Differentiate between 3G,4G,5G,6G.

Feature 3G 4G 5G 6G (Future Vision)

Expected around
Introduction Early 2000s Late 2000s 2019
2030
mmWave, Massive AI-driven, THz
Technology WCDMA, CDMA2000, HSPA LTE, LTE-A
MIMO, Beamforming frequencies
Data Speed Up to 2 Mbps 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps 1-10 Gbps 1 Tbps or higher
Sub-millisecond
Latency ~100 ms ~50 ms ~1 ms
(microseconds)
Much wider (100 Ultra-wide (THz
Bandwidth Limited Wider bandwidth (20 MHz)
MHz–800 MHz) frequencies)
Holographic
AR/VR, smart cities,
Applications Video calling, basic internet HD streaming, IoT communication, fully
autonomous cars
autonomous systems
Device Density Limited Higher 1 million devices/km² 10 million devices/km²
Energy-efficient Green technologies,
Energy Efficiency Moderate Improved
networks ultra-efficiency
Advanced encryption Quantum security,
Security Basic Improved
and AI-based zero-trust models
Infrastructure cost,
Costly infrastructure,
Challenges Low speed, high latency Network congestion mmWave coverage
regulatory concerns
issues

Mobile data and voice mmWave, network AI-optimized, 6G-

Key Innovations LTE-A for faster speeds
convergence slicing enabled AI/ML systems

Differentiate between Router,Switch,Hub and Gateway in terms of OSI model.

Device OSI Layer Primary Function Example
Layer 3 (Network Routes data packets between different networks based Connecting different LANs or a LAN
Router
Layer) on IP addresses. to the internet.
Layer 2 (Data Link Forwards frames within a LAN based on MAC addresses; Connecting devices within the same
Switch
Layer) can operate at Layer 3 in advanced switches. network.
Layer 1 (Physical Passes data packets to all connected devices, causing A basic device used to connect
Hub
Layer) network collisions in heavy traffic. network devices.
Layer 7 (Application Provides communication between different networks A network gateway connecting
Gateway
Layer) using different protocols or architectures. different systems or networks.

Summary of OSI Layers:

Layer Function Examples
Layer 1: Physical Transmits raw bits over the physical medium. Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi
Layer 2: Data Link Frames data, handles MAC addressing, error detection, and access control. Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Frame Relay
Layer 3: Network Routes data between networks using IP addresses. IP, routers, ICMP
Layer 4: Transport Provides reliable data transfer, error correction, and flow control. TCP, UDP
Layer 5: Session Manages communication sessions, synchronization, and recovery. NetBIOS, RPC
Layer 6: Presentation Translates, encrypts, and compresses data for application use. SSL/TLS, JPEG, GIF
Layer 7: Application Provides network services directly to end-user applications. HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS

TCP layer
Layer Function Protocols/Examples
Application Layer Provides network services to applications (e.g., web browsing, email). HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS
Transport Layer Provides reliable data transfer, flow control, and error correction. TCP, UDP
Internet Layer Handles logical addressing, routing, and packet delivery. IP, ICMP
Network Access Layer Transmits data over physical media and handles data link protocols. Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP
Comparison Between Pure ALOHA and Slotted ALOHA:
Feature Pure ALOHA Slotted ALOHA
Time Slot Time is divided into slots; synchronization is
No synchronization required.
Synchronization required.
Higher probability of collision due to Lower collision probability due to synchronized
Collision Probability
unsynchronized transmissions. transmissions.
Efficiency Lower (Maximum efficiency = 18.4%). Higher (Maximum efficiency = 36.8%).
Slightly more complex due to time slot
Complexity Simple, no need for synchronization.
management.

Differentiate between TCP Vs UDP./(connection oriented Vs connection less oriented)

Aspect TCP (Connection-Oriented) UDP (Connectionless-Oriented)
Connection-oriented: Establishes a reliable connection Connectionless: No connection setup; data is sent
Connection Type
before data transfer (3-way handshake). directly.
Reliable: Ensures data is delivered accurately and in the
Reliability Unreliable: No guarantee of data delivery or order.
correct order.
Performs error checking, acknowledgment, and Performs basic error checking, but no
Error Checking
retransmission of lost packets. retransmissions.
Data Flow Provides flow control using techniques like windowing No flow control; sends data regardless of
Control to prevent data overflow. receiver’s state.
Faster as it has minimal overhead and no
Speed Slower due to overhead from reliability mechanisms.
reliability mechanisms.
Suitable for applications requiring reliable Suitable for real-time, low-latency applications
Use Case
communication (e.g., file transfer, web browsing). (e.g., live streaming, online gaming).
Larger: 20 bytes minimum (due to sequence,
Header Size Smaller: 8 bytes minimum (simpler structure).
acknowledgment fields, etc.).
Examples of
HTTP, FTP, SMTP, POP3. DNS, VoIP, SNMP, TFTP.
Protocols
Packets are sequenced and reassembled in order at the Packets may arrive out of order, and duplicates
Packet Handling
destination. are possible.
No session establishment; packets are sent as
Connection Setup Requires a handshake process to establish a session.
needed.

