ثطاٶ‬٪ ‫كز‬٪‫ؾذؽ ثب ثبظ‬

.‫بض ٲځضٸز‬٦ ‫سكطڀ حبن٭ ثٻ ٖٷٹاٴ دبڂٻ ثطاڀ سدعڂٻ ثٻ‬

ٔ‫ٹ‬٢‫ٯٹئٹضؾبٶؽ ثؿڃبض ؾطڂٕسط ثٻ ٸ‬ٞ ‫ٻ‬٦ ‫طؾبٶؽ زض اڂٵ اؾز‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ ‫ٯٹئٹضؾبٶځ ثب‬ٞ ‫بٸر‬ٟ‫س‬

‫بٲ٭‬٦ ،‫ڃرشٻ قسٴ‬٫‫ٳشط) دؽ اظ ثطاٶ‬٦ ‫ (ڂب‬105 s ‫بنٯٻ ظٲبٶځ حسٸز‬ٞ ‫ٲځدڃٹٶسز ٸ ٲٗٳٹالً ثب‬

‫ٵ اؾز‬٧‫ٹٔ ٲځدڃٹٶسز ٸ ٲٳ‬٢‫ ثٻ ٸ‬105 s ‫طؾبٶځ زض ظٲبٴټبڀ َٹالٶځسط اظ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ ‫ ٶكط‬.‫ٲځقٹز‬

،‫ٯځ‬٦ ‫ ثٻَٹض‬.‫ٷس‬٦ ‫ُٕ سبثف ٶڃع ازاٲٻ دڃسا‬٢ ‫ٻ ڂب حشّځ چٷس ؾبٖز دؽ اظ‬٣‫ڃ‬٢‫ٕ چٷس ز‬٢‫زض ٸا‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬59

‫ٷٷسٺ ٲكبټسٺ‬٦ ٥‫ سحطڂ‬.‫ زضخٻ ٶؿجز ثٻ زؾشٻ دطر‬90 ‫طؾبٶؽ زض ظاٸڂٻ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ ‫ٯٹئٹضؾبٶؽ ٸ‬ٞ

.‫شٻ اؾز‬ٞ‫ؿشطزٺسطڀ ڂب‬٪ ‫بضثطز‬٦ ،‫طؾبٶؽ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ ‫بڂؿٻ ثب‬٣‫ زض ٲ‬،‫ٯٹئٹضؾبٶؽ‬ٞ .‫ٲځقٹٶس‬

Opticak Spectroscopic Instruments

The first spectroscopic instruments were developed for use in the
visible region and were thus called optical instruments. This term
has by now been extended to include instruments designed for use
in the ultraviolet and infrared regions as well, while not strictly
correct, the terminology is nevertheless useful in that it emphasizes
the many features that are common to the instruments used for
studies in these three important spectral regions.
:‫دعتگبٌَیب طیفثیىی وًری‬

،‫ ٸ اظ اڂٵ ضٸ‬،‫بزٺ زض ٶبحڃٻ ٶٹض ٲطئځ اثسأ قسٶس‬ٟ‫ ثطاڀ اؾش‬،‫ثڃٷځ‬ٝ‫بٺټبڀ َڃ‬٫‫ٶرؿشڃٵ زؾش‬

‫بزٺ‬ٟ‫ٻ ثطاڀ اؾش‬٦ ‫بٺټبڂځ‬٫‫ اڂٵ انُالح اٲطٸظٺ زض ٲٹضز زؾش‬.‫بٺټبڀ ٶٹضڀ ٶبٲڃسٶس‬٫‫آٶٽب ضا زؾش‬

‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ ثب اڂٵ‬،‫شٻ اؾز اڂٵ ٸاغٺ‬ٞ‫طٲع َطاحځ قسٺاٶس ٶڃع سٗٳڃٱ ڂب‬٢ ‫ف ٸ ظڂط‬ٟ‫طاثٷ‬ٞ ‫زض ٶٹاحځ‬

‫بر اؾبؾځ ٖٳٹٲځ‬٧‫ٻ ثط ثؿڃبضڀ اظ ٶ‬٦ ‫ اظ اڂٵ ٶٓط‬،‫ ٲٕټصا‬،‫ ٶڃؿز‬١‫ڃ‬٢‫بٲالً نحڃح ٸ ز‬٦

.‫ڃس زاضز ؾٹزٲٷس اؾز‬٦‫ځ ٲٽٱ سأ‬ٟ‫بٺټبڀ ٲٹضز ٖٳ٭ ثطاڀ ٲُبٮٗٻ زض اڂٵ ؾٻ ٶبحڃٻ َڃ‬٫‫زؾش‬

Spectroscopic instruments contain five components including: (1)

stable source of radiant energy, (2) a wavelength selector that
permits isolation of a restricted wavelength region (3) a transparent
container for holding the sampke, (4) a radiation detector or
transducer that converts radiant energy to a usable signal (usually
electrical), and (5) a signal processor and readout.

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60 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫) ٲٷجٕ ثبثز سبثف اٶطغڀ‬1( :‫ڃ٭ قسٺاٶس‬٧‫ثڃٷځ اظ دٷح خعء ؾبظٶسٺڀ ظڂط سك‬ٝ‫بٺټبڀ َڃ‬٫‫زؾش‬

)3( ‫بٴدصڂط ٲځؾبظز‬٧‫ ٲٹج ٲحسٸزڀ ضا اٲ‬٬‫ٻ خساؾبظ ڂٷبحڃٻڀ َٹ‬٦ ،‫عڂٵ‬٪ ‫ ٲٹج‬٬‫) َٹ‬2(

‫ٻ اٶطغڀ‬٦ ‫بضؾبظ ڂب ٶطاٶؿسڂٹؾط سبثف‬٧‫) آق‬4( ‫ ٲرهٹل ٶٳٹٶٻڀ ٲٹضز آظٲبڂف‬ٜ‫ب‬ٟ‫ ق‬ٜ‫ْط‬

‫ط ٖالٲز ٸ‬٫‫) دطزاظق‬5( ‫ٷس ٸ‬٦‫ځ) سجسڂ٭ ٲځ‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫بضثطز دصڂط (ٲٗٳٹالً اٮ‬٦ ‫سبثكځ ضا ثٻ ٖالٲز‬

.‫ؾڃؿشٱ ذٹاٶسٴ‬

Absorption of Ultraviolet and Visibie Radiation by Organic

Compounds
The electrons responsible for absorption of ultraviolet and visible
radiation by organic molecules are of two types: (1) those that
participate directly in bond formation and are thus associated with
more than one atom and (2) unshared outer electrons that are
largely localized about such atoms as oxygen the halogens sulfur
and nitrogen.
:‫جذة تبثؼ فزاثىفؼ ي مزئی ثٍ يعیلٍ تزکیجبت آلی‬

:‫ ثط زٸ ٶٹٔاٶس‬،‫ټبڀ آٮځ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ف ٸ ٲطئځ ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻڀ ٲٹٮ‬ٟ‫طاثٷ‬ٞ ‫ خصة سبثف‬٬‫شطٸٴټبڀ ٲؿئٹ‬٧‫اٮ‬

٥‫ٷٷس ٸ اظ اڂٵضٸ ثب ثڃف اظ ڂ‬٦‫ز ٲځ‬٦‫ڃ٭ دڃٹٶسټب قط‬٧‫ڃٳبً زض سك‬٣‫ٻ ٲؿش‬٦ ‫شطٸٴټبڂځ‬٧‫ اٮ‬-1

‫ اسٱټبڂځ ٶٓڃط‬ٜ‫ٻ ٖٳسسبً زض اَطا‬٦ ٤‫ڃط ٲكشط‬ٚ ‫شطٸٴټبڀ ذبضخځ‬٧‫ اٮ‬-2 ‫اسٱ ټٳطاٺاٶس ٸ‬

.‫طٶس‬٣‫طز ٸ ٶڃشطٸغٴ ٲؿش‬٪‫ٹ‬٪ ،‫ ټبٮٹغٴټب‬،‫ؿڃػٴ‬٦‫ا‬

Absorption of Infrrared Radiation

The relative positions of atoms in a molecule are not fixed, instead,
they fluctuate continuously as a consequence of a ultitiude of
different types of vibrations.

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬61

These vibrations are quantized in the sense that their frequencies

can assume only certain values. Vibrational absorption requires that
radiation frequency exactly match the vibrational absorption
requires that the radiation frequency exactly match the vibrational
frequency of a bond. Thus, infrared absorption typically consists of
narrow peaks, each one of which corresponds to a vibration
typically consists of narrow peaks, each one of wjicj corresponds to
a vibrational frequency of a bond in the molecule. The energy
transferred to the bond by the absorption of the radiation increases
the amplitude of the vibration.
:‫جذة تبثؼ سیز قزمش‬

ٔ‫ثطر اٶٹا‬٦ ‫ اڂٵ ٲٹايٕ زض ٶشڃدٻڀ‬،‫ ثبثز ٶڃؿشٷس زض ٖٹو‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٲٹايٕ ٶؿجځ اسٱټب زضٲٹٮ‬

‫ٹاٶشڃسٺ ټؿشٷس ڂٗٷځ‬٦ ‫ اڂٵ اضسٗبقبر‬.‫ٷٷس‬٦‫ز ٸ ذڃع ٲځ‬ٞ‫بٸر اضسٗبقبر ثٻَٹض دڃٹؾشٻ ا‬ٟ‫ٲش‬

‫شًب‬٢‫ خصة اضسٗبقځ ا‬.‫ڃطٶس‬٪‫بزڂط ٲٗڃٷځ ثٻ ذٹز‬٣‫ٍ ٲ‬٣ٞ ‫بٶؽټبڀ آٶٽب ٲځسٹاٶٷس‬٦‫ط‬ٞ ‫ٻ‬٦ ‫اڂٵ‬

‫طٲع‬٢ ‫ خصة ظڂط‬،‫ اظ اڂٵضٸ‬.‫بٶؽ اضسٗبـ دڃٹٶس خٹض ثبقس‬٦‫ط‬ٞ ‫بً ثب‬٣‫ڃ‬٢‫بٶؽ سبثف ز‬٦‫ط‬ٞ ‫ٻ‬٦ ‫ٷس‬٦‫ٲځ‬

‫بٶؽ‬٦‫ط‬ٞ ٥‫ټب ٲطثٹٌ ثٻ ڂ‬٥‫ اظ اڂٵ دڃ‬٥‫ٻ ټط ڂ‬٦ ‫ڃ٭ قسٺ اؾز‬٧‫ سك‬٥‫ټڃب ثبضڂ‬٥‫ٶٹٖبً اظ دڃ‬

،‫٭ قسٺ ثٻ دڃٹٶس ثٻ ٸؾڃٯٻ خصة سبثف‬٣‫ اٶطغڀ ٲٷش‬.‫ اؾز‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ دڃٹٶس زض ٲٹٮ‬٥‫اضسٗبقځ ڂ‬

.‫عٸٶځ ٲځزټس‬ٞ ‫زاٲٷٻڀ اضسٗبـ ضا‬

Instruments for Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

Instruments for atomic absorption work are offered by numerous
manufacturers; both single-and double-beam designs are available.
The range of sophisitication and cost (upward from a few thousand

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62 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

dollars) is sunstantial.
In general, the instrument must be capable of providing a
sufficiently narrow bandwidth to isolate the line chosen for the
measurement from other lines that may interfere with or diminish
the sensitivity of the analysis, A glass filter suffices for some of the
alkali metals. Which have only a few widely spaced resonane lines
in the visible region An instrument equipped with readily
interchangeable interference filters is available commercially.
A separate filter (and light source) is used for each element.
Salisfactory results for the analysis of 22 metal are claimed. Most
instruments, jowever, incorporate a good-quality ultravio;et and
visible monochromator.
:‫دعتگبٌَیب طیفثیىی جذثی اتمی‬

٥‫ اٶٹأ س‬،‫ثڃٷځ خصثځ اسٳځ اضائٻ زازٺاٶس‬ٝ‫بٺټبڂځ ضا ثطاڀ َڃ‬٫‫ زؾش‬،‫بٴ ٲشٗسزڀ‬٪‫ؾبظٶس‬

‫بٺټب (اظ‬٫‫ځ ٸ ثٽبڀ اڂٵ زؾش‬٪‫ؿشطٺڀ دڃچڃس‬٪ .‫بٺټب ٲٹخٹزٶس‬٫‫دطسٹڀ ٸ زٸ دطسٹڀ اڂٵ زؾش‬

