1.

Matter
The spacing between the molecules of matter is
called intermolecular space. It is less in solids,
more in liquids and still more in gases. In other
words molecules are more closely packed in
solids, less in liquids and still less in gases.
In solids, the molecules vibrate about their
mean positions without leaving their positions.
In liquids, the molecules are free to move well
within the boundary of the liquid. In gases, the
molecules can move in a random manner
everywhere in space available to them.
The molecules of matter exert a force of
attraction on each other. This force of attraction
is called inter-molecular force. It is effective
between the molecules only upto a separation
of 10-9 metre. As the separation between the
molecules becomes more than 10-9 metre, this
force vanishes.
The inter-molecular force of attraction between
the molecules of same substance is called force
of cohesion, while the force of attraction
between the molecules of two different
substances is called force of adhesion. These
forces are responsible in liquids for their
property of surface tension and viscosity.
Glue sticking to paper or water sticking to the
sides of a glass are examples of adhesion.
The properties which decide the state of a
substance, i.e. solid, liquid or gas are:
1. Inter-molecular space.
2. Inter-molecular force.
3. Kinetic energy of molecules due to their
motion.
The molecules in a solid can only vibrate to and
fro about their mean positions. They do not
leave their positions.
The process of change from one state to
another state either by absorption or rejection
of heat at a constant temperature is called
change of state.
Deposition is the opposite of sublimation.
The amount of heat rejected during freezing of
a substance is same as the amount of heat
absorbed during melting for the same mass of a
substance.
The amount of heat absorbed or rejected during
the change of state for a unit mass of substance
is called specific latent heat. It is measured in
joule per kilogram.
Water expands when it freezes. Unlike most
liquids, which contract upon solidifying, water
molecules arrange themselves into a crystalline
structure with more space between them as
they freeze, leading to an increase in
volume. This expansion is why ice floats on
liquid water and why freezing water can crack
pipes or rocks.
The boiling point of a liquid increases with the
increase of pressure on it. This is why it is
difficult to cook vegetables at the mountains
where pressure is low but it is easy to cook
vegetables in a pressure cooker in which
pressure is increased by keeping the water
vapour inside the cooker.
2. Physical quantities
and measurement
Equal masses of different substances have
different volumes.
Equal volumes of different substances have
different masses.
Mass(M )
density (d)=
Volume (V )