Summary Table of Classes:

Class Range Subnet Mask Networks Hosts per Network Purpose
A 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255 255.0.0.0 (/8) 128 ~16.7 million Large organizations
B 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255 255.255.0.0 (/16) 16,384 ~65,534 Medium-sized networks
C 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255 255.255.255.0 (/24) ~2 million 254 Small networks
D 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255 Not applicable - - Multicast groups
E 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255 Not applicable - - Experimental

Distinguish between circuit switching and packet switching and message switching techniques.
Aspect Circuit Switching Packet Switching Message Switching
A dedicated communication path is Data is broken into packets, Data is sent as entire messages
Definition established between sender and which are sent independently stored temporarily at
receiver before data transfer. across the network. intermediate nodes.
Connectionless or connection-
Connection Type Connection-oriented. Connectionless.
oriented (e.g., TCP/UDP).
Data Transmission Continuous data stream over a fixed Data sent in small packets; each Entire messages sent at once,
path. packet may take a different stored, and forwarded.
Aspect Circuit Switching Packet Switching Message Switching
route.
Resource Inefficient; resources reserved even Efficient; resources shared Efficient but can cause delays
Utilization when idle. dynamically among packets. due to storage.
Low latency after connection Higher latency due to routing and High latency due to storage-
Delay
establishment. reassembly. and-forward mechanism.
Reliable; dedicated path ensures no Reliability depends on protocol Reliable; messages are stored
Reliability
packet loss. (e.g., TCP or UDP). until forwarded.
Varies; messages consume
Fixed and reserved throughout Dynamic and adaptive to network
Bandwidth Usage bandwidth as stored and
communication. traffic.
forwarded.
Example Internet, email, VoIP, online Telegrams (historically), store-
Telephone networks, traditional PSTN.
Applications gaming. and-forward messaging.
- No need for direct
- Guaranteed bandwidth. - Efficient resource usage.
Advantages connection.
- Low real-time latency. - Scalable for large networks.
- Reliable storage.
- Packet loss or delay in high - High delays.
- Inefficient resource utilization.
Disadvantages traffic. - Requires large storage
- Setup delay.
- Complex routing. capacity.

Difference Between Classful and Classless IP Addressing:

Aspect Classful IP Addressing Classless IP Addressing
Divides IP addresses into fixed classes (A, B, C, D, E) Removes fixed boundaries; allows variable-length
Definition
with default subnet masks. subnet masking (VLSM).
Subnet Mask Default masks (e.g., 255.0.0.0 for Class A). Custom subnet masks (e.g., 255.255.255.128).
Efficiency Less efficient, as it often wastes IP addresses. More efficient, minimizes wastage of IP addresses.
Flexibility Rigid structure with fixed classes and sizes. Flexible allocation based on actual network size.
Routing Supports both classful and classless routing protocols
Supports only classful routing protocols (e.g., RIP v1).
Protocols (e.g., RIP v2, OSPF).
Usage Historical (used in early IP addressing). Current standard for modern networks.

Explain Ethernet frame format. Structure of an Ethernet Frame:

Field Size Description
7 bytes (56 A sequence of alternating 1s and 0s for synchronization between sender and
Preamble
bits) receiver.
Start Frame Delimiter
1 byte (8 bits) Indicates the start of the frame. The value is 10101011.
(SFD)
6 bytes (48
Destination MAC Address Identifies the recipient's MAC address.
bits)
6 bytes (48
Source MAC Address Identifies the sender's MAC address.
bits)
Field Size Description
2 bytes (16 Specifies either the protocol type (e.g., IPv4, IPv6) or the length of the payload (<=
EtherType/Length
bits) 1500 bytes).
46–1500 Contains the actual data being transmitted. The minimum size is padded to meet the
Payload/Data
bytes 46-byte requirement.
Frame Check Sequence 4 bytes (32
A CRC value for error detection at the receiver end.
(FCS) bits)
+----------+-----+----------------+----------------+---------+----------------+------+---------+----------+-----+
| Preamble | SFD | Destination MAC | Source MAC | Type/Len | Payload/Data | FCS |
| 7 bytes | 1 B | 6 bytes | 6 bytes | 2 bytes | 46–1500 bytes | 4 B |
+----------+-----+----------------+----------------+---------+----------------+------+--------+------+----------+