.‫چٷس ټعاض زالض ثٻ ثبال) حبئع اټٳڃّز اؾز‬

‫ ثٻ ٲٷٓٹض‬،٥‫ځ ثبضڂ‬ٞ‫ب‬٦ ‫سض‬٢ ‫طزٴ دٽٷبڀ ٶٹاض ثٻ‬٦ ‫طاټٱ‬ٞ ‫بٺ ثبڂس اظ سٹاٴ‬٫‫ زؾش‬،‫ٯځ‬٦ ‫ثٻَٹض‬

‫ٵ اؾز سساذ٭‬٧‫ٻ ٲٳ‬٦ ‫ڃطڀ اظ ؾبڂط ذُٹَځ‬٪‫طزٴ ذٍ اٶشربة قسٺ خٽز اٶساظٺ‬٦ ‫ٲٷعٸڀ‬

‫ٻ زض‬٦ ‫ٯڃبڂځ‬٢ ‫ٯعار‬ٞ ‫ ثطاڀ ثطذځ اظ‬.‫ ثطذٹضزاض ثبقس‬،‫بټف زټٷس‬٦ ‫ٷٷس ڂب حؿبؾڃز سدعڂٻ ضا‬٦

.‫ٷس‬٦‫بڂز ٲځ‬ٟ٦ ‫ځ قڃكٻاڀ‬ٞ‫ نب‬٥‫ ڂ‬،‫ٍ چٷس ذٍ ضظٸٶبٶؿځ زٸض اظ ټٱ زاضٶس‬٣ٞ ،‫ٶبحڃٻ ٲطئځ‬

.‫ځټبڀ سساذٯځ سٗٹڂىدصڂط ٲدٽع اؾز‬ٞ‫ٻ ثٻ نب‬٦ ‫بټځ ٖطيٻ قسٺ اؾز‬٫‫زض سدبضر زؾش‬

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 ‫‪ 63‬سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫ثطاڀ ټط ٖٷهط ڂ‪ ٥‬نب‪ٞ‬ځ خسا‪٪‬بٶٻ (ٸ ڂ‪ ٥‬ٲٷجٕ ٶٹض خسا‪٪‬بٶٻ) ثٻ ‪٦‬بض ٲځضٸز‪ .‬ازٖب قسٺ اؾز‬

‫‪٦‬ٻ ‪ٞ 22‬ٯع ضا ثب حهٹ‪ ٬‬ٶشبڂح ضيبڂزثركځ سدعڂٻ ‪٦‬طزٺاٶس‪ .‬ٲٕټصا‪ ،‬ا‪ٚ‬ٯت زؾش‪٫‬بٺټب ثٻ‬

‫س‪ٟ٧‬بٲؿبظ ‪ٞ‬طاثٷ‪ٟ‬ف ٸ ٲطئځ اظ ٶٹٔ ٲط‪ٚ‬ٹة ٲدٽعٶس‪.‬‬

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64 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

‫آ‬

water ‫آة‬

limewater ٥‫آة آټ‬

hydrogen peroxide ‫ؿڃػٶٻ‬٦‫آة ا‬

sea water ‫اة زضڂب‬

heavy water ‫ڃٵ‬٫‫آة ؾٷ‬

salt hydrates ٥‫آةدٹـټبڀ ٶٳ‬

hydration ‫آثذٹقځ‬

tempering ‫آة زازٴ‬

aquation ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫آثساض‬

hydrometer ‫آة ؾٷح‬

electroplating ‫بضڀ‬٧‫آث‬

hydrolysis ‫ز‬ٞ‫ب‬٧‫آث‬

bromothymol blue ٬‫آثځ ثطٲٹسڃٳٹ‬

thymol blue ٬‫آثځ سڃٳٹ‬

atmosphere ‫ط‬ٟ‫اسٳؿ‬

adrenaline ‫آزضٶبٮڃٵ‬

co – ordination arrangements ‫ٹٶٹضزڂٷبٶؿځ‬٦ ‫آضاڂفټبڀ‬

ardenates ‫آضؾٷبرټب‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬65

arsenides ‫آضؾٷڃسټب‬

arsenic, As ٥‫آضؾٷڃ‬

argon ‫ٹٴ‬٪‫آض‬

aromatic ٥‫آضٸٲبسڃ‬

azobenzene ‫آظٸڂٷعٴ‬

azurite ‫آظٸضڂز‬

aspartic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫آؾذبضسڃ‬

aspirin ‫آؾذڃطڂٵ‬

actinides ‫شڃٷڃسټب‬٦‫آ‬

actinium, A.c ‫شڃٷڃٱ‬٦‫آ‬

acrylic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫طڂٯڃ‬٦‫آ‬

albumins ‫آٮجٹٲڃٵټب‬

aldehydes ‫آٮسټڃسټب‬

alkaloids ‫بٮٹئڃسټب‬٧‫آٮ‬

alkanols ‫ټب‬٬‫بٶٹ‬٧‫آٮ‬

alkanes ‫بٴټب‬٧‫آٮ‬

alkenes ‫ٵټب‬٧‫آٮ‬

alkyl ‫ڃ٭‬٧‫آٮ‬

alkynes ‫ڃٵټب‬٧‫آٮ‬

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66 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

alumina ‫آٮٹٲڃٵ‬

aluminum. A.l ٰ‫آٮٹٲڃٷڃٹ‬

organic ‫آٮځ‬

alloy ‫آٮڃبغ‬

aluminum alloys ٰ‫آٮڃبغټبڀ آٮٹٲٷڃٹ‬

bismuth alloys ‫آٮڃبغټبڀ ثڃؿٳٹر‬

tungsten alloys ‫ؿشٵ‬٫‫آٮڃبغټبڀ سٷ‬

titanium alloys ‫آٮڃبغټبڀ سڃشبٶڃٱ‬

tin alloys ٕ‫ٯ‬٢ ‫آٮڃبغټبڀ‬

cobalt alloys ‫جبٮز‬٦ ‫آٮڃبغټبڀ‬

magnesium alloys ‫آٮڃبغټبڀ ٲٷعڂٱ‬

nickel alloys ‫٭‬٧‫آٮڃبغټبڀ ٶڃ‬

amphetamine ‫شبٲڃٵ‬ٟ‫آٲ‬

ammonia ٤‫آٲٹٶڃب‬

ammonium ‫آٲٹٶڃٱ‬

compounding ‫آٲڃرشٵ‬

amides ‫آٲڃسټب‬

amyl, secondary ٰ‫ ٶٹٔ زٸ‬،‫آٲڃ٭‬

amyl, teriary ٰ‫ ٶٹٔ ؾٹ‬،‫آٲڃ٭‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬67

amylose ‫آٲڃٯٹظ‬

amino ‫آٲڃٷٹ‬

amino – acetic - acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫آٲڃٷٹاؾشڃ‬

amino - acids ‫آٲڃٷٹاؾڃسټب‬

aminophenols ‫ټب‬٬‫ٷٹ‬ٞ‫آٲڃٷٹ‬

amines ‫آٲڃٵټب‬

anabolism ‫آٶبثٹٮڃؿٱ‬

anatase ‫آٶبسبظ‬

anation ‫آٶبؾڃٹٴ‬

analysis ‫آٶبٮڃع‬

amino acid analysis ‫آٶبٮڃع آٲڃٷٹاؾڃس‬

avtivation analysis ‫ٗبٮؿبظڀ‬ٞ ‫آٶبٮڃع ثب‬

ultimate analysis ‫آٶبٮڃع ٖٷهطڀ‬

quantitative analysis ‫ٳځ‬٦ ‫آٶبٮڃع‬

qualitative analysis ‫ځ‬ٟ‫ڃ‬٦ ‫آٶبٮڃع‬

gas analysis ‫بظټب‬٪ ‫آٶبٮڃع‬

thermal analysis ‫طٲبڂځ‬٪ ‫آٶبٮڃع‬

Differential thermal analysis ‫بيٯځ‬ٟ‫طٲبڂځ س‬٪ ‫آٶبٮڃع‬

gravimetric analysis ‫آٶبٮڃع ٸظٶځ‬

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68 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

anthrance ‫آٶشطاؾٵ‬

anthracite ‫آٶشطاؾڃز‬

anthranol ٬‫آٶشطاٶٹ‬

anethole ٬‫آٶشٹ‬

antioxidants ‫ؿڃساٴټب‬٦‫آٶشځ ا‬

antibiotic ٥‫آٶشځ ثڃٹسڃ‬

antiferromagnetism ‫ٷبَڃؽ‬ٛ‫طٸٲ‬ٞ ‫آٶشځ‬

anti - cathode ‫بسٹز‬٦ ‫آٶشځ‬

antimony derivatives ‫ټب‬١‫ ٲكش‬،‫آٶشڃٳٹاٴ‬

enzymes ‫آٶعڂٱټب‬

anode ‫آٶٹز‬

anils ‫آٶڃ٭ټب‬

aniline ‫آٶڃٯڃٵ‬

anion ‫آٶڃٹٴ‬

lime ٥‫آټ‬

quicklime )‫ (ظٶسٺ‬٥‫آټ‬

iron, Fe ‫آټٵ‬

Iron oxides and hydrixides ‫ؿڃسټب‬٦‫ؿڃسټب ٸ ټڃسضٸ‬٦‫آټٵ ا‬

iron carbides ‫بضثڃسټب‬٦ ‫آټٵ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬69

‫ا‬

superconductivity ‫اثطضؾبٶبڂځ‬

silk ‫اثطڂكٱ‬

cell dimensions ٬‫اثٗبز ؾٯٹ‬

molecular diameters ‫ٹٮځ‬٧‫اثٗبز ٲٹٮ‬

ebonite ‫اثٹٶڃز‬

epoxy ‫ؿځ‬٦‫ادٹ‬

ethane ‫اسبٴ‬

ethanal ٬‫اسبٶب‬

ethanol ٬‫اسبٶٹ‬

ethanolamines ‫ آٲڃٵټب‬٬‫اسبٶٹ‬

ether ‫اسط‬

ethers ‫اسطټب‬

gram atom ٰ‫ط‬٪ – ‫اسٱ‬

atom ‫اسٱ‬

ethene ‫اسٵ‬

autoclave ‫الٸ‬٦‫اسٹ‬

ethyl ‫اسڃ٭‬

ethyl alcohol ‫٭‬٧‫اسڃ٭ اٮ‬

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70 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

ethylene ‫اسڃٯٵ‬

ethylene glycol ٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٯڃ‬٪ ‫اسڃٯٵ‬

ethyne ‫اسڃٵ‬

inductive effect ‫بڂځ‬٣‫اثط اٮ‬

isotope effect ‫اثط اڂعٸسٹدځ‬

transs effect ‫اثط سطاٶؽ‬

Faraday effect ‫بضازٺ‬ٞ ‫اثط‬

common – ion effect ٤‫اثط ڂٹٴ ٲكشط‬

ketone bodeis ‫شٹٶځ ڂب اؾشٹٶځ‬٦ ٰ‫اخؿب‬

occlusion ‫احشجبؼ‬

orbital ٬‫اضثڃشب‬

atomic orbital ‫ اسٳځ‬٬‫اضثڃشب‬

d orbitals d ‫ټبڀ‬٬‫اضثڃشب‬

bonding orbitals ‫ټبڀ دڃٹٶسڀ‬٬‫اضثڃشب‬

antibonding orbitals ‫ټبڀ يس دڃٹٶسڀ‬٬‫اضثڃشب‬

molecular orbitals ‫ٹٮځ‬٧‫ټبڀ ٲٹٮ‬٬‫اضثڃشب‬

degenerate orbitals ‫ټبڀ ټٱ اٶطغڀ‬٬‫اضثڃشب‬

carbon value ‫طثٵ‬٦ ‫اضظـ‬

calorific value ‫طٲبڂځ‬٪ ‫اضظـ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬71

electron spin ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫اؾذڃٵ اٮ‬

nuclear spin ‫اؾذڃٵ ټؿشٻ‬

acetates ‫اؾشبرټب‬

acetaldehyde ‫اؾشبٮسټڃس‬

extraction ‫اؾشرطاج‬

leaching ٬‫اؾشرطاج ثب حال‬

Liquid – liquid extraction ٕ‫اؾشرطاج ٲبڂٕ – ٲبڂ‬

extract ‫اؾشرطاخځ‬

spray ponds ‫كبٶٻاڀ‬ٞ‫اؾشرطټبڀ ا‬

Electrophilic substitiution ‫شطٸٶسٸؾشځ‬٧‫ اٮ‬ٜ‫اؾشرال‬

nucleophilic substitiution ‫ ټؿشٻ زٸؾز‬ٜ‫اؾشرال‬

osterone ‫اؾشطٸٴ‬

steroid ‫اؾشطٸئڃسټب‬

esters ‫اؾشطټب‬

esterification ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫اؾشطڀ‬

stoichiometry ‫ڃٹٲشطڀ‬٦‫اؾشٹ‬

stoichiometric ٥‫ڃٹٲشطڂ‬٦‫اؾشٹ‬

acetone ‫اؾشٹٴ‬

acetone alcohol ‫٭‬٧‫اؾشٹٴ اٮ‬

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72 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

estearic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫اؾشئبضڂ‬

stearine ‫اؾشئبضڂٵ‬

styrene ‫اؾشڃطٴ‬

acetic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫اؾشڃ‬

acetylene ‫اؾشڃٯٵ‬

acetylides ‫اؾشڃٯڃسټب‬

acetins ‫اؾشڃٵټب‬

scandium, Sc ‫بٶسڂٱ‬٧‫اؾ‬

osmosis ‫اؾٳع‬

:reverse osmosis ‫ٹؼ‬٧ٗ‫اؾٳع ٲ‬

acid ‫اؾڃس‬

dibasic acid ‫اؾڃس زٸ ٖبٲٯځ‬

tribasic acid ‫اؾڃس ؾٻ ٖبٲٯځ‬

fatty acids ‫اؾڃسټبڀ چطة‬

exclusion principle ‫ان٭ َطز‬

Pauli exclusion principle ‫ان٭ َطز دبٸٮځ‬

:Heisenberg uncertainty principle ٨‫ُٗڃز ټبڂعٶجط‬٢ ٰ‫ان٭ ٖس‬

Le Chatelier principle ‫ان٭ ٮٹقبسٯڃٻ‬

oxidative addition ‫ؿبڂكځ‬٦‫عاڂف ا‬ٞ‫ا‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬73

