1.12.
SOLID STATE SENSORS
Solid-state sensors are a specific type of non-fiber optic sensor that utilizes solid-state
materials, typically semiconductors, for their operation. Solid-state sensors have no moving
parts and are controlled by a signal processing unit. These sensors rely on the principles of
solid-state physics and semiconductor technology to convert the input signal into an electrical
output.
Solid-state sensors are integrated into various devices and systems for applications ranging
from environmental monitoring, industrial automation, biomedical diagnostics, to consumer
electronics.
These sensors are widely used in various applications due to their small size, low power
consumption, high reliability, and compatibility with integrated circuits.
Working principles:
Solid-state sensors detect changes in various physical properties such as voltage, resistance,
capacitance, or impedance when exposed to the target stimulus. This stimulus could be light,
pressure, temperature, humidity, gas, or other environmental factors depending on the sensor's
design and application.
Solid-state sensors typically rely on the change in electrical properties of semiconductor
materials due to the physical or chemical stimulus being measured. This change in electrical
properties such as resistance, capacitance, voltage, or current, is then converted into an
electrical signal. This signal is then processed by the sensor's electronic circuitry.
The processed electrical signal is converted into a readable format such as voltage, current, or
digital signals that can be easily interpreted by the user or connected devices. This output
provides information about the quantity or quality of the detected stimulus.
1.12.1. Classifications of Solid State Sensors
There are many different types of solid-state sensors, each designed to measure specific
physical quantity. The most common types are as follows:
(a) Temperature Sensors:
These sensors measure changes in temperature by detecting alterations in electrical resistance,
voltage, or other properties of the sensor material. Examples: Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs) described in Chapter 1.4.4 on Page 1.28, Thermistors (resistance-based)
described in Chapter 1.4.5 on Page 1.30, and Thermocouples (voltage-based).
1.4.4. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
When a metal wire is heated the resistance increases. So, a temperature can be measured
using the resistance of a wire. RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys that increases
resistance as temperature increases and it conversely decreases resistance as temperature
decreases. RTDs act similar an electrical transducer and it converts changes the temperature to
voltage signals by the measurement of resistance. The metals that are best suited for use as
RTD sensors are pure of uniform quality and stable within a given range of temperature and
able to give reproducible resistance-temperature readings. Only a few metals have the
properties necessary for use in RTD elements.
RTD elements are normally constructed of platinum, copper, nickel or nickel-iron alloys These
metals are best suited for RTD applications because of their linear resistance-temperature
characteristics shown in Figure 1.16, their high coefficient of resistance and ability are to
withstand repeated temperature cycles. The linear relationship of resistance temperature is
given by the equation.
R = Ro (1 + αΤ)
where
R is the resistance at a temperature T°C
R0 is the resistance at 0°C and
is the temperature co-efficient of resistance
The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per degree change in temperature
usually expressed as a percentage per degree of temperature. The material used must be
capable of being drawn into fine wire so that the element can be easily constructed.
RTD elements are usually long, spring-like wires surrounded by an insulator and enclosed in a
sheath of metal for protection. Figure 1.17 shows the internal construction of an RTD. In Figure
1.17, platinum is used as RTD element that is surrounded by a porcelain insulator. The insulator
prevents a short circuit between wire and metal sheath. Inconel, a
nickel-iron-chromium alloy is normally used in manufacturing the RTD sheath because of its
inherent corrosion resistance. When it is placed in a liquid or gas medium, the Inconel sheath
quickly reaches the temperature of the medium. The change in temperature will cause the
platinum wire to heat or cool thereby resulting a proportional change in resistance. This change
in resistance is then measured by a precision resistance measuring device which is calibrated to
give the proper temperature reading. This device is normally a bridge circuit.
Figure 1.17 Construction of RTD
Advantages of RTDs:
It is suitable for measuring high temperatures
It has high degree of accuracy
It ensures good stability and repeatability
It does not need a reference temperature junction.
Disadvantages of RTDs:
Size is more than the thermocouple.
➤ Power supply is required.
➤ It needs auxiliary apparatus to get required form of output..
➤ Resistance element is more expensive than a thermocouple.
➤ There is a possibility of error due to self-heating and thermo-electric effect of the resistive
element.
