Fundamental Particles

Elementary or fundamental particles are microscopic constituents of the matter out of

which all matter of the universe is considered to be made up of. Until 1930 only protons,
neutrons, and electrons are considered as elementary particles. But as years passed,
more and more particles were discovered. At present there are more than 200
elementary particles.

Characteristics :
• Rest Mass : It is the basic characteristic of a particle. Each particle has definite
rest mass. It is the mass of the particle in its minimum energy. If two particles are
identical in all respect, but slightly different rest mass, then they are considered
as different particles. Rest mass of photon is zero. The mass of particles is
usually expressed in terms of electron mass. For example, mass of a proton is
1836 me , where me is the mass of electron. Mass of proton is 1838 me. Electron
mass is 0.00055 atomic mass unit (amu).

• Charge : Except quarks, all other elementary particles may have a charge +e , –
e or zero. Here e is the electron charge,1.6x10-19coulomb.
• Spin : Particles may be having intrinsic spin. Spin is either or zero. Spin give
1
2
rise to spin angular momentum given by where s is even or half integral.
s
The particles of half integral spin obey Fermi Dirac statistics and are called
Fermions. Electron, proton, neutron, neutrino and their antiparticles are
Fermions. Particles having zero or integral spin obey Bose Einstein statistics.
They are known as Bosons. Examples: mesons, photons.

• Average life : Particle may be stable or unstable. If it is unstable, that particle

may emit another elementary particle and decays. Therefore particles are
specified in terms of life time. It is the average time for which it exists. The life
time of proton and electron is infinity (stable ). Life time of neutron is 920s, that of
meson is 2.6x10-6 s.
µ

Antiparticles : The electron for which the detailed theory was developed by British
Physicist Paul AM Dirac who obtained the relativistically correct equation. According to
Dirac’s relativistic theory of electron, the free electron has not only positive energy
states, it has negative energy state also. Classically this is not possible. The negative
energy state has no physical meaning. Dirac introduced a new concept of antiparticle in
1924.
0 ositron energy states of
pNegative
E
electrons
According to this, for electron there exist different energy states with positive and
negative values. The electron in the negative energy state moves to positive energy
state by absorbing a photon of energy , that is 1.02 MeV energy, This
hν  2m0 C 2
process leaves behind a hole in the negative energy state, just like a hole in a
semiconductor energy band, behaves as if it is a particle of positive charge. This
positively charged particle is called a positron. Positron is like electron in all respect
except the charge. Its charge is +e.

Other elementary particles also have antiparticles. The antiparticle of a particle has the
same mass, spin, life time if unstable, but its charge (if any) has the opposite sign. The
alignment or antialignment between its spin and magnetic moment is also opposite to
that of the particle.

Whenever a particle and antiparticle interact together radiation with two photons are
created, having specific energy depend on the mass of the particles. Suppose electron
and positron collide, two photons each with energy 0.51 MeV will be created. This is
referred as annihilation.

The process of creation of particle-antiparticle pair is called pair production. The energy
required for pair production for electron-positron pair is 1.02 MeV. On the other hand, if
electron and positron is combined then the energy liberated is 1.02 MeV.

positrons were discovered (1932) in cosmic rays by American Physicist Carl David
Anderson.

Different Particles :
(1) Electron – Positron : Electron was discovered by JJ Thomson (1897). Its mass is
0.00055amu. charge is negative and it is 1.6x10-19coulomb. Spin is and spin angular
1
2
momentum is . It is stable particle. Anti particle of electron is positron. Concept was
1

2
given by Dirac and discovered by Anderson(1932). .
(2) Proton- Antiproton : Proton was discovered by Rutherford. Its mass is 1836me.
Charge is +e, spin is and spin angular momentum is . Anti proton was
1 1

2 2
discovered by Emileo Segre and Chembarline(1955).
(3)Neutron – Antineutron : Neutron was discovered by James Chadwik (1932). Its
mass is 1838me. Electrically neutral. But it has the negative magnetic moment. Charge
is and angular momentum is . In free state neutron is unstable and it decays.
1 1

2 2

(T=920s)
−
1
0
n→ 1
1
p+ 0
−1
e+ ν

Anti neutron is same in all respect, except the anomalous magnetic moment, which is
positive here. Anti neutron was discovered by American physicists Cork, Lamberston,
Piccioni and Wentzel. (1956).