In S.I. system, unit of mass is kg and unit of

volume is m3, so S.I. unit of density is kg m-3
(kilogram per cubic metre). In C.G.S. system
unit of mass is g and unit of volume is cm3, so
CGS unit of density is gcm-3 (gram per cubic
centimetre).
The density of a substance does not change
with any change in its shape or size.
Almost all substances expand on heating and
contract on cooling, but their mass does not
change. So the density of a substance
decreases with the increase in temperature and
increases with the decrease in temperature.
Exception is water which contracts on heating
from 0°C to 4°C and expands on heating above
4°C. So the density of water increases from 0°C
to 4°C and then decreases above 4°C (i.e. the
density of water is maximum at 4°C which is
equal to 1000 kg m-3).
The relative density of a substance is defined as
the ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of water.
Relative density of a substance can also be
defined as the ratio of the mass of any volume
of the substance to the mass of equal volume of
water.
A body floats on a liquid if its density is less
than the density of liquid, while a body sinks in
a liquid if its density is more than the density of
liquid.
A solid iron ball with a density of 7.86 g cm-3 will
sink in water which has a density of 1.0 g cm-3.
The same iron ball will float in mercury which
has a density of 13.6 g cm-3.
PRINCIPLE OF FLOATATION
When a body is immersed in a liquid, the
following two forces act on it:
(1) The weight of the body W acting vertically
downwards. This force has a tendency to sink
the body.
(2) The buoyant force of the liquid FB acting
vertically upwards. The buoyant force is equal
to the weight of the liquid displaced by the
immersed part of the body. This force has a
tendency to move the body up. This is why
buoyant force is also called upthrust.
The Law of Floatation states that when a body
floats in a liquid, the weight of the liquid
displaced by its immersed part is equal to the
total weight of the body.
In other words, according to law of floatation,
the apparent weight of a floating body is zero. A
body floats with its more portion outside the
surface of liquid of more density than that of
liquid of low density.
A piece of ice floats on water with its 9/10th
part inside the water and only 1/10th part of it
outside the water. The reason is that the
density of ice is 0.9 g cm-3 (or 900 kg m-3) while
the density of water is 1 gcm-3 (or 1000 kg m-3).
Hence, the weight of water displaced by 9/10th
part of ice immersed inside water becomes
equal to the total weight of the ice piece.
The whales can sink or rise at their will. Whales
are sea animals. They have a special organ in
their body which is called swim bladder. In
order to come to the surface of water, they fill
the bladder with air. This decreases the average
density of the whale and so it rises to the
surface. To dive into the sea, they empty the
bladder. This increases the average density of
the whale and so it sinks.
A hydrogen or helium filled balloon rises in air.
The reason is that the density of these gases is
less than the density of air. Therefore, the
buoyant force experienced by the balloon due
to air, becomes greater than the weight of the
balloon. Hence, the balloon rises up under the
influence of the net upward force.
3. Force and Pressure
When force is applied as stretch or squeeze on
a body which is not free to move, it changes the
size or shape of the body.
Force is that cause which changes the state of a
body (either the state of rest or the state of
motion) or it changes the size or shape of the
body.
We cannot see a force. However, we can see or
feel the effect of a force.
A force is expressed by stating both its
magnitude and direction.
The force of attraction exerted on a body by
earth is called the weight of the body or the
force of gravity that acts on the body.
The force of gravity (or weight) of a body is
different at different places on earth. At a place,
the force of gravity on a body of mass 1 kg is
called 1 kgf or 10 N. In other words, 1 N is the
force of gravity at a place on 0.1 kg (100 g)
mass. Thus, the unit of force kgf and N are
related as: 1 kgf = 10 N (nearly)* (exact is 9.8
N).
In other words, one newton is the force that we
have to exert to hold a mass of 100 g on our
palm.
A body in which the inter-spacing between its
constituent particles do not change when a
force is. applied on it, is called a rigid body and
if it changes, the body is called a non-rigid
body.
A force when applied on a rigid body can cause
only the change in motion of the body. But a
force when applied on a non-rigid body can
cause both the change in its size or shape and
the motion in it.
A force (push or pull) has a turning effect on a
body which is not free to move in a straight
line, but is pivoted at a point about which it can
turn. The vertical axis passing about which the
body turns, is called the axis of rotation.
Ex: when the handle of a door is either pushed
or pulled, the door begins to turn about the
hinges which hold the door at rest.
Larger the perpendicular distance of point at
which the force is applied, from the pivoted
point, more is the turning effect on the body.
We conclude that the turning of a body about
the pivot depends not only on the magnitude of
the force, but it also depends on the
perpendicular distance of the force from the
point of rotation. Larger the perpendicular
distance, less is the force needed to turn the
body. Actually the turning effect on a body
depends on the product of both the magnitude
of force and the perpendicular distance of force
from the pivoted point. This product is called
the moment of force (or torque).
The moment of a force is equal to the product of
the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance of the force from the
pivoted point.
The S.I. unit of moment of force is newton X
metre (Nm).
The C.GS unit of moment of force is dyne X cm.
But if force is measured in gravitational unit,
then the unit of moment of force in S.I. system
is kgf m and in C.G.S. system, the unit is gf cm.
Torque is the measure of a force's ability to
cause rotation around an axis. It's a vector
quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and
direction. The magnitude of torque is calculated
as the force multiplied by the perpendicular
distance from the axis of rotation to the line of
action of the force.
Work, on the other hand, is a scalar quantity
that represents the energy transferred to or
from an object when a force causes it to move
over a distance. Work is calculated as the force
multiplied by the displacement of the object in
the direction of the force.
Conventionally, if the effect on the body is to
turn it anticlockwise, moment of force is called
anticlockwise moment and it is taken positive. If
the effect on the body is to turn it clockwise,
the moment of force is called clockwise moment
and taken in negative.
A force can be applied on a surface in any
direction. If the force is applied on a surface in
a direction normal (perpendicular) to the
surface, the force is called thrust. Thus, the
force acting normally on a surface is called
thrust.
A body, when placed on a surface, exerts a
thrust on the surface equal to its own weight.
The effect of thrust depends on the area of the
surface on which it acts. Smaller the area of the
surface on which a thrust acts, larger is its
effect. But the effect of a thrust is less on a
larger area.
Pressure is defined as the thrust per unit area.

The SI unit of pressure is Nm-2 also called pascal

(symbol Pa). Thus 1Pa = Nm-2.
One kilopascal kPa = 1000 Pa.
If thrust is measured in kgf and area in cm-2,
then pressure is expressed in unit kgf cm-2.
A camel can move more conveniently on sand as
compared to a horse. The reason is that the
camel has broader feet than horse. The broader
feet of the camel provide lesser pressure on the
sand and it becomes easier for the camel to
walk. In the case of a horse, the area of the feet
is less, due to which the pressure is more and
hence the feet show a tendency to sink inside
the sand, making it difficult to walk.
Pressure is defined as the force acting
perpendicularly to a surface, per unit
area. While force can be any force, the force
component relevant to pressure is the one that
is perpendicular to the surface, often referred
to as thrust.
If a force is applied at an angle to the surface,
only the component of the force perpendicular
to the surface contributes to the pressure.
A solid exerts pressure on a surface due to its
own weight. Similarly, liquids have weight. They
also exert pressure on the container in which
they are kept. A solid exerts pressure only on
the surface at its bottom. But a liquid exerts
pressure not only on the surface of its container
at the bottom, but also sideways and upwards,
that is, in all directions.
The pressure at a point in a liquid depends on
the following two factors:
1. The height of the liquid column. Liquid
pressure increases with the height of the liquid
column above the point.
2. The density of the liquid. Liquid pressure
increases with the increase in density of the
liquid.
Pressure, while calculated using force (a vector)
and area, is a scalar quantity because it only
has magnitude and no direction. It represents
the force acting perpendicularly on a surface
per unit area, but this force is considered to be
acting equally in all directions at a given point
within a fluid or on a surface. Thus, there is no
single direction associated with pressure itself.
A liquid seeks its own level. The height of level
of liquid in tubes of different area of cross
sections always remains same, although volume
of liquid is different in different tubes as shown
in Fig below. This is called hydrostatic paradox.

