LECTURER:

Lecturer:
Mr Allen

MEMBRANE POTENTIALS
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
• Neurons and muscles can respond to stimuli and conduct impulses because a
membrane potential is established across the cell membrane. In other words,
there is an unequal distribution of ions (charged atoms) on the two sides of a
nerve cell membrane.
• The disturbance of this membrane potential, and its propagation along the
membrane is what makes the Excitable Tissue cells unique.
• A difference in electrical charge across (ECF – ICF) this membrane,
representing potential energy which can be measure with a voltmeter or
microelectrode
• There are different type of membrane potential which are:
• Resting membrane potential
• Threshold membrane potential
• Action potentials
• Graded potentials
• The cell membrane is known to have an electric charge. Its external surface is
charged positively “+” and the internal one negatively “-” .
• Membrane potentials in different tissues are characterized by different values:
the highest one is in muscular tissue -80 to -90 mV, in nervous -70 mV, in
connective -35 to -40 mV, in epithelial -20 mV.
• When the internal charge of the membrane becomes less negative, it is known
as membrane depolarization. If the internal charge of the membrane
becomes more negative, it is called hyperpolarization.
• With one electrode is placed inside
a cell (e.g neuron) and the other
outside, the voltmeter is
'measuring' the difference in the
distribution of ions on the inside
versus the outside.
• And, in this example, the voltmeter
reads -70 mV (mV = millivolts).
• In other words, the inside of the
neuron is slightly negative relative
to the outside.
• This difference is referred to as the
Resting Membrane Potential.
• How is this potential established?
DIFFUSION POTENTIAL
• Diffusion Potential” is caused by an ion concentration difference on the two
sides of the membrane.
• Diffusion potential is a concept related to the movement of ions across a
membrane.
• It depends on three factors: the polarity of the electrical charge of each ion,
the membrane permeability to each ion, and the concentrations of the
respective ions inside and outside the membrane.
• This balance of electrical and diffusion tendencies creates an
electrochemical equilibrium.
• Diffusion potentials are also known as Nernst potentials
 Nernst potential
• The diffusion potential level across a membrane that exactly opposes the net
diffusion of a particular ion through the membrane is called the Nernst
potential for that ion.
• The magnitude of this Nernst potential is determined by the ratio of the
concentrations of that specific ion on the two sides of the membrane.
• The greater this ratio, the greater the tendency for the ion to diffuse in one
direction, and therefore the greater the Nernst potential required to prevent
additional net diffusion.

• where EMF is electromotive force.

• It is usually assumed that the potential in the extracellular fluid outside the
membrane remains at zero potential, and the Nernst potential is the potential
inside the membrane.

• Also, the sign of the potential is positive (+) if the ion diffusing from inside
to outside is a negative ion, and it is negative (−) if the ion is positive.

• Thus, when the concentration of positive potassium ions on the inside is 10

times that on the outside, the log of 10 is 1, so the Nernst potential calculates
to be −61 millivolts inside the membrane.
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation
• This equation is use to calculate diffusion potential when the membrane is permeable
to several different ions
• When a membrane is permeable to several different ions, the diffusion potential that
develops depends on three factors:
• the polarity of the electrical charge of each ion
• the permeability of the membrane (P) to each ion, and
• the concentrations (C) of the respective ions on the inside (i) and outside (o) of the
membrane.
Resting Membrane Potential
• Membranes of all cells are polarized or, in other words, exhibit a RESTING MEMBRANE
POTENTIAL.
• This means that there is an unequal distribution of ions on the two sides of the cell
membrane.
• The difference between the charges of the external and internal membrane sides is called
the resting membrane potential.
• The formation of the resting membrane potential (RMP) depends on the concentrations of
К + , Nа+ , Са2+ , Сl-, as well as on the features of the cell membrane.
• This POTENTIAL generally measures about -70 millivolts for neurons (with the INSIDE
of the membrane negative with respect to the outside). However, there are variations
depending on the cell.
• It is called a RESTING potential because it occurs when a membrane is not being
stimulating or conducting impulses (in other words, it's resting).
Contribution of the Potassium Diffusion Potential.
• If we assume that the only movement of ions through the membrane is
diffusion of potassium ions, as demonstrated by the open channels
between the potassium symbols (K+) inside and outside the membrane.
• The ratio of potassium ions inside to outside is 35:1, the Nernst potential
corresponding to this ratio is −94 millivolts because the logarithm of 35
is 1.54, and this multiplied by −61 millivolts is −94 millivolts.
• Therefore, if potassium ions were the only factor causing the resting
potential, the resting potential inside the fiber would be equal to −94
millivolts
 Contribution of Sodium Diffusion
• The ratio of sodium ions from inside to outside the membrane is 0.1, and
this gives a calculated Nernst potential for the inside of the membrane of
+61 millivolts.
• The membrane is highly permeable to potassium but only slightly
permeable to sodium, it is logical that the diffusion of potassium
contributes far more to the membrane potential than does the diffusion of
sodium.
• In the normal nerve fiber, the permeability of the membrane to potassium
is about 100 times as great as its permeability to sodium. Using this value
in the Goldman equation gives a potential inside the membrane of −86
millivolts, which is near the potassium potential
Contribution of the +
Na -K + Pump
• The Na+- K+ pump continuous pump of three sodium ions to the outside for
each two potassium ions pumped to the inside of the membrane.
• The fact that more sodium ions are being pumped to the outside than
potassium to the inside causes continual loss of positive charges from inside
the membrane; this creates an additional degree of negativity (about −4
• millivolts additional) on the inside beyond that which can be accounted for
by diffusion alone.
• The net membrane potential with all these factors operative at the same
time is about −90 millivolts.
 Summary
• Two ions are responsible: sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+).
• An unequal distribution of these two ions occurs on the two sides of a cell membrane
because pumps actively transport these two ions: sodium from the inside to the outside and
potassium from the outside to the inside.
• The pump responsible is called the Sodium-Potassium ATPase which actively transports 3
Na outwards and 2 K inwards simultaneously. This causes an imbalance of the charges
across the membrane, hence the pump is said to be electrogenic.
• The cell membrane also contains special passageways for these two ions that are commonly
referred to as CHANNELS.
• Thus, there are SODIUM and POTASSIUM CHANNELS.
• These CHANNELS represent the only way that these ions can diffuse passively through the
excitable cell membrane.
• IN A RESTING NERVE/MUSCLE CELL MEMBRANE, diffusion of potassium is much
more than that of sodium
• AS A RESULT, sodium cannot diffuse through the membrane & largely remains outside
the membrane.
• HOWEVER, some potassium ions are able to diffuse out because their concentration
gradient.
• As they do so, they carry +ve charges to the outside, thus creating a electropositivity
outside the membrane.
• The processes also create electronegativity on the inside because of negative anions that
remains cannot diffuse out with the potassium.
• OVERALL, THEREFORE, there are lots of positively charged potassium ions just inside
the membrane and lots of positively charged sodium ions PLUS some potassium ions on
the outside.
• THIS MEANS THAT THERE ARE MORE POSITIVE CHARGES ON THE OUTSIDE
THAN ON THE INSIDE.
ACTION POTENTIAL
• An action potential is a very rapid change in membrane potential that
occurs when a cell membrane is stimulated. This occurs in cells of
Excitable Tissues.

