Classification Of Elements

and
Periodicity In Properties
Need to Classify Elements

The elements are the basic units of all types of matter.

In 1800, only 31 elements were known.
In 1865, the number of identified elements are 63.
At present 114 elements are known.

It is difficult to study individually the chemistry of all these elements and

their innumerable compounds individually.
Thus ,to ease out this problem, scientists classified the elements.
JOHANN DOBEREINER in 1829 noted a similarity among the physical
and chemical properties of several groups of three elements, which he
called triads.

The middle element of each of the Triads had an atomic weight

about half way between the atomic weights of the other two elements.

The properties of middle elements

are in between other two elements .
This is called law of triads.
JOHN ALEXANDER NEWLANDS in 1865 arranged the elements in
increasing order of their atomic weights and that every eighth element
had properties similar to the first element.
This is known as Law of Octaves.
Dmitri Mendeleev arranged elements in horizontal rows and vertical columns
of a table in order of their increasing atomic weights in such a way that the
elements with similar properties occupied the same vertical column or group.

Mendeleev’s periodic law

The properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic weights.
Modern Periodic Law
The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic
functions of their atomic numbers.

Periodic law states that when elements are arranged in increasing

order of atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of physical and
chemical properties
The horizontal rows are called periods
The vertical columns are called groups.
Nomenclature Of Elements With Atomic Numbers > 100

The IUPAC names for elements with Z above 100 are

Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number Above 100
Electronic Configurations in Periods
The period indicates the value of n for the outermost or valence shell.
The number of elements in each period is twice the number of atomic
orbitals available in the energy level
Group wise Electronic Configurations
Elements in the same vertical column or group have similar valence shell
electronic configurations, the same number of electrons in the outer orbitals,
and similar properties.
s-Block Elements
The elements of group1, alkali metals and group2, alkaline earth
metals belong to the s-Block Elements
The outermost electronic configuration is ns 1 and ns2
Properties of s-Block Elements

These are reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies.

They lose the outermost electron(s) readily to form 1+ ion
(in the case of alkali metals) or 2+ ion (in the case of
alkaline earth metals).
The metallic character and the reactivity increase as we go
down the group.
Because of high reactivity they are never found pure in
nature.
p-Block Elements

The elements belonging to Group 13 to 18

are p-Block Elements

The elements of s-Block and p-Block

together are called Representative Elements
or Main Group Elements

The outermost electronic configuration varies from ns 2np1 to ns2np6

 A noble gas element with a closed valence shell ns 2np6 configuration
is present at the end of each period.
All the orbitals in the valence shell of the noble gases are completely
filled by electrons
This is very difficult to alter this stable arrangement by the addition or
removal of electrons. The noble gases thus exhibit very low chemical
reactivity
Two chemically important groups of non-metals are

Halogens(group 17)
Chalcogens(group 16)
Properties
These two groups of elements have high negative electron gain
enthalpies and readily add one or two electrons respectively to attain
the stable noble gas configuration.

The non-metallic character increases as we move from left to right

across a period and metallic character increases as we go down the
group.
d-Block Elements
The elements from Group 3 to group 12 in the centre of the Periodic
Table belongs to d-Block Elements or Transition Elements.
The outer electronic configuration of f-Block elements is (n-1)d 1-10ns0-2
They are all metals.
They mostly form coloured ions, exhibit variable valence (oxidation
states), paramagnetism and often used as catalysts.
Zn, Cd and Hg do not show most of the properties of transition elements
f-Block Elements
The elements at the bottom of periodic table are Lanthanides and
Actinides belongs to f-Block Elements or Inner-Transition Elements

The outer electronic configuration of f-Block elements is

(n-2)f1-14(n-1)d0-1ns2

Actinide elements are radioactive which are made only in nanogram

quantities or even less by nuclear reactions

The elements after uranium are called Trans uranium Elements

 Metals, Non-metals and Metalloids
Metals

Metals are good conductors of heat and

electricity.
Metals are usually solids at room temperature
except mercury.
Metals usually have high melting and boiling
points.
Metals are malleable(can be pounded into thin
sheets) and ductile(can be stretched into thin
wires)
Non-metals
Non-metals are located at the top right hand side of the Periodic
Table
Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity
Non-metals are solids or gases at room temperature with low melting
and boiling points
Non-metallic solids are brittle and are neither malleable nor ductile
Metalloids
Metalloids (metal-like) have properties of both metals and non-metals.