2- octanol ٬‫شبٶٹ‬٦‫ ا‬-2

octanes ‫شبٴټب‬٦‫ا‬

Oxidation ‫ؿبڂف‬٦‫ا‬

electrolytic Oxidation ‫شطٸٮڃشځ‬٧‫ؿبڂف اٮ‬٦‫ا‬

oxytocin ‫ؿځ سٹؾڃٵ‬٦‫ا‬

oxide ‫ؿڃس‬٦‫ا‬

gold oxides ‫ؿڃسټبڀ َال‬٦‫ا‬

oxygen, O ‫ؿڃػٴ‬٦‫ا‬

oxalic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫عاٮڃ‬٪‫ا‬

elastin ‫االؾشڃٵ‬

asymmetric induction ‫بضٶځ‬٣‫بڀ ثځس‬٣‫اٮ‬

electro - osmosis ‫شطٸاؾٳع‬٧‫اٮ‬

electrode ‫شطٸز‬٧‫اٮ‬

standard electrode ‫شطٸز اؾشبٶساضز‬٧‫اٮ‬

glass electrode ‫شطٸز قڃكٻاڀ‬٧‫اٮ‬

reference electrode ٕ‫شطٸز ٲطخ‬٧‫اٮ‬

hydrogen electrode ‫شطٸز ټڃسضٸغٴ‬٧‫اٮ‬

carbon electrodes ‫طثٵ‬٦ ‫شطٸزټبڀ‬٧‫اٮ‬

electrodialysis ‫شطٸزڂبٮڃع‬٧‫اٮ‬

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74 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

electrokinetics ٥‫شطٸؾڃٷشڃ‬٧‫اٮ‬

electrochemistry ‫شطٸقڃٳځ‬٧‫اٮ‬

electrophoresis ‫ٹضظ‬ٞ‫شطٸ‬٧‫اٮ‬

electrochromatology ‫ځ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦‫شطٸ‬٧‫اٮ‬

electrolyte ‫شطٸٮڃز‬٧‫اٮ‬

amphoteric electrolyte ‫ٹسطڀ‬ٟ‫شطٸٮڃز آٲ‬٧‫اٮ‬

electrolysis ‫شطٸٮڃع‬٧‫اٮ‬

electron ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫اٮ‬

electron affinity ‫شطٸٶرٹاټځ‬٧‫اٮ‬

electronegativity ‫بسڃٹڀ‬٫‫شطٸٶ‬٧‫اٮ‬

optical electrons ‫شطٸٴټبڀ ٶٹضڀ‬٧‫اٮ‬

valency electrons ‫شطٸٴټبڀ ٸاالٶؿځ‬٧‫اٮ‬

alcohol ‫٭‬٧‫اٮ‬

alcoholometry ‫٭ؾٷدځ‬٧‫اٮ‬

diamond ‫اٮٳبؼ‬

allotrope ‫اٮٹسطٸح‬

emulsion ‫اٲٹٮؿڃٹٴ‬

de - emulsification ‫اٲٹٮؿڃٹٴ ظزاڂځ‬

emulsification ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫اٲٹٮؿڃٹٴ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬75

emulsifier ‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦ ‫اٲٹٮؿڃٹٴ‬

demulsibility ‫طڂعڀ‬٪ ‫اٲٹٮؿڃٹٴ‬

demulsification ‫اٲٹٮؿڃٹٴ ظزاڂځ‬

enthalpy (H) )H( ‫اٶشبٮذځ‬

entropy (S) )s( ‫اٶشطٸدځ‬

electronic transition ‫شطٸٶځ‬٧‫ اٮ‬٬‫ب‬٣‫اٶش‬

atomic energy ‫اٶطغڀ اسٳځ‬

bond energy ‫اٶطغڀ دڃٹٶس‬

internal energy ‫اٶطغڀ زضٸٶځ‬

surface energy ‫اٶطغڀ ؾُحځ‬

lattice energy ‫ٻ‬٧‫اٶطغڀ قج‬

activation energy ‫ؾبظڀ‬٬‫ٗب‬ٞ ‫اٶطغڀ‬

ionization energies ‫اٶطغڀ ڂٹٶف‬

insulin ‫اٶؿٹٮڃٵ‬

anhydro ‫اٶڃسضٸ‬

anhydride ‫اٶڃسضڂس‬

uranium, U ‫اٸضاٶڃٱ‬

urea ‫اٸضٺ‬

auric ٥‫اٸضڂ‬

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76 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

uric acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫اٸضڂ‬

ozone ‫اٸظٸٴ‬

ozonolysis ‫ز‬ٞ‫ب‬٦ ‫اٸظٸٴ‬

oleum ٰ‫اٸٮئٹ‬

iridium, Ir ‫اثطڂسڂٱ‬

isobutane ‫اڂعٸ ثٹسبٴ‬

isotropic ‫اڂعٸسطٸدځ‬

isotope ‫اڂعٸسٹح‬

isotones ‫اڂعٸسٹٴټب‬

isomerases ‫اڂعٸظٲطاظټب‬

imides ‫اڂٳڃسټب‬

imines ‫اڂٳڃٵټب‬

‫ب‬

nickel accumulator ‫ٯځ‬٧‫ثبسطڀ ٶڃ‬

lead acid batteries ‫ثبسطڀټبڀ اؾڃسڀ ؾطة‬

gunpowder ‫ثبضٸر‬

baryta ‫ثبضڂز‬

barium, Ba ‫ثبضڂٱ‬

barium peroxide ‫ؿڃس‬٦‫ثبضڂٱ دطا‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬77

barium sulphate ‫بر‬ٟ‫ثبضڂٱ ؾٹٮ‬

barium sulphide ‫ڃس‬ٟ‫ثبضڂٱ ؾٹٮ‬

base ‫ثبظ‬

lewis base ‫ثبظ ٮٹٸڂؽ‬

conjugate base ‫ثبظ ٲعزٸج‬

inhibitor ‫ثبظزاضٶسٺ‬

total reflux ‫بٲ٭‬٦ ‫ثبظضٸاٶځ‬

back bonding ‫ثبظؾبظڀ دڃٹٶس‬

blow -off ‫ثبالثطزٴ‬

steam ‫ثربض آة‬

absorption tower ‫ثطج خصة‬

deactivating collision ‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦ ٬‫ٗب‬ٞ‫ڃط‬ٚ ‫ثطذٹضز‬

brass ‫ثطٶح‬

beryllium, Be ‫ثطڂٯڃٱ‬

frequency ‫ثؿبٲس‬

convergence frequency ‫طاڂځ‬٫‫ثؿبٲس ټٳ‬

atactic polymer ‫ثؿذبض ثځ آضاڂف‬

polymerization ‫ثؿذبضـ‬

ethane polymers ‫ثؿذبضټبڀ اسٵ‬

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78 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

butane polymers ‫ثؿذبضټبڀ ڂٹسٵ‬

isotactic polymers ‫ثؿذبضټبڀ ثٹسٵ‬

isotactic polymers ‫ آضاڂف‬٥‫ثؿذبضټبڀ س‬

syntactic polymers ‫ثؿذبضټبڀ ټٱ آضاڂف‬

crystal ‫ثٯٹض‬

homopolar crystal ‫ُجځ‬٢ ‫ثٯٹض خٹض‬

liquid crystals ٕ‫ثٯٹضټبڀ ٲبڂ‬

bomb calorimeter ‫طٲبؾٷح‬٪ ‫ثٳت‬

benzene ‫ثٷعٴ‬

benzine ‫ثٷعڂٵ‬

radical ‫ثٷڃبٴ‬

butane ‫ثٹسبٴ‬

borone, B ‫ثٹض‬

borates ‫ثٹضارټب‬

borax ‫ؽ‬٦‫ثٹضا‬

burette ‫ثٹضر‬

asymmetry ‫بضٶځ‬٣‫ثځس‬

amorphous ‫ثځضڂرز‬

bismuth, Bi ‫ثڃؿٳٹر‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬79

bicarbonates ‫طثٷبر‬٦‫ثځ‬

biosynthesis ‫ثڃٹؾٷشع‬

‫پ‬

para ‫دبضا‬

paraformakdehyde ‫طٲبٮسټڃس‬ٞ‫دبضا‬

paraffin ‫ڃٵ‬ٞ‫دبضا‬

paraffin wax ‫ڃٵ خبٲس‬ٞ‫دبضا‬

liquid paraffin ٕ‫ڃٵ ٲبڂ‬ٞ‫دبضا‬

pasteurization ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫دبؾشٹضڂعٺ‬

palladium, Pd ‫دبالزڂٱ‬

palladium black ‫دبالزڂٱ ؾڃبٺ‬

hydrofining ‫دبالڂف ثب ټڃسضٸغٴ‬

caustic potash ‫دشبؼ ؾٹظآٸض‬

potassium, K ‫دشبؾڃٱ‬

potassium bromide ‫دشبؾڃٱ ثطٲڃس‬

electrode potential ‫شطٸز‬٧‫دشبٶؿڃ٭ اٮ‬

surface potenial ‫دشبٶؿڃ٭ ؾُحځ‬

chemical potential ‫دشبٶؿڃ٭ قڃٳڃبڂځ‬

ionization potential ‫دشبٶؿڃ٭ ڂٹٶف‬

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80 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

light scattering ‫درف ٶٹض‬

critical phemomena ‫دسڂسٺټبڀ ثحطاٶځ‬

Low energy electron diffraction (LEED) ‫ٱ اٶطغڀ‬٦ ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫دطاـ اٮ‬

electron diffraction ‫شطٸٶځ‬٧‫دطاـ اٮ‬

radioactivity ‫دطسٹظاڂځ‬

radioactivity artificial ‫دطسٹظاڂځ ٲهٷٹٖځ‬

gamma rays ‫بٲب‬٪ ‫دطسٹټبڀ‬

proton ‫دطسٹٴ‬

protonation )‫طزٴ (قسٴ‬٦ ‫دطٸسٹٴزاض‬

hysteresis ‫دؿٳبٶس‬

wool ‫دكٱ‬

salt bridge ٥‫د٭ ٶٳ‬

plutonium, Pu ‫دٯٹسٹٶڃٱ‬

polyamides ‫دٯځآٲڃسټب‬

polyamines ‫دٯځآٲڃٵټب‬

polyethers ‫دٯځاسطټب‬

polyacetaldehdye ‫دٯځاؾشبٮسټڃس‬

polyacetals ‫ټب‬٬‫دٯځاؾشب‬

ployformaldehyde ‫طٲبٮسټڃس‬ٞ‫دٯځ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬81