Comparison Between Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) and Token Ring (IEEE 802.5):
Aspect Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
Logical ring topology where the token circulates
Topology Logical bus topology but uses a token-passing mechanism.
in a closed loop.
Tokens are passed in a predefined sequence among nodes Tokens are passed sequentially around a physical
Token Passing
connected to a bus. or logical ring.
Typically uses twisted-pair or fiber-optic cables to
Medium Can operate on a bus using coaxial cables.
form a ring.
Access Method Nodes must wait for the token to transmit data. Nodes must wait for the token to transmit data.
Adding or removing nodes is more complex as it disrupts Adding or removing nodes requires breaking and
Scalability
the logical order. reconnecting the ring.
A single failure in the medium does not affect the entire A single node or link failure can break the ring
Fault Tolerance
network. and disrupt communication.
Better for networks where nodes are located in
Performance Efficient for large and widely dispersed networks.
close proximity.
Standardization Defined under IEEE 802.4. Defined under IEEE 802.5.
Typically slower than Token Ring due to overhead in Generally faster due to the dedicated token-
Speed
maintaining the token sequence on a bus. passing mechanism.
Used in industrial environments like manufacturing Used in office environments, though largely
Example Usage
automation. replaced by Ethernet.
Also rarely used today due to Ethernet's
Obsolescence Rarely used; replaced by Ethernet and modern protocols.
dominance.

Explain the components of cellular network.

A cellular network is a communication system divided into cells, where each cell is served by a base station. The key
components of a cellular network are designed to ensure effective communication between mobile devices and the
network infrastructure. Here are the main components:
1. Mobile Station (MS):
Definition: The user's device, such as a mobile phone, tablet, or IoT device.
Components:
Mobile Equipment (ME): Hardware part of the device used for communication.
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM): Stores user identity, authentication keys, and network subscription details.
Function: Communicates with the base station to access voice, data, and other services.
2. Base Station (BS):
Definition: A fixed transceiver station that serves a specific cell in the network.
Components:
Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Handles radio communication with the mobile devices.
Base Station Controller (BSC): Manages multiple BTS units, handles call setup, and allocates channels.
Function: Relays signals between mobile devices and the core network.
3. Mobile Switching Center (MSC):
Definition: A central component in the core network responsible for call routing and connection management.
Function: Manages call setup, handoff, and termination.
Interfaces with other MSCs for inter-network communication.
Handles billing and service authorization.
4. Home Location Register (HLR):
Definition: A database containing subscriber information and permanent data.
Function: Stores details like user profile, current location, and authentication keys.
Ensures seamless communication by providing the user's location to the network.
5. Visitor Location Register (VLR):
Definition: A temporary database that stores information about subscribers currently in the area of the MSC.
Function: Works with HLR to manage roaming users.
Holds temporary data such as user location and active services.
6. Authentication Center (AUC):
Definition: A secure database for storing and verifying authentication keys.
Function: Ensures secure access by authenticating users.
Prevents unauthorized access to the network.
7. Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC):
Definition: A component that connects the cellular network to other networks like PSTN or the Internet.
Function: Routes calls and messages between external networks and the cellular network.
8. Packet Data Network Gateway (PDN-GW):
Definition: A gateway in 4G and 5G networks for data services.
Function: Provides Internet access to mobile users.
Handles IP address allocation and packet routing.
9. Cell Towers and Antennas:
Definition: Physical infrastructure for transmitting and receiving radio signals.
Function: Provides wireless connectivity to mobile devices within a cell.
Ensures coverage and signal strength.
10. Network Management System (NMS):
Definition: A centralized system for managing and monitoring the cellular network.
Function: Handles performance monitoring, fault detection, and resource optimization.