Like liquids, gases also exert pressure. Our

earth is surrounded by air to a height of about
200 kms. This envelop of air around the earth is
called the atmosphere. Air has weight. The
weight of air exerts a thrust on earth. The
thrust on unit area of the earth surface due to
the column of air is called the atmospheric
pressure. This is about 105 N m-2.
The atmospheric pressure is generally
expressed in a unit atm where
1 atm = 76 cm of mercury column = 1.013 x 105
Pa.
We all are under the atmospheric pressure
(=100,000 N m-2). The surface area of an
average human body is 2 m2. Therefore, a total
thrust of about 200,000 N acts on our body by
the atmosphere. However, we are not aware of
this enormous thrust since the blood in the
veins of our body also exerts a pressure (called
the blood pressure) which is slightly more than
the atmospheric pressure. This blood pressure
makes the effect of atmospheric pressure
ineffective.

4. Energy
Work is said to be done if the force applied on a
body moves it. If no motion takes place, no
work is said to be done.
Work is also said to be done by a force if the
force applied on a body changes its size or
shape.
The work done by a force on a body is equal to
the product of the force applied and the
distance moved by the body in the direction.
Work done = Force x distance moved in the
direction of force.
The work done by a force is zero if the body
moves in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of force.
For example, when a stone tied at the end of a
string is whirled in a horizontal circular path,
the motion of stone is always normal to the
force of tension in the string as shown in the
figure below. Therefore, the work done by the
force of tension on the stone is zero.

Similarly, in motion of earth around the sun, the

force of attraction on earth by the sun is always
normal to the direction of motion of earth, so no
work is done by the gravitational force of sun
on the earth.
Similarly, if a coolie moves on a plane road with
luggage on his head, the work done by him
against the force of gravity (i.e., weight) is
zero. Since, distance moved by him is normal to
his weight.
I Joule = 1 Nm.
1 kilo joule (kJ) = 1000 J
1 Mega joule (MJ) = 106J
The unit of moment of force is newton x metre
(symbol N m). But it is not written as joule (J).
Only for work and energy, the product, newton
x metre is Written as joule. This is to distinguish
Moment of force from the work or energy.
The energy possessed by a body due to its state
of rest or state of motion, is called mechanical
energy. The total mechanical energy of a body
is the sum of its potential and the kinetic
energies.
The energy possessed by a body due to its state
of rest or position is called potential energy.
The energy of a stretched bow or compressed
spring is also called elastic potential energy.
When a body is taken from the earth surface to
a height, work has to be done on the body
against the force of gravity on it. This work
done is stored in the body in the form of its
potential energy. This energy is also called
gravitational potential energy.
Let a body of mass m kg be moved from the
ground to a height of h m. The minimum upward
force required to move the body will be the
force of gravity on the body acting vertically
downward. If g is the force of gravity on a mass
of 1 kg, the force of gravity on mass m kg will
be mg N.
Force needed F=mg N
Distance moved d=h m
Work done W = force x distance moved
= mg x h Joule
= mgh Joule
This work done against the force of gravity, is
stored in the body at height h in form of its
gravitational potential energy.
Gravitational potential energy, PE (or U) = mgh.
Kinetic energy of a body is the energy
possessed by it due to its state of motion.
If a body initially at rest is made to move, work
is done on the body and the body in motion is
said to possess kinetic energy. The Kinetic
energy of the body will be equal to the work
done on the body.
The potential energy changes into kinetic
energy when it is put to use.
In absence of friction, the sum of potential
energy and kinetic energy remains constant at
each instant. This is called the law of
conservation of mechanical energy.
The water collected in a dam at a height has
potential energy stored in it. When it is made to
fall on a turbine, the potential energy changes
to kinetic energy which is transferred to the
turbine to rotate it. By connecting the turbine
to the armature of a dynamo, electricity (called
the hydroelectricity) is produced.
Whenever mechanical energy changes to other
forms, it is always in the form of kinetic energy
and not in the form of potential energy i.e., the
stored potential energy first changes to kinetic
energy and then kinetic energy changes to the
other form.
The power of a body is defined as the rate of
doing work by the body.
If a source of power P is used for time t, the
energy spent or work done is P x t.
When a body does work or spends energy, we
often come across the term ‘power’ spent by
the body. All electrical appliances are rated with
their power. When an appliance is in use, the
electrical energy spent is given by the product
of its power and time for which it has been
used. We pay the cost for this electrical energy
consumed.
SI unit of power = 1 watt W = J S-1.
1 kilo Watt (kW) = 1000 watts.
1 Mega watt (MW) = 106 watts.
one Horse power = 746 watt.
A kilowatt-hour (kWh) is a unit of energy,
specifically representing the amount of energy
consumed when using one kilowatt (1000 watts)
of power for one hour.
kWh (kilowatt hour) is the unit of energy where
1 kWh = 3.6 X 106J.