vaccum pump ‫دٳخ ذأل‬

pyrex ‫ؽ‬٦‫دڃط‬

pyrites ‫دڃطثڃزټب‬

pyridine ‫دڃطڂسڂٵ‬

predissociation ٥‫ڃ‬٧ٟ‫ثڃف س‬

pyknometer ‫ٷٹٲشط‬٧‫دڃ‬

concentration cell ‫ٯٓشځ‬ٚ ‫دڃ٭‬

batteries ‫ځ‬٧‫شطڂ‬٧‫دڃ٭ټبڀ اٮ‬

continuity of state ‫ځ حبٮز‬٫‫دڃٹؾش‬

bond ‫دڃٹٶس‬

electrovalent bond ‫شطٸٸاالٶؿځ‬٧‫دڃٹٶس اٮ‬

pi-bonding ‫دڃٹٶس دځ‬

homopolar bond ‫ُجځ‬٢ ‫دڃٹٶس خٹض‬

multiple bonding ‫بٶٻ‬٪‫دڃٹٶس چٷس‬

multicenter bond ‫عڀ‬٦‫دڃٹٶس چٷس ٲط‬

double bond ‫بٶٻ‬٪‫دڃٹٶس زٸ‬

single bond ‫دڃٹٶس ؾبزٺ‬

triple bond ‫بٶٻ‬٪ ‫دڃٹٶس ؾٻ‬

sigma bond ‫ٳب‬٫‫دڃٹٶس ؾڃ‬

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82 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

covalent bond ‫ٹٸاالٶؿځ‬٦ ‫دڃٹٶس‬

co-ordinate bond ‫ٹئٹضزڂٷبؾځ‬٦ ‫دڃٹٶس‬

semi-polar bond ‫ُجځ‬٢‫دڃٹٶس ٶڃٱ‬

hydrogen bond ‫دڃٹٶس ټڃسضٸغٶځ‬

single bond ‫بٶٻ‬٫‫دڃٹٶس ڂ‬

delta bonding ‫دڃٹٶسؾبظڀ زٮشب‬

metal-metal bonds ‫ٯع‬ٞ – ‫ٯع‬ٞ ‫دڃٹٶسټبڀ‬

‫ت‬

Electromagnetic radiation ‫ٷبَڃؽ‬ٛ‫شطٸٲ‬٧‫سبثف اٮ‬

ultra-violet light ‫ف‬ٟ‫طاثٷ‬ٞ ‫سبثف‬

supercooling ‫سبذڃط اٶدٳبز‬

densitometer ‫سبضڀ ؾٷح‬

electron exchange ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫ اٮ‬٬‫سجبز‬

base exchange ‫ ثبظ‬٬‫سجبز‬

ion exchange ‫ ڂٹٴ‬٬‫سجبز‬

evaporation ‫سجرڃط‬

evaporator ‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦ ‫سجرڃط‬

catforming ‫بسبٮڃعٸض‬٦ ‫سجسڂ٭ ثب‬

converting ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫سجسڂ٭‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬83

crystallization ‫سجٯٹض‬

fractional crystallization ‫سجٯٹض خع ثٻ خع‬

recrystallization ‫سجٯٹض ٲدسز‬

association ٕ‫سدٳ‬

mobility, ionic ‫ ڂٹٶځ‬٥‫سحطڂ‬

fermentation ‫سرٳڃط‬

balance ‫سطاظٸ‬

thermobalance ‫طٲبڂځ‬٪ ‫سطاظٸڀ‬

trans ‫سطاٶؽ‬

turpentine ‫سطڂبٶشڃٵ‬

organoelement compounds ‫ڃجبر آٮځ ٖٷهطڀ‬٦‫سط‬

Organophosphorus compounds ‫طڀ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ ‫ڃجبر آٮځ‬٦‫سط‬

Organometallic compounds ‫ٯعڀ‬ٞ ‫ڃجبر آٮځ‬٦‫سط‬

electron - deficient compounds ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫ٳجٹز اٮ‬٦ ‫ڃجبر ثب‬٦‫سط‬

graphite compounds ‫ڃز‬ٞ‫طا‬٪ ‫ڃجبر‬٦‫سط‬

lanthanide compounds ‫ڃجبر الٶشبٶڃس‬٦‫سط‬

equikibrium, metastable ‫ قجڃٻ دبڂساض‬٬‫سٗبز‬

membrane equilibrium ‫كبڂځ‬ٚ ٬‫سٗبز‬

isothermal change ‫ڃڃط ټٳسٲب‬ٛ‫س‬

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84 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

lability ‫ڃڃطدصڂطڀ‬ٛ‫س‬

dissociation ٥‫ڃ‬٧ٟ‫س‬

teflon ‫ٯٹٴ‬ٟ‫س‬

rectification ‫ُڃط‬٣‫س‬

distillation ‫ُڃط‬٣‫س‬

molecular distillation ‫ٹٮځ‬٧‫ُڃط ٲٯ‬٣‫س‬

monomer ‫ذبض‬٧‫س‬

tincture of iodine ‫سٷشٹضڂس‬

‫ج‬

chemical shift ‫خبثدبڂځ قڃٳڃبڂځ‬

sessile dislocation ‫عٶسٺ‬ٛ‫خبثدبڂځ ٶبٮ‬

adsorbent ‫خبشة ؾُحځ‬

parting ‫خساؾبظڀ‬

dense media separation ‫طزاٶځ‬٪‫خساؾبظڀ ثب قٷبٸض‬

matrix isolation ‫ٻ‬٧‫خساؾبظڀ قج‬

magnetic separation ‫ٷبَڃؿځ‬ٛ‫خساؾبظڀ ٲ‬

segregation ‫خساٶكڃٷځ‬

periodic table ‫ سٷبٸثځ‬٬‫خسٸ‬

absorption ‫خصة‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬85

adsorption ‫خصة ؾُحځ‬

adsorbate ‫خصة ؾُحځ قسٺ‬

adsorption, chemical ‫خصة ؾُحځ قڃٳڃبڂځ‬

activated adsorption ‫قسٺ‬٬‫ٗب‬ٞ ‫خصة ؾُحځ‬

adsorption , physical ‫ځ‬٧‫ڃعڂ‬ٞ ‫خصة ؾُحځ‬

negative adsorption ‫ځ‬ٟ‫خصة ؾُحځ ٲٷ‬

van der Waals' adsorption .‫خصة ؾُحځ ٸاٴ زض ٸاٮؽ‬

gas absorption ‫بظ‬٪ ‫خصة قسٴ‬

chemisorption ‫خصة قڃٳڃبڂځ‬

ultra-violet absorbers ‫ف‬ٟ‫طاثٷ‬ٞ ‫ٷٷسٺټبڀ سبثفټبڀ‬٦ ‫خصة‬

absorption of light ‫خصة ٶٹض‬

absorptiometer ‫خصةؾٷح‬

active mass ٬‫ٗب‬ٞ ٰ‫خط‬

molecule, mass of ٬‫ٹ‬٧‫خطٰ ٲٹٮ‬

relative atomic mass ‫خطٰ ٶؿجځ اسٳځ‬

coupling ‫ز قسٴ‬ٟ‫خ‬

ionic atmosphere ‫خٹ ڂٹٶځ‬

decoctions ‫خٹقبٶسٺ‬

spirit of salt ٥‫خٹټط ٶٳ‬

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86 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

regioselectivity ‫عڂٷځ‬٪‫خٽز‬

mercury, Hg ‫خڃٹٺ‬

‫چ‬

initiators ‫چبقٷځټب‬

cast iron ‫چسٴ‬

fats ‫چطثځټب‬

urea cycle ‫چطذٻڀ اٸضٺ‬

adhesive ‫چؿت‬

adhesives ‫چؿتټب‬

electron density ‫شطٸٶځ‬٧‫بٮځ اٮ‬٫‫چ‬

vapour dansity ‫بٮځ ثربض‬٫‫چ‬

multiplet ‫چٷسسبڂځ‬

polymorphism ‫ځ‬٫‫چٷسضٶ‬

closo ‫چٷسٸخٽځ‬

wood ‫چٹة‬

‫ح‬

Solubility product ٬‫حبن٭يطة اٶحال‬

ionic product ‫حبن٭يطة ڂٹٶځ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬87

standard state ‫حبٮز اؾشبٶساضز‬

oxidation state ‫ؿبڂف‬٦‫حبٮز ا‬

excited state ‫ڃرشٻ‬٫‫حبٮز ثطاٶ‬

crystalline state ‫حبٮز ثٯٹضڀ‬

ground state ‫حبٮز دبڂٻ‬

vitreous state ‫حبٮز قڃكٻاڀ‬

singlet state ‫شبڂځ‬٧‫حبٮز ڂ‬

gram molecular volume ٰ‫ط‬٪ – ٬‫ٹ‬٧‫حدٱ ٲٹٮ‬

Brownian movement ‫ز ثطاٸٶځ‬٦‫حط‬

photosensitization ‫حؿبؼ ؾبظڀ ثٻ ٶٹض‬

Spectral sensitization ‫ځ‬ٟ‫طزٴ َڃ‬٦ ‫حؿبؼ‬

spectral sensitizers ‫ځ‬ٟ‫ٷٷسٺټبڀ َڃ‬٦ ‫حؿبؼ‬

desensitization ‫حؿبؾڃزظزاڂځ‬

solvent ٬‫حال‬

polar solvent ‫ُجځ‬٢ ٬‫حال‬

solvolysis ‫ز‬ٞ‫ب‬٦ ٬‫حال‬

Solvation ‫دٹقځ‬٬‫حال‬

lyophilic ‫طڂع‬٪٬‫حال‬

non-aqueous solvents ‫ڃطآثځ‬ٚ ‫ټبڀ‬٬‫حال‬

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88 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

cyclic ‫ٻاڀ‬٣‫حٯ‬

‫خ‬

earth ٤‫ذب‬

activated clay ‫ قسٺ‬٬‫ٗب‬ٞ )‫ (ضؼ‬٤‫ذب‬

wood flour ‫ چٹة‬٤‫ذب‬

china clay ‫ چڃٷځ‬٤‫ذب‬

black ash ‫ؿشط ؾڃبٺ‬٦‫ذب‬

active earths ٬‫ٗب‬ٞ ‫ټبڀ‬٤‫ذب‬

rare earths ‫ٳڃبة‬٦ ‫ټبڀ‬٤‫ذب‬

grinding ‫طزٴ‬٦‫ذطز‬

desiccant ‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦ ٥‫ذك‬

auto-catalysis ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫بسبٮڃع‬٦ ‫ذٹز‬

auto-oxidation ‫ؿبڂف‬٦‫ذٹز ا‬

corrosion ‫ځ‬٪‫ذٹضز‬

‫د‬

elutriation ٬‫زاٶٻثٷسڀ ثب ؾڃب‬

granulation ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫زاٶٻ‬

degree of hydrolysis ‫ز‬ٞ‫ب‬٧‫زضخٻڀ اث‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬89

degree of freedom ‫زضخٻڀآظازڀ‬

optical purity ‫زضخٻڀ ذٯٹل ٶٹضڀ‬

macromolecule ٬‫ٹ‬٧‫زضقز ٲٹٮ‬

still ‫ُڃط‬٣‫بٺ س‬٫‫زؾش‬

size reduction equipment ‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦‫بٺ ضڂع‬٫‫زؾش‬

crystal systems ‫بٺټبڀ ثٯٹض‬٫‫زؾش‬

coagulation ‫زٮٳٻ قسٴ‬

end point, final boiling point ‫زٲبڀ (خٹـ) دبڂبٶځ‬

ignition temperature ٬‫زٲبڀ اقشٗب‬

transition temperature ٬‫ب‬٣‫زٲبڀ اٶش‬

critical solution temperature ٬‫زٲبڀ ثحطاٶځ ٲحٯٹ‬

decomposition point ‫زٲبڀ سدعڂٻ‬

sublimation point temperature ‫زٲبڀ سهٗڃس‬

boiling point ‫زٲبڀ خٹـ‬

wet-bulb temperature ‫زٲبڀ حجبةسط‬

dry point ٥‫زٲبڀ ذك‬

melting point ‫زٲبڀ شٸة‬

absolute temperature ١‫زٲبڀ ٲُٯ‬

inversion temperature ‫ځ‬٫‫زٲبڀ ٸاضٸٶ‬

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90 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

dendrite ‫زٶسضڂز‬

doublet ‫زٸسبڂځ‬

deuterium, D ‫زٸسطڂٱ‬

carbon black ‫زٸزٺ‬

acetylene balck ‫زٸزٺڀ اؾشڃٯٵ‬

lamp black ٘‫زٸزٺڀ چطا‬

gem ‫ٯٹ‬٢‫زٸ‬

dolomit ‫زٸٮٹٲڃز‬

nitrogen - donors ‫بٴ ٶڃشطٸغٶځ‬٪‫زټٷس‬

donors ‫زټٷسٺ‬

diethyl ether ‫زڀ اسڃ٭ اسط‬

diethylamine ‫زڀ اسڃٯٵ آٲڃٵ‬

dialysis ‫زڂبٮڃع‬

dipentene ‫زڀ دٷشٵ‬

diterpene ‫زڀ سط دٵ‬

Diphosphopyridine nucleotide, DPN ‫ٯئٹسڃس‬٦‫ٹدڃطڂسٴ ٶٹ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ ‫زڀ‬