1.4.5. Thermistors
Thermistor is a word formed by combining thermal with resistor. Thermistors such as RTDs are
temperature-sensitive resistors. Thermistors are non-linear devices. Their resistance will
decrease with an increase in temperature but at a much faster rate than that of RTDs. The
resistance can change by more than 1000 times. As a result, thermistors can sense minute
changes in temperature which are undetected by RTDs and thermocouples. The basic equation
is given by
The equation uses a reference temperature and resistance with a constant for the device to
predict the resistance at another temperature. The expression can be rearranged to calculate
the temperature given the resistance.
Thermistors are small and inexpensive devices which are most commonly made of metal
oxides such as those of chromium, nickel, manganese and cobalt. The metals are oxidized
through a chemical reaction, ground to a fine powder, then compressed and subjected to very
high heat. These oxides are semiconductors.
There are two types of thermistors based on the lead attachment: 1. Beads and 2. Metallized
surface-contact. Bead types have platinum wires sintered into a ceramic body (bead) as shown
in Figure 1.18 (a). Metallized surface-contact thermistors are called chips or flakes. In contrast
to bead types, leads are not sintered directly into the ceramic. Instead, the sintered ceramic is
coated with a metallic contact shown in Figure 1.18 (b). Either the chip manufacturer or user
attaches leads to this contact. One advantage of chip thermistors over bead types is that chips
are easily trimmed by cutting or grinding. Thus, they are easy to match and therefore, they are
interchangeable. While matched bead thermistors are available, they cost more than
interchangeable chips.
Figure 1.18 Thermistors
Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the temperature coefficient of
resistance (k). If k is positive, the resistance will increase with increasing temperature and the
device is called positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor or posistor. If k is negative, the
resistance will decrease with increasing temperature and the device is called negative
temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor. NTC thermistors are mostly used in temperature
sensing devices whereas PTC thermistors are mostly used in electric current control devices.
Thermistors respond quickly to temperature changes and they have a higher resistance. So, the
junction effects are not an issue. Typical accuracies are 1% but the devices are not linear. They
have a limited temperature/resistance range and can be self-heating. Compared to other
sensors, thermistors have a limited measuring range typically from 80 to 150°C. Also, they can
sustain the permanent damage at temperatures above their specified operating range because
they are often made from semiconductors or sintered mixtures of metal oxides.
Advantages of thermistors:
➤ It produces more accurate output and fast
➤ It is suitable for the usage in remote location
➤ It can be manufactured in almost any shape and size
➤ A high degree of accuracy is obtained
Good stability and repeatability are ensured
➤ It has the ability to withstand mechanical and electrical stresses.
Disadvantages of thermistors:
➤ It produces highly non-linear behavior over its range of operation.
➤ It has a limited measuring range.
➤ Self-heating may occur.
Power supply is required.
➤ It is fragile in nature.
(b) Pressure Sensors:
Pressure sensors measure pressure variations and are used in applications such as automotive
systems, industrial processes, and medical devices. They can be based on piezoresistive,
capacitive, piezoelectric or optical principles. Piezoelectric pressure sensor is described in
Chapter 1.7.1 on Page 1.47.
1.7.1. Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers
A piezoelectric pressure transducer is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect to measure
pressure, acceleration, strain or force.
When pressure, force or acceleration is applied to piezoelectric materials such as quartz crystal,
PZT ceramic, tourmaline, gallium phosphate and lithium sulfate, an electrical charge is
developed across the crystal that is proportional to the force applied (Figure 1.36 (a)). When
pressure is applied to a crystal, it is elastically deformed. This deformation results a flow of
electric charge (which lasts for a period of a few seconds). The resulting electric signal can be
measured as an indication of the pressure which was applied to the crystal.
The net electrical charge (q) produced in the crystal is proportional to the deformation of the
crystal (x) due to the applied pressure and the stiffness of the material (k). Since the
deformation is proportional to the applied pressure or force (P), the net electric charge is given
by the equation
q=kxx=SxP
where S is the charge sensitivity.
The piezoelectric sensors are attached with the diaphragm pressure sensing element to
measure the pressure shown in Figure 1.36 (b).
Figure 1.36 Piezoelectric pressure sensor
The output electrical signal of the piezoelectric sensor is related to the mechanical force or
pressure as if it had passed through the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.37. The model of
the equivalent circuit includes the following components.
C represents the capacitance of the sensor surface itself
. R is the insulation leakage resistance of the transducer and q is the charge generator.
If the sensor is connected to a load resistance, it also acts in parallel with the insulation
resistance.