5. Light energy
The speed of light in air is 3 x 108 m s-1, in water
it is 2.25 x 108 m s-1 and in glass it is only 2 x
108ms-1. In the language of Physics, we say that
glass is optically denser than water and water is
optically denser than air or air is optically rarer
than both water and glass.
Thus, a medium is said to be denser if the speed
of light in it decreases, while it is said to be
rarer if the speed of light in it increases. But in
no medium, it can be more than 3 x 108 m s-1.
When a ray of light travelling in one transparent
medium falls obliquely on the surface of
another transparent medium, it travels in the
other medium in a direction different from its
initial path.
The change in direction of path of light when it
passes from one optically transparent medium
to another, is called refraction of light.
It has been experimentally observed that
(1) When a ray of light travels from a rarer to a
denser medium (say, from air to water or from
air to glass), it bends towards the normal as
shown in the figure below.
(2) When a ray of light travels from a denser to
a rarer medium (say, from water to air or from
glass to air), it bends away from the normal as
shown in the figure below.

(3) When a ray of light falls normally on the

surface separating the two media, it passes
undeviated (i.e., along the same path) as shown
in the figure below.

When a ray of light passes from one transparent

medium to another transparent medium having
the same refractive index, it also remains
undeviated.
SOME TERMS RELATED TO REFRACTION OF
LIGHT
(1) Incident ray: The ray of light falling on the
surface separating the two media, is called the
incident ray.
(2) Refracted ray: The ray of light travelling in
the other medium in the changed direction, is
called the refracted ray.
(3) Normal: The perpendicular drawn on the
surface separating the two media, at the point
where the incident ray strikes it, i.e. at the
point of incidence, is called the normal.
(4) Angle of incidence: The angle between the
incident ray and the normal is called the angle
of incidence ‘i’.
(5) Angle of refraction: The angle between the
refracted ray and the normal is called the angle
of refraction 'r'.
LAWS OF REFRACTION (SNELL’S LAW)
Refraction of light obeys the following two laws
also known as Snell’s laws of refraction.
1.The incident ray, the normal at the point of
incidence and the refracted ray, all lie in the
same plane.
2. For a given pair of media and given colour of
light, the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence i
to the sine of angle of refraction r is a constant
i.e.,
sin i
sin r
= µ (constant).
Speed of light ∈ first medium
µ= Speed of light ∈ second medium is known as the refractive
index of the second medium with respect to the
first medium.
The refractive index (n) of a medium is the ratio
of the speed of light in a vacuum (c) to the
speed of light in the medium (v). n = c/v.
The relationship between the angle of incidence
and the angle of refraction is defined by Snell's
Law, which states that the ratio of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle
of refraction is constant for a given pair of
media. This law is expressed as n1sin i = n2sin
r, where n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of
the two media, and i and r are the angles of
incidence and refraction, respectively.

A ray of light OA from the point O at the bottom

of vessel is incident normally on the water-air,
surface XY. It travels straight along AD in air.
Another ray OB incident from water on the
surface XY, when passes to air, bends away
from the normal BN; and goes along the path
BC. The two refracted rays AO
and BC when produced back, meet at I. Thus I is
the image of O.
Thus to the observer in air, the depth of vessel
appears to be AI instead of AO, due to
refraction of light from water to air. The
apparent depth Al is less than the real depth
AO.
Real depth / Apparent depth = Refractive Index
of the medium.
Mirage is an optical illusion where it appears
that water has collected on the road at a distant
place but when we get there, we don’t find any
water.
A ray of light that hits the interface from the
first medium (air) is called an incident ray. The
incident ray, on entering the second medium
(glass) is called the refracted ray. The refracted
ray, when emerges out of the second medium
back to the first medium or any other medium is
called the emergent ray.
The emergent ray through a prism is not in
direction of the incident ray, but it bends
towards the base of the prism because in a
prism, refraction occurs at two inclined
surfaces. On the other hand, in a rectangular
glass block, refraction of light occurs at two
parallel surfaces, so the emergent ray is in
direction of the incident ray, but laterally
displaced.
Spectrum is the coloured band obtained on a
screen on passing the white light through a
prism. Starting from the side of the base of the
prism, the colours in the spectrum on the
screen are VIBGYOR.
Note that the prism does not produce colours,
but it simply separates the colours which
already exist in white light. Thus, if white light
is passed through a prism, it splits into different
colours. This is called dispersion of light.
The speed of light of all colours is same in air or
vacuum, but it differs in a transparent medium
such as glass or water. In a transparent medium
(such as glass or water), the speed of violet
light is minimum and of red light is maximum.
Therefore, the refractive index µ of a
transparent medium is also different for lights
of different colours.
In rainy season, sometimes after the rains, you
see a rainbow in the sky, just opposite to the
sun. It is due to dispersion of white light of sun
by the rain drops which behave like small
prisms.
A spherical mirror is a mirror that has the shape
of a piece cut out of a spherical surface. The
surface on which silvering is done, is called the
silvered surface and the reflection of light takes
place from the other surface which is called the
reflecting surface. There are two types of
spherical mirrors: concave mirror and convex
mirror.
A concave mirror is made by silvering on the
outer surface of a hollow sphere such that the
reflection takes place from the inside hollow (or
concave) surface as shown in figure below.
A convex mirror is made by silvering on the
inner Surface such that the reflection takes
place from the outer convexed (or bulged)
surface as shown in figure below.