diketones ‫شٹٴټب‬٦ ‫زڀ‬

dynamite ‫زڂٷبٲڃز‬

divinyl ether ‫زڀ ٸڂٷڃ٭ اسط‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬91

diorite ‫زڂٹضڂز‬

dioxin ‫ؿڃٵ‬٦‫زڂٹ‬

‫ر‬

dep fat ‫شذڃطٺڀ چطثځ‬

elementary particles ‫شضار ثٷڃبزڀ‬

alpha particle ‫ب‬ٟ‫شضٺڀ آٮ‬

beta particle ‫شضٺڀ ثشب‬

‫ر‬

radon, Rn ‫ضازٸٴ‬

free radicals ‫ټبڀ آظاز‬٬‫ب‬٧‫ضازڂ‬

radium, Ra ‫ضازڂٱ‬

spextroxhemical series ‫شطٸقڃٳڃبڂځ‬٧‫ اؾذ‬ٝ‫ضزڂ‬

resonance ‫ضظٸٶبٶؽ‬

electron spin resonance ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫ضظٸٶبٶؽ اؾذڃٵ اٮ‬

magmetic resonance ‫ٷبَڃؿځ‬ٛ‫ضظٸٶبٶؽ ٲ‬

acetal resin ٬‫ضظڂٵ اؾشب‬

resins ‫ضظڂٵټب‬

alkyd resins ‫ڃسڀ‬٧‫ضظڂٵټبڀ آٮ‬

epoxy resins ‫ؿځ‬٦‫ضظڂٵټبڀ ادٹ‬

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92 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

thermoplastic resins ‫طٲبؾرز‬٪ ‫ضظڂٵټبڀ‬

conductivity, solids ‫ضؾبٶبڂځ خبٲسټب‬

molar conductivity ‫ضؾبٶبڂځ ٲٹٮځ‬

equivalent conductivity ‫ضؾبٶبڂځ ټٱ اضظ‬

photoconduction ‫ضؾبٶف ثٻٸؾڃٯٻڀ ٶٹض‬

metallic conduction ‫ٯعڀ‬ٞ ‫ضؾبٶف‬

bright stock )٤‫ (ثطاڂز اؾشٹ‬ٜ‫ب‬ٟ‫ضؾٹة ق‬

precipitation ‫ڃطڀ‬٪‫ضؾٹة‬

clays ‫ضؼټب‬

humidity ‫ضَٹثز‬

critical humidity ‫ضَٹثز ثحطاٶځ‬

dehumidification ‫ضَٹثز ظزاڂځ‬

scavengers ‫طټب‬٫‫ش‬ٞ‫ض‬

paint ٩‫ضٶ‬

pigments ‫ساٶٻټب‬٫‫ضٶ‬

Coat tar pigments ٩‫ ؾٷ‬٬‫ب‬ٚ‫ُطاٴ ظ‬٢ ‫ساٶٻټبڀ‬٫‫ضٶ‬

chromophore ‫ؿبظ‬٫‫ضٶ‬

dyestuffs ‫ټب‬٩‫ضٶ‬

reactive dyes ‫ٷكځ‬٦‫ڃٷٻټبڀ ٸا‬٫‫ضٶ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬93

rubidium, Rb ‫ضٸثڃسڂٱ‬

‫ ٶٹضؾٷدځ‬ٝ‫ضٸـټبڀ آٶبٮڃع قڃٳڃبڂځ ثب َڃ‬

spectrophotometric methods of
transformer oil ٬‫ٵ ٲجس‬ٚ‫ضٸ‬

oil of peppermint ٔ‫ٵ ٶٗٷب‬ٚ‫ضٸ‬

heat transmission oils ‫طٲب‬٪ ٬‫ب‬٣‫ٵټبڀ اٶش‬ٚ‫ضٸ‬

zinc, Zn ‫ضٸڀ‬

‫ز‬

Green vitriol ‫ظاج ؾجع‬

alums ‫ڃس‬ٟ‫ظاج ؾ‬

alum ‫ظاخٽب‬

iron alum ‫ظاخٽبڀ آټٵ‬

manganese alums ‫ٷع‬٫‫ظاخٽبڀ ٲٷ‬

dihedral angle ‫ظاٸڂٻڀ زٸ ٸخٽځ‬

Charcoal ٬‫ب‬ٚ‫ظ‬

coal ٩‫ؾٷ‬٬‫ب‬ٚ‫ظ‬

emerald ‫ظٲطز‬

catenation ‫ظٶدڃطڀ قسٴ‬

electron pair ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫ظٸج اٮ‬

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94 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

zwitterion ‫ظٸج ڂٹٴ‬

‫ژ‬

germanium Ge ‫غضٲبٶڃٱ‬

photographic gelatin ‫بؾځ‬٧ٖ ‫غالسڃٵ‬

gelatin ‫غالسڃٵټب‬

alumina gel ‫ آٮٹٲڃٵ‬٬‫غ‬

‫س‬

saccharin ‫ؾبذبضڂٵ‬

nido ‫ؾبذشبض ثبظ‬

crystal structure ‫ؾبذشبض ثٯٹض‬

fine structure ٝ‫ؾبذشبض ْطڂ‬

liquid, structure of ٕ‫ؾبذشبض ٲبڂ‬

solid structure ‫ؾبذشبضټبڀ خبٲس‬

abrasives ‫ؾبڂٷسٺټب‬

brilliant green ‫ؾجع زضذؿبٴ‬

merald green ‫ؾجع ظٲطزڀ‬

stripping ‫ڃطڀ‬٪٥‫ؾج‬

fractionating column ‫ُڃط خع ثٻ خع‬٣‫ؾشٹٴ س‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬95

distillation column ‫ُڃط‬٣‫ؾشٹٴ س‬

absorption column ‫ؾشٹٴ خصة‬

cooling towers ‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦ ٥‫ؾشٹٴټبڀ ذٷ‬

hardness ‫ؾرشځ‬

hardness of water ‫ؾرشځ آة‬

sodium permangenate ‫ٷبر‬٫‫ؾسڂٱ ٲٷ‬

sodium cyanide ‫ؾسڂٱ ؾذبٶڃس‬

sodium fluoride ‫ٯٹئٹضڂس‬ٞ ‫ؾسڂٱ‬

sodium carbonate ‫طثٷبر‬٦ ‫ؾسڂٱ‬

sodium chlorate ‫ٯطار‬٦ ‫ؾسڂٱ‬

ceramides ‫ؾطاٲڃسټب‬

ceramics ‫ټب‬٥‫ؾطاٲڃ‬

lead, Pb ‫ؾطة‬

lead chlorides ‫ٯطڂسټب‬٦ ‫ؾطة‬

slag ‫ؾطثبضٺ‬

decantation ‫طزٴ‬٦‫ؾطضڂع‬

vinegar ‫ٻ‬٦‫ؾط‬

refrigerants ‫ؾطٲبظاټب‬

refrigeration ‫ؾطٲبظاڂځ‬

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96 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

screening ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫ؾطٶس‬

screens ‫ؾطٶسټب‬

series spectroscopy ‫ ثڃٷځ‬ٝ‫ؾطڂٽبڀ َڃ‬

caesium ‫ؾعڂٱ‬

selenides ‫ؾٯٷڃسټب‬

selenium Se ‫ؾٯٷڃٱ‬

selenium oxides ‫ؿڃسټب‬٦‫ؾٯٷڃٱ ا‬

diaphragm cell ‫ٳځ‬٪‫طا‬ٞ‫ زڂب‬٬‫ؾٯٹ‬

membrance cell ‫كبڂځ‬ٚ ٬‫ؾٯٹ‬

unit cell ‫ ٸاحس‬٬‫ؾٯٹ‬

cellulose ‫ؾٯٹٮع‬

detoxication ‫ؾٳعزاڂځ‬

emery ‫ؾٷجبزٺ‬

synthesis ‫ؾٷشع‬

solid – phase synthesis ‫ؾٷشع حبٮز خبٲس‬

limestone ‫ آټٵ‬٩‫ؾٷ‬

gyosum ‫چ‬٪ ٩‫ؾٷ‬

metabolism ‫ؾٹذز ٸ ؾبظ‬

combustion ‫ؾٹذشٵ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬97

fuels ‫ؾٹذزټب‬

sorbic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫ؾٹضثڃ‬

sulphites ‫ڃزټب‬ٟ‫ؾٹٮ‬

sulphids ‫ڃسټب‬ٟ‫ؾٹٮ‬

syanides ‫ؾڃبٶڃسټب‬

cement ‫ؾڃٳبٴ‬

‫ش‬

luminous paints ‫ټب‬٩‫قجطٶ‬

lattice ‫ٻ‬٧‫قج‬

primitive lattice ‫ٻ ؾبزٺ‬٧‫قج‬

space lattice ‫ًبڂځ‬ٞ ‫ٻڀ‬٧‫قج‬

layer lattice ‫ٻڀ الڂٻاڀ‬٧‫قج‬

metalloids ‫ٯعټب‬ٞ ‫قجٻ‬

pseudocument ‫قجٻ ټبٮٹغٴټب‬

standard temperature and pressure ‫ځ‬ٞ‫قطاڂٍ ٲشٗبض‬

(STP)
covalent radius ‫ٹٸاالٶؿځ‬٦ ٔ‫قٗب‬

atomic radii ‫قٗبٔټبڀ اسٳځ‬

ionic radii ‫قٗبٔټبڀ ڂٹٶځ‬

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98 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

fission ‫ز‬ٞ‫ب‬٧‫ق‬

orbital splitting ٬‫ځ اضثڃشب‬٫‫ش‬ٞ‫ب‬٧‫ق‬

efforescence ‫ځ‬٫‫ش‬ٟ٧‫ق‬

indicator ‫ط‬٪‫قٷبؾب‬

mixed indicator ‫ط آٲڃرشٻ‬٪‫قٷبؾب‬

adsorption indicator ‫ط خصة ؾُحځ‬٪‫قٷبؾب‬

comploxometric indicator ‫ؽ ؾٷدځ‬٧‫ٳذٯ‬٦ ‫ط‬٪‫قٷبؾب‬

colour indicators ‫ځ‬٫‫طټبڀ ضٶ‬٪‫قٷبؾب‬

turbidity indicators ‫سضڀ‬٦ ‫طټبڀ‬٪‫قٷبؾب‬

flotation ‫قٷبٸضؾبظڀ‬

froth flotation ٝ٦ ‫قٷبٸضؾبظڀ زض‬

detergents )‫قٹڂٷسٺټب (زسطغاٴټب‬

milk of lime ٥‫قڃط آټ‬

glass ‫قڃكٻ‬

silica vitreous ‫ٹاضسعڀ‬٦ ‫قڃكٻ‬

stained glass ‫ځ‬٫‫قڃكٻڀ ضٶ‬

quartz glass ‫ٹاضسع‬٦ ‫قڃكٻڀ‬

‫ص‬

soaps ‫نبثٹٴټب‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬99

saponification )‫طزٴ‬٦( ‫نبثٹٶځ قسٴ‬

filtration ‫طزٴ‬٦ ٜ‫نب‬

clarifier ‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦ ٜ‫نب‬

filter ‫ځ‬ٞ‫نب‬

air filters ‫ځټبڀ ټٹا‬ٞ‫نب‬

gums ‫ٽب‬ٛ‫نٳ‬

conformation ‫نٹضسجٷسڀ‬

‫ض‬

water proofing ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫يس آة‬

anti - isomorphism ‫يس ټٳطڂرشځ‬

anti - aromatic ٥‫يسآضٸٲبسڃ‬

antacids ‫يس اؾڃس‬

impact resistance ‫يطثٻدصڂطڀ‬

Absorption coefficient of light ‫يطڂت خصة ٶٹض‬

activity coefficient ‫ٗبٮڃز‬ٞ ‫يطڂت‬

viscosity, coefficient of ‫يطڂت ٶبضٸاٶځ‬

‫ط‬

classification ‫ٻثٷسڀ‬٣‫َج‬

wavelength ‫ ٲٹج‬٬‫َٹ‬

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100 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

spectrophotometer ‫ ٶٹضؾٷح‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

atomic spectrum ‫ اسٳځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

vibrational spectrum ‫ اضسٗبقځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

continuous spectrum ‫ دڃٹؾشٻ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

mass spectrum ‫ خطٲځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

band spectrum ‫ ٶٹاضڀ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

absorption spectroscopy ‫ثڃٷځ خصثځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

atomic absorption spectroscopy ‫ثڃٷځ خصثځ اسٳځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