(4) Neutrino – antineutrino : Neutrino is very lightly interacting particle with matter. The
concept of neutrino was due to Pauli to explain paradoxes in beta decay. It has zero
mass, no charge, and spin is and spin angular momentum is
1 1

2 2
Anti particle of neutrino is antineutrino. While antineutrino is emitted in - decay,
β
neutrino is emitted in + decay.
β

−
A
Z
X → Z +A1Y + −10 e + ν

A
Z X → Z +A1Y + +10 e + ν

(5) Mesons : Proposed by Yukawa to explain nuclear forces. Theoretically he showed

that these are the particles continuously exchanged between protons and neutrons.
Mass of mesons is 273me. Life time is of the order of 10-8s. Three types of mesons are
π + , π −, π 0
There are other types of mesons. For example, - mesons or muons. -mesons have
µ µ
mass 206me. They are discovered by Anderson and Naddermayer (1937) and Pions
(Yukawa particles) were discovered by Powell (1942).
In 1952 new types of mesons were discovered. Their mass is greater than mass of
pions (273me) but less than mass of nucleons (proton and neutron). These particles are
called K-meson (Kaeons). Kaeons are having mass in the range 900me. Then came
η
meson. (1073me)
(6) Hyperons : These are massive particles. Their mass is greater than mass of
nucleons. Some of the hyperons mass is as high as 4000me. Examples are,

λ, ∑ , Ξ , Ω
(7) Field Particles : These are the quantum of the force field. Photon is the field particle
of electromagnetic field. Its rest mass is zero, charge is zero, spin is 1. Graviton is the
quantum particle of gravitational field, no charge, spin is assumed to be 2.

Classification of particles :
1. Based on Spin : Based on spin particles are classified into following two classes.
Fermions : Fermions are having half integral spin (1/2. 3/2, 5/2). They obey
Fermi Dirac statistics. Example : electrons, neutrons, protons, neutrino
Bosons : Bosons are having zero or integer spin. They obey Bose Einstein
statistics. Example : pions, kaeones, photon and graviton.

2. Based on Mass :

• Zero rest mass particles : Photons

• Leptons : Mass is less than 250me, neutrino, electron, -meson (206me),
µ τ
particles or tauons.
• Mesons : Intermediate mass particles – mass is greater than that of leptons,
but less than mass of nucleons, mesons with mass 270me, Kaeons (900me)
π
and -mesons (1100me)
η
• Baryons : Mass equal or greater than that of nucleons. There are further two
classes. One is nucleon (proton and neutron), other one is hyperons (mass
greater than nucleons)

3. Based on interaction with matter

Particles which are strongly interact with the matter is called Hadrons. Baryons and
mesons are very strongly interact with matter and they come under the class hadrons.
PhotonPions
LEPTONS
BARYONS(heavier
Mesons(intermediate
CLASSIFICATION
Electron
NUCLEONS
Proton OF FUNDAMENTAL
(lighterKaons
particles,
mass
HYPERONS
PARTICLES
Graviton particles
Electron
mass ,
mass less
greater Neutron
particles),
(BOSONS)Etons
than
neutriono
tham
BOSONS
250me, (mass
250m
(integral
)
FERMIONS
e
Muon
spin, zero) greater than
FERNIONS Muon(half
neutrino that of
Tau
integral spin, ½) nucleons)
Tau neutrino

…. FIELD PARTICLES
Fundamental Interactions (forces of nature)

There are four kind of interactions which govern almost all phenomena of nature. They
are,
1. Gravitational Interaction : It is the weakest interaction in the nature. Its range is
infinity. Gravitational interaction predominates in macroscopic scale. Planets
revolving round the sun, structure of galaxy etc., are due to gravitational
interaction. Theoretical prediction is that the graviton is quantum or the field
particle. This particle is not yet discovered. Efforts are going on to detect gravity
waves and gravitons.
2. Weak Interaction : Strength wise the next interaction is the weak interaction. It
causes the radioactive or particle decay. Its range is of the order of 10 -17 m The
field particle is called W & Z -particles.
3. Electromagnetic Interaction : Exist between the charges. The range is infinity.
Either repulsive or attractive depend on the nature of charges. Field particle is
photon.
4. Strong Interaction : One of the strongest force in the nature. It is responsible
for holding nucleons together to make the nucleus. If we say the strength of the
gravitational force as 1, then strength of the strong interaction is 1040

Comparison of the Interactions

Interaction Range Nature Relative Field particle
strength
Gravitational ∞ Always attractive , 1 Graviton (G)
depends on the mass
and distance between
masses.
Weak Nuclear 10-17m Attractive at larger 103 Intermediate
distance and repulsive vector boson
at very short distance W&Z
particles
Electromagnetic ∞ If charges are unlike, it 1013 Photon
is attractive. Between
like charges it is
repulsive.
Strong Nuclear 10-15m Attractive in the Fermi 1040 Pions
range, if distance is
less than 0.25 fermi, it
becomes repulsive.