SOME TERMS RELATED TO A SPHERICAL MIRROR

(1) Pole : The geometric centre of the spherical
surface of the mirror is called the pole of the
mirror. It is the mid point of the aperture AB of
the mirror. It is represented by the symbol P in
the above figure.
(2) Centre of curvature: The centre of curvature
of a mirror is the centre of the sphere of which
the mirror is a part. It is represented by the
symbol C in the figure above.
Note: The normal at any point of the mirror
passes through the centre of curvature. In other
words, a line joining the centre of curvature to
any point of the mirror, is normal on the mirror
at that point.
(3) Radius of curvature: The radius of curvature
of a mirror is the radius of the sphere of which
the mirror is a part. Thus, it is the distance of
the centre of curvature C from any point of the
surface of mirror. In the above figure, this is
represented by the symbol R.
(4) Principal axis: It is a straight line joining the
pole of the mirror to its centre of curvature. In
the above figure, the line PC represents the
principal axis. It may extend on either side of
the pole.
The laws of reflection of light hold for the
spherical mirrors as well.
The focus of a concave mirror is a point on the
principal axis at which the light rays incident
parallel to the principal axis meet (converge)
after reflection from the mirror.

The focus of a convex mirror is a point on its

principal axis at which the light rays incident
parallel to the principal axis, appear to meet
after reflection from the mirror.
The focus of a concave mirror is real, while that
of a convex mirror is virtual.
The distance of the focus from the pole of the
mirror is called the focal length of the mirror. In
the above two figures PF is the focal length.
Focal length is half of radius of curvature.
The object is kept in front of the reflecting
surface on its left side.
To construct the image of an object due to
reflection by a spherical mirror, any two of the
following three rays can be constructed
according to our convenience.
(1) A ray passing through the centre of
curvature is reflected along its own path.
(2) A ray parallel to the principal axis: A ray of
light incident parallel to the principal axis, after
reflection passes through the focus in case of a
concave mirror or appears to come from the
focus in case of a convex mirror.
(3) A ray passing through the focus: A ray
passing through the focus in case of a concave
mirror or appearing to pass through the focus in
case of a convex mirror, gets reflected parallel
to the principal axis.
To construct the image formed by a mirror, we
take at least two rays incident on the mirror
from a given point of the object. The point
where the rays after reflection from the mirror,
meet or appear to meet, gives the image of that
point of the object.
If the reflected rays actually meet at a point,
the image is real, but if the reflected rays
appear to meet at a point when produced
backwards, the image is virtual. A real image
can be obtained on a screen, but a virtual image
cannot be taken on a screen. A real image is
inverted, but a virtual image is erect.
IMAGES FORMED BY A CONCAVE MIRROR
1. When an object is at infinity: When an object
is at infinity, the image is formed at focus. It is
a real, inverted and highly diminished image.
2. When an object is beyond the centre of
curvature: The image formed is real, inverted
and smaller in size than the object.
3. When an object is at the centre of curvature:
The image formed is real, inverted and of the
same size as that of the object.
4. When an object is between the Centre of
curvature and focus: The image formed is real,
inverted and of bigger in size than the object.
5. When an object is at the focus: When an
object is at the focus, the image formed is at
infinity. It is real, inverted and highly magnified.
6. When an object is between the focus and
pole: The image formed is virtual, erect and of
size bigger than the object.
The image formed by both plane mirror and
spherical mirror shows lateral inversion.
A real image formed by a mirror is always
formed in front of the mirror, while a virtual
image is formed behind the mirror.
6. Heat transfer
Due to motion, the molecules have the kinetic
energy and due to forces of attraction, they
have the potential energy.
The total kinetic energy of molecules of the
substance is called its internal kinetic energy
and the total potential energy of molecules is
called its internal potential energy. The sum of
internal kinetic energy and internal potential
energy is called the total internal energy or
heat energy of the substance. Thus, heat is the
internal energy of a substance.
When there is a rise in average kinetic energy
of molecules of a substance, its temperature
increases and if there is fall in the average
kinetic energy of molecules of a substance, its
temperature decreases.
Some materials rise to high temperature while
some to a low temperature even when same
quantity of heat is imparted to them because
different materials have different specific heat
capacity.
Solidification is another name for deposition.
The change of state from liquid to gas at all
temperatures is called evaporation. Thus,
evaporation differs from boiling. Boiling is at a
fixed temperature while evaporation takes
place at all temperatures.
The heat absorbed, (or rejected) during the
change of state is called latent heat or hidden
heat because it is not manifested by any change
in temperature. This heat when expressed for