Microwave spectroscopy ‫ثڃٷځ ضڂعٲٹج‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

in fra red spectroscopy ‫طٸؾطخ‬ٞ ‫ثڃٷځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

photo-electron spectroscopy ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫ٹسٹ – اٮ‬ٞ ‫ثڃٷځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

atomic emission spectroscopy ‫ثڃٷځ ٶكط اسٳځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

rotational spectrum ‫ چطذكځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

X- rays specttrum ‫ؽ‬٧‫ ؾٷح دطسٹټبڀ اڂ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

mass spectrometer ‫ؾٷح خطٲځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

mass spectrograph ‫بض خطٲځ‬٫‫ٶ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

line spectra ‫ټبڀ ذُځ‬ٝ‫َڃ‬

‫ظ‬

‫ْٽٹض قڃٳڃبڂځ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬101

‫ع‬

‫ؿٷسٺ‬٦‫ٖبٲ٭ ا‬

‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦ ‫ٖبٲ٭ اٲٹٮؿڃٹٴ‬

‫بټٷسٺ‬٦ ‫ٖبٲ٭‬

dispersing agent ‫ځ‬٪‫ٷس‬٦‫ٖبٲ٭ دطا‬

suspending agents ١‫ٖبٲ٭ټبڀ سٗٯڃ‬

avogadro's number, N ‫بزضٸ‬٪‫ٖسز آٸٸ‬

atomic number ‫ٖسز اسٳځ‬

octane number ‫شبٴ‬٦‫ٖسز ا‬

transport number ٬‫ب‬٣‫ٖسز اٶش‬

mass number ‫ٖسز خطٲځ‬

quantum number ‫ٹاٶشٹٲځ‬٦ ‫ٖسز‬

principal quantum number ‫ٹاٶشٹٲځ ان٭‬٦ ‫ٖسز‬

magnetic quantum number ‫ٷبَڃؿځ‬ٛ‫ٹاٶشٹٲځ ٲ‬٦ ‫ٖسز‬

expression ‫كځ‬٦ ‫ٖهبضٺ‬

elements of symmetry ‫بضٴ‬٣‫ٖٷبنط س‬

element ‫ٖٷهط‬

symmetry elements ‫بضٴ‬٣‫ٖٷهطټبڀ س‬

transition elements ‫ٖٷهطټبڀ ٸاؾُٻ‬

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102 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

adhesion agents ‫ځ‬٪‫ٖٹاٲ٭ چؿجٷس‬

gold, standard ‫ٖڃبض َال‬

‫غ‬

molecular sieve ‫ٹٮځ‬٧‫ ٲٹٮ‬٬‫طثب‬ٚ

Semi permeable membrane ‫كبڀ ٶڃٱ سطاٸا‬ٚ

concentrated ّ‫ٯڃ‬ٚ

thickemig ‫طزٴ‬٦ّ‫ٯڃ‬ٚ

deactivators ‫ٷٷسٺټب‬٦ ٬‫ٗب‬ٞ‫ڃط‬ٚ

deactivation ‫ٗبٮؿبظڀ‬ٞ‫ڃط‬ٚ

‫ف‬

phase ‫بظ‬ٞ

ultrasonics ‫طانٹسځ‬ٞ

elements of symmetry ‫طاٸاٶځ ٖٷبنط‬ٞ

rubber conversion products ٥‫طآٸضزٺټبڀ سجسڂ٭ الؾشڃ‬ٞ

fission products ‫ز‬ٞ‫ب‬٧‫طآٸضزٺټبڀ ق‬ٞ

special boiling point spirits (SBP) ‫شځ ثب زٲبڀ خٹـ ٸڂػٺ‬ٟ‫طآٸضزٺټبڀ ٶ‬ٞ

cyclic process ‫طآڂٷس چطذٻاڀ‬ٞ

contact process ‫طآڂٷس ٲدبٸضسځ‬ٞ

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬103

reversible process ‫ٹؼ‬٧ٗ‫طآڂٷس ٲ‬ٞ

conversation processes ‫طآڂٷسټبڀ سجسڂ٭‬ٞ

ablation ‫طؾبڂف‬ٞ

chemiosmotic hypothesis ‫طيڃٻڀ اؾٳع قڃٳڃبڂځ‬ٞ

formaldehyde ‫طٰ اٮسټڃس‬ٞ

formalin ‫طٲبٮڃٵ‬ٞ

phosphorus, P ‫ط‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ

phosphorescence ‫طؾبٶؽ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ

phosphorimetry ‫طؾٷدځ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ

phosphine ‫ڃٵ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ

osmotic pressure ‫كبض اؾٳعڀ‬ٞ

vapour pressure ‫كبض ثربض‬ٞ

surface pressure ‫كبض ؾُحځ‬ٞ

manometers ‫كبضؾٷح‬ٞ

activity ‫ٗبٮڃز‬ٞ

surface activity ‫ٗبٮڃز زض ؾُح‬ٞ

optical activity ‫ٗبٮڃز ٶٹضڀ‬ٞ

feldspars ‫ٯسؾڃبضټب‬ٞ

metal ‫ٯع‬ٞ

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104 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

metalation ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫ٯعزاض‬ٞ

plantinum metals ‫ٯعټبڀ دالسڃٷځ‬ٞ

alkali metals ‫ٯڃبڂځ‬٢ ‫ٯعټبڀ‬ٞ

alkali earth metals ‫ځ‬٦‫ٯڃبڂځ ذب‬٢ ‫ٯعټبڀ‬ٞ

capsicum ‫طٲع‬٢ ‫٭‬ٟ‫ٯ‬ٞ

fluorine, F ‫ٯٹئٹض‬ٞ

fluorescence ‫ٯٹئٹضؾبٶؽ‬ٞ

feluon ‫ٯٹئٹٴ‬ٞ

phenol ٬‫ٷٹ‬ٞ

phenols ‫ټب‬٬‫ٷٹ‬ٞ

phenyl ‫ٷڃ٭‬ٞ

photosynthesis ‫ٹسٹؾٷشع‬ٞ

photochemistry ‫ٹسٹقڃٳځ‬ٞ

steel ‫ٹالز‬ٞ

fulvenes ‫ٹٮٹٴټب‬ٞ

folic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫ٹٮڃ‬ٞ

turquoise ‫ڃطٸظٺ‬ٞ

‫ق‬

Blanc's rule ٥‫بٖسٺڀ دالٶ‬٢

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬105

effective atomic number rule ‫بٖسٺڀ ٖسز اسٳځ ٲٹثط‬٢

octant rule ‫بٖسٺڀ ټكشبڂځ‬٢

mass action, law of ٰ‫بٶٹٴ اثط خط‬٢

thermodynamics, first law of ٥‫ سطٲٹزڂٷبٲڃ‬٬‫بٶٹٴ اٸ‬٢

conservation of energy, law of ‫بڀ اٶطغڀ‬٣‫بٶٹٴ ث‬٢

conservation of matter law of ‫بڀ ٲبزٺ‬٣‫بٶٹٴ ث‬٢

partition law ‫ؿڃٱ‬٣‫بٶٹٴ س‬٢

periodic law ‫بٶٹٴ سٷبٸثځ‬٢

distribution law ٕ‫بٶٹٴ سٹظڂ‬٢

thermodynamics, third law of ٥‫بٶٹٴ ؾٹٰ سطٸزڂٷبٲڃ‬٢

Charles's law ٬‫بٶٹٴ قبض‬٢

constant proportions, law of ‫بٶٹٴ ٶؿجزټبڀ ثبثز‬٢

multiple proportions, law of ‫بٶٻ‬٪‫بٶٹٴ ٶؿجزټبڀ چٷس‬٢

reciprocal proportions, law of ‫بٶٹٴ ٶؿجزټبڀ زٸخبٶجٻ‬٢

equivalent proportions, law of ‫بٶٹٴ ٶؿجزټبڀ ټٱ اضظ‬٢

Henry's law ‫بٶٹٴ ټٷطڀ‬٢

electrolysis, laws of ‫شطٸٮڃع‬٧‫بٶٹٴټبڀ اٮ‬٢

Faraday's laws of electrolysis ‫بضازٺ‬ٞ ‫شطٸڂع‬٧‫بٶٹٴټبڀ اٮ‬٢

gas law ‫بظ‬٪ ‫بٶٹٴټبڀ‬٢

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106 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

strength of acids and bases ‫سضر اؾڃسټب ٸ ثبظټب‬٢

ionic strength ‫سضر ڂٹٶځ‬٢

polarization ‫ُجف‬٢

magnetic polarization of light ‫ٷبَڃؿځ ٶٹض‬ٛ‫ُجف ٲ‬٢

polarizability ‫ُجفدصڂطڀ‬٢

polarimeter ‫ُجف ؾٷح‬٢

tar ‫ُطاٴ‬٢

coal tar ٩‫بٮؿٷ‬ٚ‫ُطاٴ ظ‬٢

tin, Sn ٕ‫ٯ‬٢

alkali ‫ٯڃب‬٢

alkaline ‫ٯڃبڂځ‬٢

cane sugar ‫ط‬٧‫ٷسٶڃك‬٢

sugars ‫ٷسټب‬٢

bitumen ‫ڃط‬٢

deasphalting ‫ڃطڀ‬٪‫ڃط‬٢

lake asphalts ‫ڃطټبڀ َجڃٗځ‬٢

‫ک‬

capric acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫بضدطڂ‬٦

capryl alcohol ‫٭‬٧‫بدطڂ٭ اٮ‬٦

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬107

caprylic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫بدطڂٯڃ‬٦

blue vitriol ‫جٹز‬٦ ‫بر‬٦

catabolism ‫بسبثٹٮڃؿٱ‬٦

catalas ‫بسبالظ‬٦

catalysis ‫بسبٮڃع‬٦

homogeneous catalysis ‫ٹٴ‬٫‫طزٴ ټٳ‬٦ ‫بسبٮڃع‬٦

hetro geneous catalysis ‫ٵ‬٫‫بسبٮڃع ٶبټٳ‬٦

catalyst ‫بسبٮڃعٸض‬٦

cation ‫بسڃٹٴ‬٦

cadmium, Cd ‫بزٲڃٱ‬٦

caramel ‫بضاٲ٭‬٦

carbides ‫بضثڃسټب‬٦

carnitine ‫بضٶڃشڃٵ‬٦

paper ‫ص‬ٚ‫ب‬٦

coated paper ‫ ظزٺ‬ٙ‫ص نٳ‬ٚ‫ب‬٦

camphor ‫ٹض‬ٞ‫ب‬٦

caffeine ‫ئڃٵ‬ٞ‫ب‬٦

calorie ‫بٮطڀ‬٦

red copper ore ‫بٶځ ٲؽ ؾطخ‬٦

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108 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

reduction ‫بټف‬٦

electrolytic reduction ‫شطٸٮڃشځ‬٧‫بټف اٮ‬٦

chirality ‫بڂطاٮڃشٻ‬٦

cobalt ‫جبٮز‬٦

ketose ‫شٹظ‬٦

turbidimetry ‫سضڀ ؾٷدځ‬٦

ceratins ‫طاسڃٵ‬٦

keratins ‫طاسڃٵټب‬٦

cracking ٩‫ڃٷ‬٦‫طا‬٦

hydrocracking ‫ ثب ټڃسضٸغٴ‬٩‫ڃٷ‬٦‫طا‬٦

catalytic cracking ‫بسبٮڃعٸضڀ‬٦ ٩‫ڃٷ‬٦‫طا‬٦

thermal cracking ‫طٲبڂځ‬٪ ٩‫ڃٷ‬٦‫طا‬٦

carbon, C ‫طثٵ‬٦

carbon dioxide ‫ؿڃس‬٦‫طثٵ زڀ ا‬٦

carbon monoxide ‫ؿڃس‬٦‫طثٵ ٲٹٶٹ‬٦

carbonates ‫طثٷبرټب‬٦

carbonization ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫طثٷځ‬٦

carbonic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫طثٷڃ‬٦

carbocyhaemoglobin ‫ٯٹثڃٵ‬٪‫ؿځ ټٳٹ‬٦‫طثٹ‬٦

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬109

carboxylase ‫ؿڃالظ‬٦‫طثٹ‬٦

carbohydrates ‫طثٹټڃسضارټب‬٦

chrome ٰ‫ط‬٦

chromatography ‫ځ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦

ion exchange chromatography ‫ ڂٹٶځ‬٬‫ځ سجبز‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦

paper chromatography ‫ص‬ٚ‫ب‬٦ ‫ځ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦

‫ثڃٷځ خطٲځ‬ٝ‫بظڀ َڃ‬٪ ‫ځ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫طٸٲبسٹ‬٦