Explain the features of each layer of OSI level.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):
Function: Responsible for the transmission and reception of raw data bits over a physical medium (cables, radio waves, etc.).
Features: 1.Deals with electrical, mechanical, and procedural aspects of data transmission.
2.Converts digital data from the Data Link Layer into signals for transmission.
3.Defines the hardware elements involved in the communication (cables, switches, connectors, etc.).
Examples: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, radio waves.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2):

Function: Ensures reliable data transfer between two devices on the same network, handling error detection and correction.
Features: 1.Organizes data into frames.
 2.Manages MAC (Media Access Control) addresses to ensure proper delivery within the same network.
3.Detects and corrects errors that occur at the physical layer.
4.Controls access to the shared transmission medium.
Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Frame Relay.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

Function: Handles routing of data between devices on different networks and ensures data is sent to the correct destination.
Features: 1.Uses IP addresses for logical addressing and routing.
2.Determines the best path for data transmission using routing algorithms.
3.Handles packet forwarding, including fragmentation and reassembly of packets.
Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), routers, ICMP.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

Function: Ensures reliable end-to-end communication between devices on different networks and manages data flow control.
Features: 1.Provides error recovery and data flow control.
2.Ensures data is transferred in the correct order and manages data segmentation.
3.Provides either reliable (TCP) or unreliable (UDP) communication.
4.Uses ports to distinguish between different services on the same device.
Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol).

5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

Function: Manages and controls the dialogues between computers, ensuring that sessions are established, maintained, and
terminated.
Features: 1.Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications.
2.Ensures synchronization and recovery from interruptions.
3.Provides full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communication.
Examples: NetBIOS, RPC (Remote Procedure Call), SMB (Server Message Block).

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

Function: Translates, encrypts, and compresses data to ensure it is in a readable format for the application layer.
Features: 1.Data translation: Converts data from a format suitable for the application layer (e.g., from ASCII to EBCDIC).
2.Encryption: Provides data encryption for secure communication.
3.Compression: Compresses data to reduce size for efficient transmission.
Examples: SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer Security), JPEG, GIF, MPEG.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

Function: Provides the interface and protocols that applications use to communicate over the network.
Features: 1.Direct interaction between network services and end-user applications.
2.Provides various services like email, file transfer, remote login, and web browsing.
3.Defines protocols that allow specific applications to interact with the network.
Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, POP3.
What is Aloha?Explain the mechanism of shortage Aloha.Explain the mechanism of pure Aloha.
ALOHA:
ALOHA is a communication protocol used to manage access to a shared channel, allowing multiple devices to transmit data in
a wireless network. It was initially developed for satellite communication systems and is designed to help multiple devices
transmit data without a central coordination, but it needs mechanisms to avoid or handle collisions.
Types of ALOHA:
Pure ALOHA
Slotted ALOHA
1. Pure ALOHA:
Pure ALOHA is the simpler version of the ALOHA protocol, where devices transmit data whenever they have data to send. It
does not synchronize the transmission time, which makes it simple but prone to collisions. Here's how it works:
Mechanism of Pure ALOHA:
Transmission: A device transmits data as soon as it has data to send without checking if the channel is idle or busy.
Collision Detection: After sending a packet, the sender waits for an acknowledgment from the receiver. If no acknowledgment
is received, the sender assumes that a collision occurred (because another device may have transmitted at the same time)
and will attempt to retransmit the data after a random backoff time.
Efficiency: The system’s efficiency is lower due to the possibility of many collisions, especially as the number of devices
increases. The system can handle collisions, but since retransmissions are random, this leads to delays and inefficient use
of the channel.
Characteristics:
1.No time synchronization is required.
2.Collision detection is indirect (based on lack of acknowledgment).
3.Each device operates independently.
Formula for Efficiency:
The maximum theoretical throughput or efficiency (S) for Pure ALOHA is:
S=e-2G Where G is the average number of packet attempts per time slot.
2. Slotted ALOHA:
Slotted ALOHA is an improvement over Pure ALOHA, where time is divided into slots, and devices are required to synchronize
their transmission attempts to these time slots.
Mechanism of Slotted ALOHA:
Time Slots: The time is divided into fixed-length slots, and a device can only transmit at the beginning of these time slots.
Collision Detection: Like Pure ALOHA, the sender waits for an acknowledgment. If no acknowledgment is received, the device
assumes a collision has occurred and retransmits the data after a random backoff time, but only at the next available time
slot.
Efficiency: Slotted ALOHA improves efficiency by reducing the chances of collision, since devices are synchronized to start
transmissions only at specific times.
Efficiency of Slotted ALOHA:
The maximum throughput for Slotted ALOHA is given by:
S=e−G Where G is the average number of packet attempts per time slot.
Define subnet with examples.
Subnet:
A subnet (subnetwork) is a logically defined segment of a larger IP network, created by dividing an IP address into smaller
parts. Subnetting helps improve network performance, enhance security, and efficiently use IP addresses by separating
networks into manageable pieces.
Example:
IP Address: 192.168.1.0/24
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Total Hosts: 28−2=2542^{8} - 2 = 25428−2=254 (subtracting 2 for network and broadcast addresses).
If this network is divided into two subnets:
Subnet 1: 192.168.1.0/25 (Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.128)
Range: 192.168.1.1 to 192.168.1.126 (126 hosts).
Subnet 2: 192.168.1.128/25 (Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.128)
Range: 192.168.1.129 to 192.168.1.254 (126 hosts).