unit mass of a substance is called specific latent
heat.
Since temperature does not change during the
change of state, there is no change in average
kinetic energy of molecules of the substance
but the heat absorbed (or rejected) changes the
average potential energy of the molecules of
the substance.
In solids, atoms and molecules are tightly
packed and held in fixed positions within a
crystal lattice or amorphous structure. Their
movement is mainly limited to vibration about
their equilibrium positions. The distance of this
vibration is extremely small, typically on the
order of picometers (pm), which is 10⁻¹² meters.
In liquids, atoms and molecules are still
relatively close together, but they have enough
energy to overcome the fixed positions of a
solid. They can vibrate, rotate,
and translate (slide past each other). This
means they can move further than in solids, but
are still confined to a specific volume.
In gases, atoms and molecules are far apart
and experience very weak attractive forces.
They possess high kinetic energy and
move randomly and rapidly in all directions.
They can vibrate, rotate, and undergo
significant translational motion, causing them
to collide with each other and the container
walls.
The temperature at which molecular motion
completely ceases is known as the absolute
zero on the Kelvin scale. Temperature lower
than absolute zero is not possible.
When a molecule, while in motion, reaches the
surface of the liquid, it is pulled inside by the
Cohesive force of surrounding molecules of the
liquid as there are no molecules on the other
side of the surface. Thus, molecules are not
allowed to leave the surface and therefore a
liquid has a definite volume.
On the other hand, in a gas the molecules are
very much farther apart than those of a solid or
liquid. There is a very small or negligible force
of attraction between the gas molecules and
therefore the molecules are free to move about
over the entire available space. This is why a
gas has neither a fixed shape nor a fixed
volume.
In a liquid, molecules while in motion collide
with each other. Some molecules which gain
energy reach to the surface of liquid while
others which lose energy remain inside the
liquid. Thus, the molecules on the surface of
liquid have higher kinetic energy than those
inside the liquid. During evaporation, the
molecules on the surface which have sufficient
kinetic energy to do work against the force of
attraction on them due to other molecules
inside the liquid, escape out from the surface in
space. These escaping molecules form the
vapour of the liquid. The process continues till
all the liquid evaporates. The rate of
evaporation depends on temperature of liquid,
wind, surface area and the presence of
humidity.
The rate of evaporation increases with the
increase in temperature of liquid. The reason is
that the energy of the molecules increases with
increase in temperature. So more and more
molecules come to the surface of liquid, hence
the rate of evaporation will increase with
increase of temperature.
When air is blown above the surface of liquid,
the rate of evaporation increases. The reason is
that blowing air takes away with it the
molecules of liquid escaping out of the surface.
To take their place, other molecules escape out
from the surface of liquid.
On increasing the area of surface exposed to
air, the rate of evaporation increases. The
reason being that on increasing the area of
surface, number of molecules escaping out from
the surface increases.
In presence of humidity, the rate of evaporation
becomes slow because vapour molecules do not
find space to escape.
When a liquid evaporates, it produces cooling in
its surroundings.
Reason: In the process of evaporation, a liquid
changes to vapour and for this purpose some
heat is needed. If there is no external supply of
heat, the liquid (e.g. ether) will draw the
necessary heat from its surroundings (e.g. palm
of your hand) and therefore it (palm) gets
cooled.
The boiling point of a liquid increases with an
increase in pressure and it decreases with
decrease in pressure. The reason is that at the
boiling point, the pressure exerted by the
vapour of liquid is equal to the atmospheric
pressure. Thus, the boiling point of a liquid
depends on the surrounding atmospheric
pressure. With the increase of atmospheric
pressure, boiling point of a liquid increases to
increase the vapour pressure and make it equal
to the atmospheric pressure and with the
decrease in atmospheric pressure, it decreases.
This is why at mountains where the atmospheric
pressure is low, water boils at a temperature
below 100°C and it becomes difficult to cook the
vegetables. On the other hand, in a pressure
cooker by keeping water vapours inside it, the
surrounding pressure is increased, then water
inside boils at a temperature nearly 125°C, so
the vegetables get readily cooked inside it.
Exceptions of thermal expansions are -
1. Water from 0°C to 4°C.
2. Silver iodide from 80°C to 141°C.
3. Silica below -80°C.
They contract on heating and expand on cooling
in the given range of temperature.
The increase in length of a solid is called linear
expansion. The increase in area is called
superficial expansion and increase in volume is
called cubical expansion.
The increase in length of a rod on heating does
not depend on whether it is hollow or solid. If
we heat two rods of the same metal and of the
same length, but one hollow and the other
solid, to the same rise in temperature, we find
that both the rods expand to the same extent.