Gas chromatography mass spectroscopy

butter of antimony ‫طٺڀ آٶشڃٳٹاٴ‬٦

krypton, Kr ‫طڂذشٹٴ‬٦

cryoscopy ‫ٹدځ‬٧‫طڂٹؾ‬٦

mole fraction ‫ؿط ٲٹٮځ‬٦

surfave tension ‫كف ؾُحځ‬٦

chlorine ‫ٯط‬٦

chloroprene ‫ٯطٸدطٴ‬٦

chloroform ٰ‫ط‬ٞ‫ٯطٸ‬٦

chlorophyl ‫ڃ٭‬ٞ‫ٯطٸ‬٦

chlorocarbons ‫طثٵټب‬٦‫ٯطٸ‬٦

chloride of lime ٥‫ٯطڂس آټ‬٦

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110 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

chloric acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫ٯطڂ‬٦

calcium ‫ٯؿڃٱ‬٦

calcium fluoride ‫ٯٹئٹضڂس‬ٞ ‫ٯؿڃٱ‬٦

calcium carbide ‫بضثڃس‬٦ ‫ٯؿڃٱ‬٦

colloid ‫ٯٹئڃس‬٦

hydrophilic colloid ‫ٯٹئڃس آثسٸؾز‬٦

hydrophobic colloids ‫طڂع‬٫‫ٯٹئڃسټبڀ آث‬٦

protective colloids ّٞ‫بٮٹئڃسټبڀ ٲحب‬٦

complex ‫ؽ‬٧‫ٳذٯ‬٦

complexone ‫ؿٹٴ‬٧‫ٳذٯ‬٦

planar complexs ‫ؽټبڀ ٲؿُح‬٧‫ٳذٯ‬٦

hypochromic ٩‫ٱضٶ‬٦

coenzymes ‫ٹآٶعڂٱټب‬٦

quartz ‫ٹاضسع‬٦

quantum ٰ‫ٹاٶشٹ‬٦

knocking ‫ٹثف‬٦

fertilizers ‫ٹزټب‬٦

cortisol ٬‫ٹضسڃعٸ‬٦

coulometer ‫ٹٮٵ ؾٷح‬٦

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬111

coulometry ‫ٹٮٵ ؾٷدځ‬٦

covalency maximum ‫ٹٸاالٶؿځ ثڃكڃٷٻ‬٦

Tetrahedral co ordination ‫ٹئٹضزڂٷبؾڃٹٴ چٽبضٸخٽځ‬٦

Cubic co ordination ‫ٗجځ‬٧‫ٹئٹضزڂٷبؾڃٹٴ ٲ‬٦

Octahedral co - ordination ‫ٹئٹضزڂٷبؾڃٹٴ ټكزٸخٽځ‬٦

‫گ‬

gas ‫بظ‬٪

detonating gas ‫دبضڀ‬ٟ‫بظ اٶ‬٪

ideal gas ٬‫بظ اڂسٺا‬٪

synthesis gas ‫بظ ثطاڀ ؾٷشع‬٪

mustard gas ٬‫بظ ذطز‬٪

town gas ‫بظ قٽطڀ‬٪

natural gas ‫بظ َجڃٗځ‬٪

marsh gas ‫بظ ٲطزاة‬٪

manufactured gas ‫بظ ٲهٷٹٖځ‬٪

blue water gas ‫بظ آة‬٪

inert gases ‫بظټبڀ ثځاثط‬٪

noble gases ‫بظټبڀ ٶدڃت‬٪

galena ‫بٮٵ‬٪

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112 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

gallium, Ga ‫بٮڃٱ‬٪

graphite ‫ڃز‬ٞ‫طا‬٪

granit ‫طاٶڃز‬٪

rouge ‫طزؾطخ‬٪

hot working ‫بضڀ‬٦ٰ‫ط‬٪

calorimeter ‫طٲبؾٷح‬٪

gas calorimeter ‫بظڀ‬٪ ‫طٲبؾٷح‬٪

atomic heat ‫طٲبڀ اسٳځ‬٪

heat of crystallization ‫طٲبڀ سجٯٹض‬٪

heat of combustion ‫طٲبڀ ؾٹذشٵ‬٪

molar heat ‫طٲبڀ ٲٹٮځ‬٪

hit of reaction ‫ٷف‬٦‫طٲبڀ ٸا‬٪

ionization, heat of ‫طٲبڀ ڂٹٶف‬٪

space group ‫ًبڂځ‬ٞ ‫طٸٺ‬٪

carboxyl group ‫ؿڃ٭‬٦‫طثٹ‬٦ ‫طٸٺ‬٪

protecting group ّٞ‫طٸٺ ٲحب‬٪

point group ‫ُٻاڀ‬٣‫طٸٺ ٶ‬٪

xanthene ‫طاٶشٵ‬٪

xanthone ‫عاٶشٹٴ‬٪

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬113

xenon, Xe ‫عٶٹٴ‬٪

orbital moment ٬‫كشبٸض اضثڃشب‬٪

spin moment ‫كشبٸض اؾذڃٵ‬٪

orbital moment ‫ُجځ‬٢ ‫كشبٸض چٽبض‬٪

dipole moment ‫ُجځ‬٢ ‫كشبٸض زٸ‬٪

chalk ‫ڃس‬ٟ‫٭ ؾ‬٪

whiting ‫ڃس‬ٟ‫٭ ؾ‬٪

glutamic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫ٯٹسبٲڃ‬٪

glutamine ‫ٯٹسبٲڃٵ‬٪

gluten ‫ٯٹسٵ‬٪

D - glucose ‫ٹظ‬٦‫ٯٹ‬٪ I

glycerol ٬‫ٯڃؿطٸ‬٪

glycerides ‫ٯڃؿطڂسټب‬٪

glyceric acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫ٯڃؿطڂ‬٪

glycogen ‫ٹغٴ‬٧‫ٯڃ‬٪

digestion ‫ٹاضـ‬٪

guanase ‫ٹاٶبظ‬٪

sulphur, S ‫طز‬٪‫ٹ‬٪

gemstones ‫ٹټطټب‬٪

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114 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

phytochemistry ‫ڃبقڃٳځ‬٪

‫ل‬

ultramarine ‫الخٹضز‬

rubber ٥‫الؾشڃ‬

rubber (synthetic) ‫ ٲهٷٹٖځ‬٥‫الؾشڃ‬

silicon rubbers ‫ٹٴ‬٧‫ټبڀ ؾڃٯڃ‬٥‫الؾشڃ‬

synthetic rubber ‫ټبڀ ٲهٷٹٖځ‬٥‫الؾشڃ‬

lactose ‫شٹظ‬٦‫ال‬

lactic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫شڃ‬٦‫ال‬

lanthanum, La ‫الٶشبٴ‬

double layer ‫بٶٻ‬٪ ‫الڂٻڀ زٸ‬

boundary layer ‫الڂٻڀ ٲطظڀ‬

solder ‫ٮحڃٱ‬

enamels ‫ٮٗبة‬

Carius tube ‫بضڂٹؼ‬٦ ‫ٮٹٮٻڀ‬

Nessler tube ‫ٮٹٮٻڀ ٶؿٯط‬

lipases ‫ٮڃذبظټب‬

lipoproteins ‫ٮڃذٹ دطٸسئڃٵټب‬

lipids ‫ٮڃذڃسټب‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬115

litmus ‫ٮڃشٳٹؼ‬

lithography ‫ځ‬ٞ‫طا‬٪‫ٮڃشٹ‬

lithium, Li ‫ٮڃشڃٱ‬

lithiuim carbonate ‫طثٷبر‬٦ ‫ٮڃشڃٱ‬

laser ‫ٮڃعض‬

lycopene ‫ٹدڃٵ‬٧‫ٮڃ‬

ligand ‫بٶس‬٫‫ٮڃ‬

lignit ‫ٷڃز‬٫‫ٮڃ‬

lignin ‫ٷڃٵ‬٫‫ٮڃ‬

‫م‬

matte ‫ٲبر‬

solute ‫ٲبزٺڀ ح٭ قٹٶسٺ‬

sand ‫ٲبؾٻ‬

malt ‫ٲبٮز‬

maltose ‫ٲبٮشٹظ‬

normal liquid ‫ٲبڂٕ ٖبزڀ‬

partial condenser ‫ٷٷسٺ خعئځ‬٦ ٕ‫ٲبڂ‬

xutting fluids ‫بضڀ‬٧‫ٲبڂٗبر سطاق‬

condenser ‫بظټب‬٪ ‫ٷٷسٺڀ‬٦ٕ‫ٲبڂ‬

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116 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

active transport ٬‫ٗب‬ٞ ‫ٲجبزٮٻڀ‬

Air – cooled heat exchangers ‫ قٹٶسٺ ثب ټٹا‬٥‫طٲبڂځ ذٷ‬٪ ‫ٷٷسٺټبڀ‬٦ ‫ٲجبزٮٻ‬

methane ‫ٲشبٴ‬

methanol ٬‫ٲشبٶٹ‬

methylene chloride ‫ٯطڂس‬٦ ‫ٲشڃٯٵ‬

ab – inito calculations ‫ٲحبؾجبر ثٷڃبزڀ‬

adduct ‫عاڂكځ‬ٞ‫ ا‬٬‫ٲحهٹ‬

solution ٬‫ٲحٯٹ‬

ideal solution ٬‫ اڂسٺآ‬٬‫ٲحٯٹ‬

benedict solution ‫ز‬٧‫ ثٷسڂ‬٬‫ٲحٯٹ‬

solid solution ‫ خبٲس‬٬‫ٲحٯٹ‬

dilute solution ١‫ڃ‬٢‫ ض‬٬‫ٲحٯٹ‬

normal solution ٬‫ ٶطٲب‬٬‫ٲحٯٹ‬

buffer solutions ‫ط‬ٞ‫ټبڀ ثب‬٬‫ٲحٯٹ‬

axis of symmetry ‫بضٴ‬٣‫ٲحٹض س‬

axial ‫ٲحٹضڀ‬

coning and quartering ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫ٲرطٸَځ‬

freezenig mixture ‫ٲرٯٹٌټبڀ اٶدٳبز‬

azeotropic mixture ‫ٲرٯٹٌټبڀ ټٳدٹـ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬117

order of reaction ‫ٷف‬٦‫ٲطسجٻڀ ٸا‬

humidification ‫ٲطَٹةؾبظڀ‬

morphine ‫ڃٵ‬ٞ‫ٲط‬

mercaptals ‫ټب‬٬‫بدٷب‬٦‫ٲط‬

mercaptans ‫بدشبٴټب‬٦‫ٲط‬

inks ‫تټب‬٦‫ٲط‬

marblr ‫ٲطٲط‬

conjugation ‫ٲعزٸج قسٴ‬

mesotron ‫ٲعٸسطٸٴ‬

mesomersim ‫ٲعٸٲطڀ‬

meson ‫ٲعٸٴ‬

copper, Cu ‫ٲؽ‬

analgesics ‫ٵټب‬٧‫ٲؿ‬

burners ‫ٲكٗ٭ټب‬

kirchhoff‟s equation ٝ‫ڃطقٽ‬٦ ‫ٲٗبزٮٻڀ‬

Gibbs‟ equation of surface concentration ‫ٯٓز ؾُحځ‬ٚ ‫ڃجؽ ثطاڀ‬٪ ‫ٲٗبزٮٻڀ‬

Schrofinger wve equation ‫ط‬٫‫ٲٗبزٮٻڀ ٲٹخځ قطٸزڂٷ‬

van der Waal‟s equation ‫ٲٗبزٮٻڀ ٸاٴ زض ٸاٮؽ‬

black lead ‫ع ٲساز‬ٛ‫ٲ‬

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118 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

magnetic susxepibility ‫ٷبَڃؽدصڂطڀ‬ٛ‫ٲ‬

Kelvin scale ‫ٯٹڂٵ‬٦ ‫ڃبؼ‬٣‫ٲ‬

mechanism of reaction ‫ٷف‬٦‫بٶڃعٰ ٸا‬٧‫ٲ‬

inner sphere mechanism ‫بٶڃؿٱ الڂٻڀ زاذٯځ‬٧‫ٲ‬

wave mechanics ‫ ٲٹخځ‬٥‫بٶڃ‬٧‫ٲ‬

bcc, (body – centered cubic) ‫ع دط‬٦‫ٗت ٲط‬٧‫ٲ‬

complement ‫ٳ٭‬٧‫ٲ‬

magenetite ‫ٷشڃز‬٫‫ٲ‬

melamine ‫ٲالٲڃٵ‬

melanine ‫ٲالٶڃٵ‬

amalgam ‫ٳٻ‬ٛ‫ٲٯ‬

menthol ٬‫ٲٷشٹ‬

solidus curve ‫ٲٷحٷځ اٶدٳبز‬

liquidus curve ٕ‫ٲٷحٷځ ٲبڂ‬

manganese, Mn ‫ٷع‬٫‫ٲٷ‬

magnesium ‫ٲٷڃعڂٱ‬

additives ‫عٸزٶځ‬ٞ‫ٲٹاز ا‬

Fluorescent brightening agents ‫ٯٹئٹضؾبٶځ‬ٞ ‫ٷٷسٺڀ‬٦ ‫ٲٹاز زضذكبٴ‬

sweetening agent ‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦ ‫ٲٹاز قڃطڂٵ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬119