Explain the features of each layer of TCP layer.

1. Application Layer (Layer 4):
Function: Provides network services directly to applications.
Features: 1.Supports protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS.
2.Provides interfaces for end-user communication (e.g., web browsing, email).
3.Data is presented in a form understandable by the application (e.g., HTML, file transfer).
2. Transport Layer (Layer 3):
Function: Provides reliable data transfer between devices.
Features: 1.TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable, connection-oriented communication with error checking
and flow control.
2.UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Provides faster, connectionless communication with no error checking.
3.Breaks data into segments and ensures data integrity and correct sequencing.
3. Internet Layer (Layer 2):
Function: Handles logical addressing and routing of data across networks.
Features: 1.Uses IP addresses for identifying devices on different networks.
2.Routes data packets to their correct destination using routing protocols.
3.Handles fragmentation and reassembly of data packets.
4.IP (Internet Protocol) and ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) are key protocols.
4. Network Access Layer (Layer 1):
Function: Handles the physical transmission of data over a medium.
Features: 1.Includes physical devices like network cables, NICs, switches, and hubs.
2.Defines how data is transmitted over the physical network (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
3.Provides frame encapsulation for data transmission.
Define the term topology with examples .
Topology:In computer networking, topology refers to the arrangement or layout of nodes (devices) and the connections (links)
between them in a network. It describes how devices are interconnected and communicate with one another.
Types of Topologies with Examples:
Bus Topology:
Description: All devices are connected to a single central cable called the "bus."
Example: Early Ethernet networks.
Star Topology:
Description: All devices are connected to a central hub or switch.
Example: Modern Ethernet LANs.
Ring Topology:
Description: Devices are connected in a circular structure, and data travels in one direction (or both in a dual-ring setup).
Example: Token Ring networks.
Mesh Topology:
Description: Every device is connected to every other device, either fully (directly) or partially (via intermediate nodes).
Example: WANs like the Internet backbone.
Tree Topology:
Description: A hierarchical structure with a root node, branches, and sub-branches of devices.
Example: Corporate hierarchical networks.
Hybrid Topology:
Description: A combination of two or more basic topologies.
Example: A mix of star and bus in enterprise networks.

Key Differences of router swith hub gateway:

Router: Operates at Layer 3 and is responsible for routing packets between different networks based on IP addresses.
Switch: Operates primarily at Layer 2 (Data Link), forwarding frames within a network based on MAC addresses, but may also
work at Layer 3 for routing.
Hub: Operates at Layer 1, transmitting signals to all devices without intelligent forwarding.
Gateway: Operates at higher layers, translating between different protocols or network types, and allows communication
between systems that use different protocols.
What do you mean by cell number in terms of mobile network?
Cell Number in Mobile Networks:
In the context of mobile networks, a cell number refers to the identification of a specific cell within a cellular network. A cell is
the geographical area covered by a single base station or cell tower, which provides wireless communication services to
mobile devices within its range.
Each cell is a part of a larger network of overlapping cells that together form the coverage area of a mobile service provider.
The term cell number may have different interpretations depending on the context:
1. Cell Identification (Cell ID):
A unique identifier assigned to a specific cell within a mobile network.
2. Logical Cell Number (LCN):
A numbering system within a specific network to identify and manage cells logically.
Role of Cell Number in Mobile Networks:
Location Tracking: Enables the network to track the approximate location of a mobile device.
Handover Management: Ensures seamless communication as a user moves between cells.
Resource Allocation: Helps in allocating frequencies or channels efficiently.
Network Planning: Supports the design and optimization of cell coverage and capacity.

What do you mean by Trunking?

Trunking refers to the technique used to optimize the usage of communication channels or lines in a network, typically in
telecommunication systems. In trunking, a group of communication channels or circuits (called a trunk group) is shared
among multiple users to efficiently manage the transmission of data, voice, or other services.
Trunking helps maximize the use of limited resources by allowing multiple users to share a pool of communication channels
instead of each user being assigned a dedicated channel.
Types of Trunking:
Fixed Trunking:
A fixed number of channels are allocated for a specific purpose or user group. This type is less flexible as the channels are
dedicated and unused capacity cannot be dynamically reassigned.
Dynamic Trunking:
Channels are allocated on demand based on traffic, and the resources are shared dynamically among users.