Oaks
park
High
school:
Physics
notes
created
by
Mithun
Physics essential revision notes
AQA as physics A
Made by Mithun
Oaks
park
High
school:
Physics
notes
created
by
Mithun
Physics
Revision
notes
Particles
and
radiation
Charge-mass
ratio:
is
its
charge
divided
by
its
mass
in
kilograms.
(Also
called
specific
charge)
Unit:
C
kg-1
1
Femtometre
(fm)
=
10-15m
Nuclear
stability
A
force
acts
inside
the
nucleus,
known
as
the
strong
nuclear
force
or
strong
interaction.
It
has
very
short
range
(maximum
about
5
fm).
Anything
below
1-0.5
fm
gets
strongly
repulsive;
this
prevents
the
identical
particles
from
collapsing
(electrostatic
repulsion).
Nucleons
total
number
of
protons
and
neutrons
(also
known
as
mass
number)
(N)
number
of
neutrons
in
the
nucleus.
An
alpha
particle
has
the
same
configuration
as
a
helium
nucleus,
The
proton
number,
or
atomic
number,
is
the
number
of
protons
in
the
nucleus
and
is
given
the
symbol
Z.
The
nucleon
number
is
the
number
of
protons
plus
the
number
of
neutrons.
Isotopes-
are
forms
of
an
element
with
the
same
proton
number
but
with
a
different
number
of
neutrons.
The
different
isotopes
of
an
element
have
identical
chemical
behavior.
The
only
difference
is
one
has
more
neutrons
and
therefore
making
it
slightly
heavier
than
the
other.
A=Z+N
Antimatter
Antiparticle-
is
a
mirror
image
of
a
particle,
of
identical
mass
but
opposite
charge.
(E.g.
Positron)
Annihilation-
is
the
conservation
of
the
mass
of
a
particle
and
its
antiparticle
to
a
pair
of
photons
of
electromagnetic
radiation.
Annihilation
is
the
conservation
of
matter
to
energy.
The
opposite
process,
where
matter
is
created
from
energy,
is
called
pair
production.
Oaks
park
High
school:
Physics
notes
created
by
Mithun
Pair
production-
is
the
process
in
which
a
photon
of
electromagnetic
energy
is
converted
to
a
pair
of
particles.
In
pair
production,
there
is
always
two
particles
created;
one
is
a
conventional
particle
and
the
other
is
its
antiparticle.
(This
proves
conservation
of
charge)
making
total
charge
zero.
The
minimum
energy
required
to
create
a
particle
is
known
as
its
rest
energy
(E0),
which
depends
on
its
rest
mass,
(m0).
The
rest
energy
is
calculated
from
the
rest
mass
using
the
formula,
E0
=
m0c2
where
c
is
the
speed
of
light.
Neutrinos
Neutrinos
are
most
abundant
particles
in
the
universe.
They
are
emitted
by
radioactive
nuclei
and
from
nuclear
reaction.
All
objects
emit
radiation
because
of
their
thermal
energy.
The
spectrum
of
radiation
that
is
emitted
depends
on
the
surface
temperature
of
the
object
and
on
the
type
of
surface.
Objects,
which
are
ideal
radiators
of
energy,
are
known
as
Black-Body
Radiators.
Particle
interaction
Gravity-
infinite
range
and
acts
on
all
particles,
Gravity
is
the
weakest
of
all
fundamental
forces.
Electromagnetic
force-
acts
between
all
charged
particles.
It
holds
the
atoms
and
molecules
together.
Weak
interactions-
acts
between
all
particles
but
with
a
very
short
range.
It
is
responsible
for
radioactive
decay.
Strong
interactions-
holds
nuclei
together.
It
acts
between
hadrons
such
as
neutrons,
protons.
Exchange
particle-
when
two
particles
exert
a
force
on
each
other,
a
virtual
particle
is
created.
This
particle
is
the
exchanged
between
the
particles
and
affects
their
motion.
- A
virtual
particle,
which
may
exist
for
only
a
short
time,
and
is
a
go- between
of
a
force.
The
electromagnetic
force
is
carried
between
charged
particles
by
the
photon,
y.
When
two
charged
particles
exert
a
force
on
each
other,
a
virtual
photon
is
exchanged
between
them.
The
photon
is
massless,
charge
less
particle.
Oaks
park
High
school:
Physics
notes
created
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Mithun
The
strong
interaction
Maximum
mass
for
an
exchange
particle
is
known
as
pi
meson
and
pion.
In
strong
force,
gluons
are
passing
between
quarks.
The
pion
is
simply
a
vehicle
carrying
gluons
between
hadrons.
There
are
eight
different
gluons;
none
of
them
have
been
detected
as
an
individual
particle.
The
weak
interaction
has
a
very
short
range.
This
suggests
that
the
gauge
bosons
are
relatively
massive,
since
the
large
mass
e.g.
a
high
energy,
would
mean
a
short
lifetime
and
therefore
the
exchange
particles
could
only
travel
a
small
distance.
The
gauge
bosons
for
weak
are
W+,
W-
and
Z.
the
weak
interaction
acts
on
leptons
and
hadrons.
Radioactive
decay
is
also
due
to
weak
interactions.