• Specifically, the membrane potential goes from the resting potential

(e.g nerves-70 mV) to some positive value (typically about +30 mV) in
a very short period of time (just a few milliseconds).
Gated Ion Channels
• Cell membrane has Protein channels through which ions diffuse down
the concentration gradient.
• These channels may be open or gated. The gated ones are further
divided into Voltage-Gated or Ligand-Gated.
• Excitable Tissue cells have voltage-gated Na+ K+ and Ca2+ channels
Voltage-Gated Channels
• These channels are sensitive to voltage. At RMP they are closed. If the
RMP is disturbed, they open. However, the Na+ channels are much
faster than the K+ hence allow influx of Na+ before K+ efflux.
• What causes this change in potential to occur?
• An event called STIMULUS disturbs the RMP
• The stimulus causes the sodium gates (or channels) to
open and, because there's more sodium on the
outside than the inside of the membrane, sodium
then diffuses rapidly into the nerve cell.
• All these positively-charged sodium rushing in causes
the membrane potential to become positive (the
inside of the membrane is now positive relative to the
outside), CAUSING THE VOLTAGE-GATED CHANNELS
TO OPEN
Fast and Slow Channels
• Note that the Stimulus opens both the Sodium as well as the
Potassium ion gates, but at different times because Sodium channels
are FAST while Potassium channels are SLOW.
• The potassium channels then open, and because
there is more potassium inside the membrane than
outside, positively-charged potassium ions diffuse
out.

• As these positive ions go out, the inside of the

membrane once again becomes negative with respect
to the outside.
 Threshold stimulus & potential
• Action potentials occur only when the membrane is stimulated (depolarized) enough
so that sodium channels open completely. The minimum stimulus needed to achieve
an action potential is called the threshold stimulus.
• The threshold stimulus causes the membrane potential to become less negative
(because a stimulus, no matter how small, causes a few sodium channels to open
and allows some positively-charged sodium ions to diffuse in).
• If the membrane potential reaches the threshold potential (generally 5 - 15 mV less
negative than the resting potential), the voltage-regulated sodium channels all open.
Sodium ions rapidly diffuse inward, & depolarization occurs.
 All-or-None Law

• action potentials occur maximally or not at all.

• In other words, there's no such thing as a partial or weak action
potential.
• Either the threshold potential is reached and an action potential
occurs, or it isn't reached and no action potential occurs.
Refractory periods:
• ABSOLUTE -
• During an action potential, a second stimulus will not produce a second action
potential (no matter how strong that stimulus is)
• corresponds to the period when the sodium channels are open (typically just
a millisecond or less)
• RELATIVE -
• Another action potential can be produced, but only if the stimulus is greater than the
threshold stimulus
• corresponds to the period when the potassium channels are open (several milliseconds)
• the nerve cell membrane becomes progressively more 'sensitive' (easier to stimulate) as the
relative refractory period proceeds. So, it takes a very strong stimulus to cause an action
potential at the beginning of the relative refractory period, but only a slightly above
threshold stimulus to cause an action potential near the end of the relative refractory period.
 Impulse conduction

• An impulse is simply the movement of action potentials along a nerve/muscle cell

membrane.
• Action potentials are localized (only affect a small area of nerve/muscle cell
membrane).
• when one occurs, only a small area of membrane depolarizes (or 'reverses'
potential).
• However, an action potential elicited at any one point on the an excitable
membrane usually excites adjacent portions of the membrane, resulting in the
propagation of action potential.
• When action potential occur at one point, areas of membrane adjacent to each
other have opposite charges (the depolarized membrane is negative on the
outside & positive on the inside, while the adjacent areas are still positive on the
outside and negative on the inside).
• An electrical circuit (or 'mini-circuit') develops between these oppositely-
charged areas (or, in other words, electrons flow between these areas).
• This 'mini-circuit' stimulates the adjacent area and, therefore, an action
potential occurs.
• This process repeats itself and action potentials move down the nerve cell
membrane. This 'movement' of action potentials is called an impulse.
• Action potential will travel in a direction away from point of stimulus.