Figure 1.37 Equivalent circuit of Piezoelectric sensor
The fundamental difference between piezoelectric sensors and static-force devices such as
strain gauges is that the electric signal generated by the piezoelectric sensors decays rapidly.
This characteristic makes these sensors unsuitable for the measurement of static forces or
pressures but useful for dynamic measurements.
Piezoelectric pressure sensors do not require an external excitation source and they are very
rugged. These sensors however do require charge amplification circuitry and very susceptible to
shock and vibration.
The desirable features of piezoelectric sensors include their rugged construction, small size,
high speed and self-generated signal. On the other hand, they are sensitive to temperature
variations and they require special cabling and amplification.
Advantages of piezoelectric transducers:
➤ High efficiency: Piezoelectric transducers can convert a large amount of energy into the
desired form.
1.49
High sensitivity: Piezoelectric transducers can detect very small changes in the input signal.
Broad frequency range: Piezoelectric materials can operate over a wide range of frequencies.
Wide operating temperature range: Piezoelectric transducers can function in extreme
temperatures.
Impervious to electromagnetic fields: Piezoelectric transducers are not affected by
electromagnetic interference.
Disadvantages of piezoelectric transducers:
High impedance: Piezoelectric transducers have a high electrical impedance, which can make
them difficult to interface with electronic circuits.
Brittle materials: Some piezoelectric materials are brittle and can be easily damaged.
Temperature dependence: The performance of piezoelectric transducers can vary with
temperature.
Applications of piezoelectric transducers:
➤ Sensors: Piezoelectric materials are commonly used in sensors to detect changes in
pressure, force, acceleration, or strain. For example, piezoelectric sensors are used in
automotive airbag systems, ultrasonic distance sensors, and vibration sensors.
➤ Actuators: Piezoelectric transducers can also act as actuators, converting electrical signals
into mechanical motion. They are used in precision positioning systems, inkjet printers for drop-
on-demand printing, and nano-positioning stages in microscopy.
➤Ultrasonic Transducers: Piezoelectric materials are crucial components in ultrasonic
transducers used for medical imaging (ultrasound), non-destructive testing, cleaning
applications (ultrasonic cleaners), and industrial measurement.
(c) Humidity Sensors:
Humidity sensors measure the moisture content in the air or other gases. They utilize
materials whose electrical properties change with humidity, such as capacitive or resistive
humidity sensors.
(d) Gas Sensors:
Gas sensors detect the presence and concentration of specific gases in the environment.
They can be based on semiconductor materials such as metal oxides or conductive polymers,
which change their electrical conductivity in the presence of target gases.
(e) Light Sensors:
Light sensors measure the intensity, wavelength, or colour of light. Photodiodes described in
Chapter 1.8.4.2 on Page 1.55, phototransistors described in Chapter 1.8.4.3 on Page 1.56, and
photovoltaic cells are common solid-state light sensors used in various applications, including
ambient light sensing, proximity detection, and optical communication.
Motion Sensors:
These sensors detect motion or changes in position. Accelerometers, gyroscopes, and
magnetometers are examples of solid-state motion sensors commonly found in smartphones,
game controllers, and navigation systems.
(g) Biomedical Sensors:
Biomedical sensors monitor physiological parameters such as heart rate, blood pressure, and
glucose levels. They employ solid-state technologies like biosensors, which utilize enzyme-
coated electrodes to detect specific biomolecules.
(h) Touch Sensors:
Touch sensors detect touch or pressure on a surface and are widely used in touchscreens,
touchpads, and interactive surfaces. Capacitive and resistive touch sensors are common solid-
state technologies employed for this purpose. Tactile sensors described in Chapters 1.4.3 and
1.7.2 on Pages 1.27 and 1.49 respectively are examples of solid-state touch sensors.
(i) Proximity Sensors:
Proximity sensors detect the presence or absence of nearby objects without physical contact.
They are utilized in applications such as object detection, gesture recognition, and industrial
automation. Proximity sensors can be based on capacitive, inductive, or optical principles. The
working principle of capacitive type proximity sensor is described in Chapter
1.5 on Pages 1.31.
(J) Ultrasonic Sensors:
Ultrasonic sensors measure distance by using ultrasonic waves. The sensor head emits an
ultrasonic wave and receives the wave reflected back from the target. Ultrasonic Sensors
measure the distance to the target by measuring the time between the emission and reception.
Other types of solid-state sensors which were not described in earlier chapters an described
below.