Beta-minus
decay:
Beta-plus
(positron)
decay:
Gravity-
the
gauge
boson
that
carries
the
gravitational
force
is
named
the
graviton
and
has
been
predicted
that
it
has
no
mass
and
charge.
It
has
never
been
detected.
Classification
of
particles
Leptons
Leptons
are
fundamental
particles;
they
have
no
internal
structure
and
are
not
affected
by
the
strong
interaction.
There
are
12
different
particles
in
the
lepton
family.
The
most
familiar
lepton
is
the
electron.
The
other
two
particles
are
muon
and
tau.
(Similar
to
electron
but
massive).
Each
has
an
associated
neutrino
and
antiparticle.
Oaks
park
High
school:
Physics
notes
created
by
Mithun
Summary
of
leptons:
The
leptons
are
believed
to
be
fundamental
particles.
There
are
three
negatively
charged
particles:
electron,
muon
and
tau
particle.
Each
has
an
associated
neutrino.
Not
affected
by
strong
interactions.
Hadrons
In
addition
to
leptons,
the
particles
now
known
as
pi
mesons,
kaons
and
delta
mesons
had
all
been
discovered.
All
of
these
have
greater
mass
than
the
leptons.
All
hadrons
eventually
decay
into
a
proton.
The
hadrons
are
divided
into
two
groups
called
the
baryons
and
mesons.
Conservation
of
charge
Many
hadrons,
and
leptons
carry
a
charge.
The
conservation
of
charge
means
that
the
total
charge
after
a
reaction
is
the
same
as
the
total
charge
before
the
reaction.
Conservation
of
baryon
number
Hadrons
can
be
classified
into
mesons,
baryons
and
antibaryons.
Mesons
have
a
baryon
number
of
0.
Baryons
1
and
antibaryons
-1.
Reactions
between
any
of
these
hadrons
can
only
occur
if
the
baryon
number
is
conserved.
All
other
particles
have
a
baryon
number
of
0.
Conservation
of
strangeness
There
is
another
property
that
has
to
be
conserved
in
hadron
reactions.
This
property
is
called
strangeness.
Electromagnetic
waves
Electromagnetic
waves
are
emitted
by
the
oscillation
of
charged
particles,
such
as
an
electron.
The
oscillation
sets
up
varying
electric
and
magnetic
fields,
which
travel
through
space.
The
time
taken
for
a
wave
to
go
through
one
complete
oscillation
is
the
period,
T.
the
number
of
oscillations
per
second,
f,
is
the
frequency.
The
photoelectric
effect
Electrons
are
only
emitted
from
the
surface
of
the
metal
if
the
light
is
above
a
certain
frequency.
Every
metal
has
its
own
particular
light
frequency,
known
as
the
threshold
frequency.
The
electrons
are
emitted
with
a
range
of
different
kinetic
energy.
The
maximum
kinetic
energy
depends
on
the
frequency
of
the
light,
not
the
intensity.
If
the
light
is
above
the
threshold
frequency,
then
the
number
of
electrons
emitted
per
second
is
proportional
to
the
intensity
of
the
light.
Electrons
are
held
by
electrostatic
forces
onto
the
surface
of
the
metal.
The
energy
needed
to
remove
an
electron
from
the
surface
of
a
metal
is
called
the
Work
function.
eV.
Oaks
park
High
school:
Physics
notes
created
by
Mithun
Electron
volt
An
electron
volt
is
the
amount
of
energy
gained
by
an
electron
as
it
accelerates
through
a
potential
difference
of
1
volt.
Ionisation
and
excitation
Excitation
is
when
an
atomic
electron
moves
to
a
higher
energy
level.
Ionisation
is
when
an
electron
gains
so
much
energy
that
its
total
energy
becomes
positive.
Current
electricity
An
electric
current
is
defined
as
the
rate
at
which
electrically
charged
particles
pass
through
a
point
in
a
circuit.
A
potential
difference
is
defined
as
the
electrical
energy
transferred
or
converted
per
unit
of
charge
passing
between
the
two
points.
Superconductors
When
the
electrical
resistance
disappears
completely,
it
said
to
have
become
a
superconductor.
Every
material
has
its
own
critical
temperature.
Series
All
voltages
are
equal
to
each
other.
And
resistance
adds
up.
Same
current
flows.
Parallel
Current
is
added
up.
Resistance
is
1/r
=
1/r1
+
1/r2
Power
is
the
rate
of
change
of
energy,
and
is
measured
in
joules
per
second.
Potential
divider-
splits
up
the
potential
difference
[voltage]
from
a
source.
This
can
be
done
using
2
or
more
resistors
in
series.
E.M.F-
can
be
defined
as
the
P.D.
across
the
source
when
no
current
flows,
and
is
the
energy
per
coulomb
produced
by
the
source.
Oscilloscope-
can
be
used
for
measuring
a.c.
and
d.c.
voltages,
measuring
small
time
intervals,
and
measuring
frequency
of
a.c.
and
voltages.
X-plate
varying
the
voltage,
the
spot
will
move
horizontally
at
a
constant
speed.
Also
known
as
the
time
base.
By
applying
external
voltage
to
the
Y-plate,
the
spot
can
be
moved
vertically.
Vin
=
spot
deflection
x
Y-gain
Thank
you