They are solids that can be shiny or dull.

They conduct heat and electricity better than non-metals but not as well
as metals.

They are ductile and malleable.

The size of the atoms is determined by the boundaries of the valence
electrons.
As we go down a column, atomic radius increases. As we move down
electrons are filled into orbitals that are farther away from the nucleus
i.e., less attraction
As we go across a period, atomic radius decreases. As we move from
left to right electrons are put into the same orbital but more electrons
and protons i.e.,
more attraction = smaller size
Atomic Radii/pm Across the Periods

Atomic Radii/pm Down a Family

 The removal of an electron from an atom results in the formation of a
cation

Gain of an electron leads to an anion.

The ionic radii can be estimated by measuring the distances between

cations and anions in ionic crystals.

Metals loose electrons which means more protons than electrons i.e.,
more attraction.
So, ionic radius < neutral atomic radius

Non metals gain electrons which means more electrons than protons
i.e., less attraction
So, ionic radius > neutral atomic radius
Some atoms and ions which contain the same number of electrons are
called Isoelectronic Species

Eg: 𝑂2− ,𝐹 −,𝑁𝑎 + and 𝑀𝑔2+ have the same number of electrons (10).
Cations are smaller than their
parent atoms. The outermost
electron is removed and repulsions
are reduced.

The cation with the greater

positive charge will have a smaller
radius because of the greater
attraction of the electrons to the
nucleus.

Anion with the greater negative

charge will have the larger radius.
 Anions are larger than their parent atoms.
Electrons are added and repulsions are increased.
Half the distance between the
centers of the nuclei of two adjacent
metal atoms in the metallic crystal

Half the distance between the

centers of two adjacent molecule
which are closest to each other.
 A quantitative measure of the tendency of an element to lose electron
is given by its Ionization Enthalpy.

It is the amount of energy required to remove an electron from the

ground state of a gaseous atom or ion.

First ionization energy is that energy

required to remove first electron.
X(g) X + + e-
Second ionization energy is that
energy required to remove second
electron, etc.
X+(g) X2+(g) + e-
The second ionization enthalpy will be higher than the first ionization
enthalpy because it is more difficult to remove an electron from a
positively charged ion than from a neutral atom.

As you go down the group ionization energy decreases.

As you go from top to bottom, atomic size is increasing (less attraction),

so easier to remove an electron.

As you go across a period ionization energy increases.

As you go left to right, atomic size is decreasing (more attraction), so

more difficult to remove an electron.
Factors influencing Ionization Potential

Atomic radius

 Nuclear charge

 Screening effect

 Extent of penetration of orbitals of valence electrons

 Completely filled or half filled sub orbitals

When an electron is added to a neutral gaseous atom (X) to convert it
into a negative ion, the enthalpy change accompanying the process is
defined as the Electron Gain Enthalpy(∆ egH)

X(g) + e - X-(g)
Depending on the element, the process of adding an electron to the
atom can be either endothermic or exothermic.
Electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative with increase in the
atomic number across a period.
A qualitative measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to
attract shared electrons to itself is called Electro Negativity.
 Electron Gain Enthalpy

Electron Gain Enthalpy

Ionization Enthalpy
Electronegativity

Ionization Enthalpy
Atomic Radius

Atomic Radius

Electronegativity
 Periodicity of Valence or Oxidation States
The valence of representative elements is usually equal to the number of
electrons in the outermost orbitals .
The oxidation state of an element in a particular compound can be defined as
the charge acquired by its atom on the basis of electronegative consideration
from other atoms in the molecule.
Eg 1: In𝑂𝐹2 each of the atoms of fluorine, shares one electron with oxygen .
Being highest electronegative element, fluorineis given oxidation state –1. Since
there are two fluorine atoms in this molecule, oxygen shares two electrons with
fluorine atoms and thereby exhibits oxidation state +2.
Eg 2: In 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 , oxygen being more electronegative accepts two electrons, one
from each of the two sodium atoms and, thus, shows oxidation state –2

The order of electronegativity of the three elements involved in these compounds is

F >O > Na