abherents ‫ځ‬٪‫ٲٹاز يس چؿجٷس‬

phosphore scence ‫طؾبٴ‬ٟ‫ؿ‬ٞ ‫ٲٹاز‬

surfactants ‫ زض ؾُح‬٬‫ٗب‬ٞ ‫ٲٹاز‬

surface active agent ‫ زض ؾُح‬٬‫ٗب‬ٞ ‫ٲٹاز‬

explosives ‫دطٺ‬ٟ‫ٲٹاز ٲٷ‬

molarity ‫ٲٹالضڂشٻ‬

molality ‫ٲٹالٮڃشٻ‬

mole ٬‫ٲٹ‬

molecule ٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٲٹٮ‬

liatomic molecule ‫ زٸ اسٳځ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٲٹٮ‬

non polar molecule ‫ُجځ‬٢‫ڃط‬ٚ ٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٲٹٮ‬

polar molecule ‫ُجځ‬٢ ٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٲٹٮ‬

heteronuclear molecule ‫ ٶبخٹض ټؿشٻ‬٬‫ٹ‬٧‫ٲٹٮ‬

monosaccharides ‫بضڂسټب‬٦‫ٲٹٶٹؾب‬

micron ‫طٸٴ‬٧‫ٲڃ‬

affinity, chemical ‫ڃجځ قڃٳڃبڂځ‬٦‫ٲڃ٭ سط‬

‫ن‬

insulator ‫ٶبضؾبٶب‬

dissymmetric ‫بضٴ‬٣‫ٶبٲش‬

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120 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

anharmonicity ‫ځ‬٫‫ٶبټٳبټٷ‬

normality ‫ٶطٲبٮڃشٻ‬

freezing point depressin ‫ُٻڀ اٶدٳبز‬٣‫ ٶ‬٬‫ٶعٸ‬

depression of freezing point ‫ُٻ اٶدٳبز‬٣‫ ٶ‬٬‫ٶعٸ‬

starch ‫ٶكبؾشٻ‬

transition state theory ‫صاض‬٪‫ٶٓطڂٻڀ حبٮز‬

kinetic theory of gases ‫بظټب‬٪ ٥‫ٶٓطڂٻڀ ؾڃٷشڃ‬

group theory ‫طٸٺ‬٪ ‫ٶٓطڂٻڀ‬

valence, theory of ‫ٶٓطڂٻڀ ٸاالٶؽ‬

oil ‫ز‬ٟ‫ٶ‬

naphthalene ‫شبٮڃٵ‬ٟ‫ٶ‬

diffusion ‫ٹش‬ٟ‫ٶ‬

effusion ‫ٹٮځ‬٧‫ٹش ٲٹٮ‬ٟ‫ٶ‬

silver, Ag ‫طٺ‬٣‫ٶ‬

end point ‫ُٻڀ دبڂبٶځ‬٣‫ٶ‬

turbidity point ‫سضڀ‬٦ ‫ُٻڀ‬٣‫ٶ‬

equivalene point ‫ُٻڀ ټٱ اضظڀ‬٣‫ٶ‬

salt ٥‫ٶٳ‬

rock salt ٰ‫ َٗب‬٥‫ٶٳ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬121

Sal volatile ‫طاظ‬ٞ ٥‫ٶٳ‬

tin salt ٕ‫ٯ‬٢ ٥‫ٶٳ‬

Epsom salts ٰ‫ټبڀ ادؿٹ‬٥‫ٶٳ‬

basic salts ‫ټبڀ ثبظڀ‬٥‫ٶٳ‬

hygroscopic ‫ڃط‬٫‫ٶٳ‬

drier ‫ڃط‬٫‫ٶٳ‬

drying ‫ڃطڀ‬٫‫ٶٳ‬

equilibrium diagram ٬‫ٶٳٹزاض سٗبز‬

boiling point diagram ‫ٶٳٹزاض زٲبڀ خٹـ‬

phase diagram ‫بظ‬ٞ ‫ٶٳٹزاض‬

triangular diagram ‫ٶٳٹزاض ٲثٯثځ‬

correlation diagram ‫ځ‬٫‫ٶٳٹزاض ټٳجؿش‬

samplaing ‫ٶٳٹٶٻ ثطزاضڀ‬

absorption bands ‫ٶٹاضټبڀ خصثځ‬

chemiluminescence ‫ٶٹضسبثځ قڃٳڃبڂځ‬

photolysis ‫ز‬ٞ‫ب‬٦‫ٶٹض‬

phototropy ‫طاڂځ‬٪‫ٶٹض‬

nucleases ‫ٯئبظټب‬٦‫ٶٹ‬

nuclide ‫ٯڃس‬٦‫ٶٹ‬

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122 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

nicleotides ‫ٯئٹسڃسټب‬٦‫ٶٹ‬

nucleosides ‫ٯئٹظڂسټب‬٦‫ٶٹ‬

nucleon ‫ٯئٹٴ‬٦‫ٶٹ‬

nucleic acid ‫ اؾڃسټب‬٥‫ٯئڃ‬٦‫ٶٹ‬

niacin ‫ٶڃبؾڃٵ‬

nitrogen ‫ٶڃشطٸغٴ‬

nitrites ‫ٶڃشطڂزټب‬

nitrides ‫ٶڃشطڂسټب‬

nichrome ٰ‫ط‬٧‫ٶڃ‬

nickel, Ni ‫٭‬٧‫ٶڃ‬

nicotine ‫ٹسڃٵ‬٧‫ٶڃ‬

semi - conductors ‫ٶڃٱضؾبٶبټب‬

half life ‫ٶڃٳٻٖٳط‬

half reaction ‫ٷف‬٦‫ٶڃٳٻٸا‬

neophyl ‫ڃ٭‬ٞ‫ٶئٹ‬

neon, Ne ‫ٶئٹٴ‬

‫و‬

Angstrom unit, A A ،ٰ‫ؿشط‬٫‫ٸاحس آٶ‬

electrocyclic reaction ‫ٯځ‬٧‫شطٸؾڃ‬٧‫ٷف اٮ‬٦‫ٸا‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬123

Hemolytic reactiom ‫ؿؿشٻ قسٴ خٹض‬٪ ‫ٷف ثب‬٦‫ٸا‬

Heteroyltic reaction ‫ؿؿشٻ قسٴ ٶبخٹض‬٪ ‫ٷف ثب‬٦‫ٸا‬

exchange reaction ‫ٷف سجبزٮځ‬٦‫ٸا‬

unimolecular reaction ‫ٹٮځ‬٧‫ ٲٹٮ‬٥‫ٷف س‬٦‫ٸا‬

insertion reaction ‫ڃطڀ‬٫‫ٷف خبڂ‬٦‫ٸا‬

exothermic reaction ‫طٲبظاڀ‬٪ ‫ٷف‬٦‫ٸا‬

endothermic reaction ‫ڃط‬٪‫طٲب‬٪ ‫ٷف‬٦‫ٸا‬

heterogeneous reaction ‫ٵ‬٫‫ٷف ٶبټٳ‬٦‫ٸا‬

iodoform reaction ٰ‫ط‬ٞ‫ٷف ڂسٸ‬٦‫ٸا‬

Brady‟s reagent ‫ط ثطازڀ‬٫‫ٷك‬٦‫ٸا‬

Tollens reagent ‫ط سٹٮٷؽ‬٫‫ٷك‬٦‫ٸا‬

schweizer‟s reagent ‫ط قٹاڂشؿط‬٫‫ٷك‬٦‫ٸا‬

karl fischer reagent ‫ڃكط‬ٞ ٬‫بض‬٦ ‫ط‬٫‫ٷك‬٦‫ٸا‬

Nessler‟s reagnet ‫ط ؾٯط‬٫‫ٷك‬٦‫ٸا‬

addition reactions ‫عاڂف‬ٞ‫ٷفټبڀ ا‬٦‫ٸا‬

Condensation reactions ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫ اٮ‬٬‫ب‬٣‫ٷفټبڀ اٶش‬٦‫ٸا‬

chain reactions ‫ٷفټبڀ ظٶدڃطڀ‬٦‫ٸا‬

valency ‫ٸاالٶؽ‬

valium ‫ٸاٮڃٱ‬

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124 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

vanadates ‫ٸاٶبزارټب‬

molecular weight ‫ٹٮځ‬٧‫ٸظٴ ٲٹٮ‬

atomic weights ‫ٸظٴټبڀ اسٳځ‬

‫هـ‬

hafnium, HF ‫ٷڃٱ‬ٞ‫ټب‬

haalogenation ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫ټبٮٹغٴزاض‬

halogens ‫ټبٮٹغٴټب‬

heparin ‫ټذبضڂٵ‬

hapto ‫ټذشٹ‬

nucleus, atomic ‫ټؿشٻڀ اسٱ‬

crystal nucleus ‫ټؿشٻڀ ثٯٹض‬

octahedron ‫ټكز ٸخٽځ‬

hexanes ‫عاٴټب‬٫‫ټ‬

hexone ‫عٸٴ‬٫‫ټ‬

helium, He ‫ټٯڃٱ‬

degeneracy ‫ټٱاٶطغڀ ثٹزٴ‬

haematite ‫ټٳبسڃز‬

Electrochemical equivalent ‫شطٸقڃٳڃبڂځ‬٧‫ټٱاضظ اٮ‬

chemical equivalent ‫ټٱاضظ قڃٳڃبڂځ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬125

isoelectronic ‫شطٸٴ‬٧‫ټٱاٮ‬

coplymer ‫ټٳجؿذبض‬

graft coplymer ‫ټٳجؿذبض دڃٹٶسڀ‬

isomerization ‫ټٳذبضـ‬

isomersim ‫ټٳذبضڀ‬

isodispersion ‫ځ‬٪‫ٷس‬٦‫ټٱدطا‬

coprecipitation ‫ټٱضؾٹثځ‬

isomorphism ‫ټٱضڂرشځ‬

homogenizer ‫ٷٷسٺ‬٦ ‫ٹٴ‬٫‫ټٳ‬

haemoglobin ‫ٯٹثڃٵ‬٪‫ټٳٹ‬

air ‫ټٹا‬

dearation ‫ڃطڀ‬٪‫ټٹا‬

hormones ‫ټٹضٲٹٴټب‬

hyaluronic acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫ټڃبٮٹضٸٶڃ‬

hybridization ‫ټڃجطڂس قسٴ‬

hypo ‫ټڃذٹ‬

hypochlorites ‫ٯطڂزټب‬٦‫ټڃذٹ‬

optial relaxation ‫ټڃدبٴ ٶٹضڀ‬

hydrates ‫ټڃسضارټب‬

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126 ‫سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬

hydrazine ‫ټڃسضاظڂٵ‬

hydroperoxides ‫ؿڃسټب‬٦‫ټڃسضٸدطا‬

hydrogen, H ‫ټڃسضٸغٴ‬

heavy hydrogen ‫ڃٵ‬٫‫ټڃسضٸغٴ ؾٷ‬

hydrogenation ‫طزٴ‬٦ ‫ټڃسضٸغٴزاض‬

dehydrogenation ‫ټڃسضٸغٴظزاڂځ‬

hydrocarbons ‫طثٵټب‬٦‫ټڃسضٸ‬

hydroxy ‫ؿځ‬٦‫ټڃسضٸ‬

hydroxides ‫ؿڃسټب‬٦‫ټڃسضٸ‬

hydrochloric acid ‫ اؾڃس‬٥‫ٯطڂ‬٦‫ټڃسضٸ‬

hydrides ‫ټڃسضڂسټب‬

‫ی‬

ruby ‫ٹر‬٢‫ڂب‬

sapphire ‫جٹز‬٦ ‫ٹر‬٢‫ڂب‬

ice ‫ڂد‬

dry ice ٥‫ڂد ذك‬

iodine, I ‫ڂس‬

iodats ‫ڂسارټب‬

iodometry ‫ڂسؾٷدځ‬

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 ‫ سثبن تخققی ؽیمی ي مُىذعی ؽیمی‬127

iodoform ٰ‫ط‬ٞ‫ڂسٸ‬

iodo,ethane ‫ڂسٸٲشبٴ‬

faraday, unit ‫بضازٺ‬ٞ ‫بڀ‬٧‫ڂ‬

singlet ‫سبڂځ‬٥‫ڂ‬

ionization of water ‫ڂٹٶف آة‬

aquo ions ‫ڂٹٴټبڀ آةزاض‬

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