A thermostat is a device used to control

temperature by closing and opening the circuit.
Thermostat is used in electrical gadgets like
refrigerator, electric iron, oven, geysers, etc.
A thermostat is a device that regulates
temperature. It acts as a temperature sensor
and controller, typically used to maintain a
consistent temperature in a room or space by
managing heating or cooling systems.
Experimentally it is observed that linear
expansion, superficial expansion and cubical
expansion of a substance depends on:
(i) The initial length/area/volume of the
substance.
(ii) The increase in temperature.
(iii) Material of the substance.
If L0 is the length of a rod at 00C and its length
at t0C is Lt, the increase in length is given as
Lt – L0 = L0αt where alpha is called the
coefficient of linear expansion which depends
on the material of rod i.e., alpha is different for
different substances. Its unit is per °C.
The value of coefficient of linear expansion of
some metals is given in the following table.

The substance with the highest linear

coefficient of thermal expansion is aluminum.
The material with the lowest linear coefficient of
thermal expansion is Invar, an alloy primarily
composed of iron and nickel (typically 64% iron
and 36% nickel).
If A0 is the area of plate at 0°C and At the area
of plate at t°C, the increase in area is given as
At - A0 = A0βt where β is the coefficient of
superficial expansion which is different for
different solids/materials.
If V0 is the volume of a solid at 00 C and Vt the
volume at t°C, then increase in volume is given
as:
Vt - V0 = V0γt where γ is called the coefficient of
Cubical expansion of solid. It is different for
different materials.
The three coefficients of expansion are related
as
α : β : γ = 1 : 2 : 3.
Water contracts on heating it from 0°C to 4°C
and then beyond 4°C on further heating, it
expands. This is called anomalous behavior of
water.
When a liquid contained in a vessel is heated,
first the vessel will get the heat so it will
expand due to which the level of liquid will fall.
Thereafter when heat reaches the liquid, it will
expand, so the level of liquid will rise. Since
liquids expand more than the solids, the liquid
level rises above its initial level. Thus, the real
expansion of liquid is more than the observed
expansion.

7. Sound
The speed of sound in iron is nearly 5000 m s-1,
in water it is nearly 1500 m s-1 and in air it is
nearly 330 m s-1.
A wave is a disturbance that transfers energy
from one point to another without the transfer
of matter. Waves can be classified into
mechanical waves (requiring a medium like
sound) and electromagnetic waves (which can
travel through a vacuum like light).
One complete to and fro motion of the strip
forms one compression and one rarefaction
which together constitute one wave.
The maximum displacement of the particle of
medium on either side of its mean position, is
called the amplitude of wave. It is denoted by
the letter a. Its S.I. unit is metre (m).
The amplitude of a wave is not always formed at
the first compression or first rarefaction. The
amplitude represents the maximum
displacement of a particle from its equilibrium
position, and this occurs at the peak of both
compressions and rarefactions, not necessarily
at the very beginning of the wave.
The time taken by a particle of medium to
complete its one vibration is called the time
period of the wave. It is denoted by the letter T.
Its S.I. unit is second (s).
The number of vibrations produced by a particle
of the medium in one second is called the
frequency of the wave. It is also defined as the
number of waves passing through a point in one
second. It is denoted by the letter f. Its S.I. unit
is second-1 or hertz (symbol Hz).
The frequency of a wave is equal to the
frequency of vibrations of its source. It is the
characteristic of its source which produces the
sound. It does not depend on the amplitude of
vibration or on the nature of medium through
which the wave propagates.
The distance travelled by the wave in one time
period of vibration of particle of medium is
called its wavelength. It is denoted by the letter
λ (lambda). Its S.I. unit is metre (m). It depends
on the nature of medium through which the
wave travels.
In a longitudinal wave, the distance between
two consecutive compressions or between two
consecutive rarefactions is equal to one
wavelength (λ).
In a sound wave, each particle in the medium
does not vibrate only once. Instead, particles
oscillate back and forth about their equilibrium
position as the sound wave passes, transferring
energy through the medium without any net
displacement of the particles. This repeated
back-and-forth motion is a vibration.
A wave while propagating in a medium can be
represented by the following two graphs:
(1) Displacement-time graph, and
(2) Displacement-distance graph.
In a longitudinal wave, in both the graphs
above, the displacement on + Y axis shows the
motion of medium particles in the direction of
propagation of wave while the displacement on
-Y axis shows the motion of medium particles in
direction opposite to the propagation of sound.
If the particles of medium vibrate normal to the
direction of propagation of wave, the wave is
called transverse wave. Sound waves produced
in strings are transverse waves.
A sound wave is characterized by amplitude and
frequency. Depending upon the amplitude and
frequency of the sound wave, two sounds can
be distinguished from one another by the
following three different characteristics:
1) Loudness,
(2) Pitch (or shrillness), and
(3) Quality (or timbre or wave form).
Loudness is the characteristic of sound by
virtue of which a loud sound can be
distinguished from a faint sound, both having
the same frequency and same wave form.
The loudness of a sound depends on the
amplitude of vibration of the vibrating body
producing sound. Greater the amplitude of
vibrations, louder is the sound produced.
The loudness of sound depends on the following
factors:
(i) On the amplitude of wave
(ii) On the distance of source of sound
(iii) On the surface area of the Vibrating body
(iv) On the Sensitivity of the listener