Note :
Leptons which do not interact strongly with matter. Each lepton is assigned with lepton number
(quantum number) 1 and -1 for their antiparticle.
 Lepton Lepton number (L)
electron ( ) 1
e
muon ( ) 1
µ
tauon ( ) 1
τ
electron neutrino ( ) 1
νe
muon neutrino ( ) 1
νµ

tau –neutrino ( ) 1
ντ
In all interactions lepton number is conserved.
Baryons are assigned with Baryon Number B.
Baryon number is zero for mesons 1 for nucleons and hyperons. -1 for anti Baryons.

Baryons Baryon number (B)

Mesons ( , 0
π , π
0 ±
K
and )
η
Nucleons (n,p) 1
Hyperons 1
( )
Λ, Σ , Ξ & Ω

In all interactions Baryon number is conserved.

Example 1

n+p  n+p+p+
−
p

In the above interaction, not only the atomic and mass number, but also the Baryon number is
conserved.
Example 2.

p  n + e+ + neutrino .
ν

To find the nature of emitted neutrino we can apply the conservation of lepton number.

Lp= Ln + Le +
Lν
0 = 0 + (-1) + 1
To conserve the lepton number, should be +1. This is for electron neutrino. Hence the
Lν
interaction can be written as
p  n+ e+ .
νe

➢ n  p + e-
Ln= Lp + Le +
Lν
0 = 0 + (+1) + (-1)

To conserve the lepton number, should be -1. This is for anti electron neutrino. Hence the
Lν
interaction can be written as
n  p + e- +
−
νe

Some of the particles are having strange properties and they are called strange particles. K-
mesons and all hyperons are strange particles and they are assigned with strangeness number S
(as lepton or baryon numbers).
All K-mesons are having strangeness number +1, have -1, has -2 and hass -3.
Λ, Σ & Ξ Ω
In all interaction strangeness number S is also conserved.
Standard Model or Quark Model
In 1964 American Physicists Murray Gellman and George Zweig proposed a Standard
model of particles. According to this model there are six leptons which are having no
substructure. They have only point like structure.
These leptons are

e νe µ νµ τ ντ

According to Gellman, strongly interacting particles – Baryons and Mesons (collectively

called hadrons)- are made up of still smaller entity. ie., they have sub structure. These
structures are called “Quarks”.
There are six types of quarks.

u – quark (up ) c – quark (charm) t – quark (top)

d – quark (down) s – quark (strange) b – quark (bottom)

Quark Charge spin

u (up)
2 1
+ e
3 2
c (charm)
2 1
+ e 2
3
t (top)
2 1
+ e 2
3

d (down) 1 1
− e 2
3

s (strange) 1 1
− e 2
3

b (bottom) 1 1
− e 2
3
Here “up”, “down”,“strange” do not have any physical meaning as such.

Among these u, c, t have charge & d,s,b have the charge

2 1
+ e − e
3 3

Each quark has spin ½ or spin angular momentum , so they are fermions.
1

2
Each quark has anti quark and it has opposite charge.

Baryons are composed of three quarks (u,d, or s), while mesons are combinations of a
quark and anti quark.
The combination of u, d, s and also their anti quarks create a proton, neutron and other
baryon particles.
For example proton is the combination of 2up quarks and a down quark (uud)

Creation of a proton.

ud
-
2/
3e
1/3e
=====
PPP
ppp
Proton

charge of proton.
2  1
2 e +  − e = + e
3  3

Neutron is the combination of a u-quark and two d-quark. (udd)

dud
-2/
3e
1/3e
=====
PPP
ppp
Neutron

, charge of neutron.
 1 2
2 − e +  e = 0
 3 3
Quark structure of some hadrons

Baryonns with S = Mesons with

1 S =0
2
(uud) (u )
p +
π + −
d
(ddu) (u )
n 0
π 0 −
u +d d
−

(uus) ( )
Σ+ π − −
u d
(uds) (u )
+
Σ 0
K −
s
(dds) (d )
−
Σ K 0 −
s
(uds) (u )
Λ 0
η 0 −
u −d d
−

Glouons :
It is theoretically predicted that that the strong interaction between quarks is due to
particles called “Gluons” (like photons in electromagnetic field and gravitons in
gravitational field). Gluons do not have mass, electrically neutral, having spin 1, and
also carry “colour charge”. The strong interaction takes place due to eight colored
gluons.

The theory which deals with these cololoured gluons is called “Quantum Chromo
Dynamics” (QCD) and interaction between different elementary particles along with
electromagnetic field is called “Quantum Electro Dynamics” (QED). Both these fields are
frontier areas of Nuclear Physics and exciting prospects are there for young brilliant
minds to solve the secret of the nature.