The loudness of sound is measured on a special

scale called the decibel scale. Note that 1 dB =
one-tenth of bel where bel is the unit of level of
loudness.
The minimum loudness of sound audible at
frequency 1 kHz is considered to be the zero
level of sound in decibel (i.e., zero dB). It is
taken to be the reference level. When the
loudness increases 10 times, the level of sound
is said to be 10 dB. When the loudness becomes
100 times, its level is 20 dB, when the loudness
becomes 1000 times, its level is 30 dB and so
on.
The safe limit of level of sound for hearing is
from 0 to 80 dB. The sound of level 10 dB to 30
dB has soothing sensation. A constant hearing
of sound of level above 120 dB can cause
headache and permanent damage to the ears of
the listener. Such sound is called noise.
Pitch is the characteristic of sound that
differentiates an acute or shrill sound from a
flat sound. It depends on the number of
vibrations per second. Pitch refers only to the
musical sounds and each musical note has a
definite pitch. If the pitch is high, the sound is
shrill and if the pitch is low, the sound is flat.
Pitch of a note depends on its frequency. Two
notes sounded on the same instrument with
same amplitude, will differ in pitch when their
vibrations are of different frequencies.
In the displacement-time graph, if number of
waves in same time interval increases, it means
that the time period of wave has decreased i.e.,
its frequency has increased.
In the displacement-distance graph, if number
of waves in the same distance increases, it
means that the wavelength of wave has
decreased so its frequency (or pitch) has
increased.
A sound of single frequency is called a
monotone. A tuning fork is the only source of
sound which produces sound of a single
frequency.
Quality or timbre is the characteristic which
distinguishes two sounds of the same pitch and
same loudness. The wave form is different for
different sources of sound even if their loudness
and pitch are same. Each vibrating body has its
characteristic wave form. This makes it possible
for one to recognize the vibrating body even
without seeing it. You generally recognize a
person by hearing his voice on telephone,
without seeing him. It is because the vibrations
produced by the vocal chord of each person
have a characteristic wave form which is
different for different persons.
8. Electricity
The cell or battery provides us current which
remains constant with time. This current is
called direct current (or D.C.). The mains and
electric generator provide us the alternating
current (A.C.) which changes its magnitude and
polarity with time.
Suppose we want to find the amount of
electrical energy supplied by the source.
By definition, potential difference is the work
done in moving a unit charge, so work needed
to move a charge Q through a potential
difference V is
W = QV. Also Q = It.
Hence, W = VIt.
This gives the electrical energy W supplied by
the source (battery or mains) in providing the
current I for time t in the conductor under a
potential difference V.
Now power is the rate of doing work. So power
supplied by the source
W VIt
P= = =VI
t t
Thus Power = Potential difference X Current
 1 Watt = 1 Volt X 1 Ampere
At the generating station, the electric power is
generated at 11 kV. The voltage generated has
alternating frequency of 50 Hz (i.e. its polarity
at the terminals changes 100 times a second, 50
times + and 50 times -).
The voltage of the power generated at the
generating station is first raised from 11 kV to
132 kV to reduce loss of energy in transmission
due to heating of line wires and then is
transmitted to the grid sub station. At the grid
sub station, its voltage is reduced from 132kV
to 33 kV before it is sent to main substation
where its voltage is further reduced to 11kV.
Once reduced, the power is supplied to the city
substation where its voltage is further reduced
to 220 V before it is supplied to the consumer.
Live wire is red or brown. Neutral wire is black
or light blue. Earth wire is green or yellow.
Generally, the fuse wire is made of an alloy of
lead and tin, 50% of each metal.
From the power rating of an appliance, we can
find the safe limit of current which can flow
through that appliance.
From relation P = VI.
Safe limit of current for an appliance
Power of appliance
I= V oltage at whichworks

For example, for a bulb rated 100 W - 220 V, the

safe limit of current when it is lighted at 220 V
is
P 100 W
I= =
V 220 V = 0.45 A

In our country a.c. is supplied at voltage equal

to 220 V.
The electrical energy consumed by an appliance
in a certain time can be calculated in kWh by
the following relation:

A charged body attracts an uncharged body.

Only insulators and isolated conductors can be
charged by rubbing.
Charging of two bodies on rubbing them
together is also called static electricity
produced by friction.
When two objects are rubbed together, both are
charged equally, but the charges on them are of
the opposite kinds. Thus, the total charge of the
objects before and after rubbing remains same.
This is called conservation of charges.
The two objects which are rubbed together are
initially neutral (or uncharged). When they are
rubbed together, the free electrons are
transferred from one object to the other. The
object which gains free electrons, becomes
negatively charged, while the object which loses
free electrons, becomes positively charged.