Signal Analysis EXAMPLES

Problem 1: Find the fundamental period T of the

following continuous-time signals.
(i) x t = jej5t (v) x t = sin 50πt

π
(ii) x t = 20 cos 10πt +
6

(iii) x t = sin 10πt u t

(iv) x t = 4 cos(5πt) (vi) x t = e− t

Solution: (i) Given 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑗𝑒 𝑗5𝑡
We know that, complex exponential signal is 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗𝜔0𝑡
2𝜋
The fundamental period, 𝑇 =
𝜔0

From given signal,𝜔0 = 5

2𝜋
∴𝑇= = 0.4𝜋
5
(ii) 𝑥 𝑡 = sin 50𝜋𝑡

The sinusoidal signal is 𝑥 𝑡 = sin 50𝜋𝑡

From given signal, 𝜔0 = 50𝜋

2𝜋 1
∴𝑇= = 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
50𝜋 25
 𝜋
(iii) 𝑥 𝑡 = 20 cos 10𝜋𝑡 +
6

𝜋
From given signal , 𝜔0 = 10𝜋 and ∅ =
6

2𝜋 2𝜋 1
Fundamental time period 𝑇 = = = sec.
𝜔0 10𝜋 5

(iv) Not a periodic signal.

2
(v) Periodic signal with period
5

(vi) Not a periodic signal.

Problem 2: Find whether the following signals
are periodic or not.
(i) x t = 2 cos 10t + 1 − sin 4t − 1
(ii)cos 60πt + sin 50πt
(iii) 2u t + 2 sin 2t
(iv) 3 cos 4t + 2 sin 2πt
1
(v) u t −
2
(vi) sin2 (t)
Solution: (i) given 𝑥 𝑡 = 2 cos 10𝑡 + 1 − sin 4𝑡 − 1
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 (𝑡)

2𝜋 𝜋
Time period of 2cos 10𝑡 + 1 is T1 = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
10 5

2𝜋 𝜋
Time period ofsin 4𝑡 − 1 is T2 = = 𝑠𝑒𝑐.
4 2

𝑇1
The ratio is a rational number or ratio of two integers.
𝑇2
 π
T1 5 2
=π=
T2 5
2

Therefore, the sum of two signals [i.e., 𝑥1 𝑡 &𝑥2 (𝑡)] are periodic
and the period is given by T = 2T2 = 5T1
1 1
T1 = 𝜋 ∗ and T2 = 𝜋 ∗
5 2

The least common multiple of T1 and T2 is 𝜋

∴ The time period, T = 𝜋 sec.

 𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑥 𝑡 = 2𝑢 𝑡 + 2 sin 2𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 (𝑡)

Where 𝑥1 𝑡 = 2𝑢 𝑡 = 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0.

𝑥1 𝑡 is sketched as shown in fig.

∴ 𝑥1 𝑡 is aperiodic signal.
2𝜋
The time period of 𝑥2 (𝑡) is T2= =𝜋
2

∴ the signal 𝑥 𝑡 is aperiodic signal.

 1 2𝑢 𝑡 −1
(v) Given, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − =
2 2

1
The signal 𝑢 𝑡 − is not a periodic
2
Problem 3: Determine the power and R.M.S value of
the signal 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝟎 𝒕 + 𝜽)
Solution: Given, 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃)

1 𝑇
The power, p = lim ‫׬‬−𝑇 𝑥(𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇

𝑇
1 2
𝑃 = lim න 𝐴 cos 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇
 𝑇
1
𝑃 = lim න 𝐴2 cos2 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
−𝑇

2
1 + cos 2𝜃
cos 𝜃 =
2

𝑇
𝐴2 1 + cos 2 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃
𝑃 = lim න 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 2
−𝑇
 𝑇 𝑇
𝐴2
𝑃 = lim න 1. 𝑑𝑡 + න cos 2 𝜔0 𝑡 + 𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 4𝑇
−𝑇 −𝑇

2 𝑇
𝐴 𝑇
sin 2𝜔0 𝑡 + 2𝜃
𝑃 = lim 𝑡 −𝑇 +
𝑇→∞ 4𝑇 2𝜔0 −𝑇

2 𝑇
𝐴 𝑇
sin 2𝜔0 𝑡 + 2𝜃
𝑃 = lim 𝑡 −𝑇 +
𝑇→∞ 4𝑇 2𝜔0 −𝑇
 𝐴2 1 2𝜋 2𝜋
P= lim 2𝑇 + sin 2𝜔0 . + 2𝜃 + sin 2𝜔0 . − 2𝜃
𝑇→∞ 4𝑇 2𝜔0 𝜔0 𝜔0

𝑃
𝐴2 𝐴2 1
= lim 2𝑇 + lim . sin 4𝜋 + 2𝜃 + sin 4𝜋 − 2𝜃
𝑇→∞ 4𝑇 𝑇→∞ 4𝑇 2𝜔0
 𝐴2 𝐴2 1
𝑃 = lim + lim + sin 2𝜃 − sin 2𝜃
𝑇→∞ 2 𝑇→∞ 4𝑇 2𝜔0

𝐴2 𝐴2
𝑃= + 0 =
2 2

𝐴2 𝐴
R.M.S value = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = =
2 2
Problem 4: Determine the power and R.M.S value of
𝜋
the following signals: (i) ) 𝑥 𝑡 = 5 cos 50𝑡 +
3
𝜋 𝜋
(ii) 𝑥 𝑡 = 10 sin 50𝑡 + +16) cos 100𝑡 +
4 3
Problem 5: Determine whether a unit step signal u(t) is
energy or power signal.
1; 𝑡 ≥ 0
Solution: We know that, 𝑢 𝑡 = ቊ
0; 𝑡 < 0

∞ 2 ∞ 2
Energy, 𝐸 = ‫׬‬−∞ |𝑥 𝑡 | 𝑑𝑡 𝑜𝑟 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

∞ ∞ ∞

𝐸 = න |𝑢 𝑡 |2 𝑑𝑡 = න |1|2 𝑑𝑡 = න 1 𝑑𝑡
−∞ 0 0

𝐸 = [𝑡]∞
0 =∞
 1 T
Power, P = lim ‫׬‬−T |x t |2 dt
T→∞ 2T
T T
1 2
1
P = lim න |u t | dt = lim න |1|2 dt
T→∞ 2T T→∞ 2T
−T 0

T
1 1 T
1
P = lim න 1 dt = lim [t]0 = lim [T − 0]
T→∞ 2T T→∞ 2T T→∞ 2T
0
1 1 1
P = lim T = lim =
T→∞ 2T T→∞ 2 2
The Energy of the signal is infinity and average power is zero.
Therefore, the u(t) is a power signal.
Assignment Question:
Problem 6: Find the energy and
power of a signal shown in figure.
Problem 7: sketch the following signals.
(i) u(-t+1) (ii) -2u(t-1) (iii) 3r(t-1) (iv) -2r(t)
(v) r(-t+2) (vi) π(t+3)

Solution: Given that, x(t)=u(-t+1)

The signal x(t) can be obtained by folding the unit step signal u(t)
about t=0 and shifting the signal u(-t) right by one unit of time.
 Fig(a): unit step signal

Folded signal about t=0 is shown in

fig (b)
Fig (b) : folded unit step signal
The signal u(-t) is shifted right by one sample, which is shown in
fig.(c).

Fig (c)
(ii)Given x(t)=-2u(t-1).
Draw the unit step signal.

➢ The signal u(t) is shifted right by one sample.

(iii) Given x(t)=3r(t-1)
The signal r(t) is a unit ramp signal with slope equal to 1 and the
signal Ar(t) is a ramp signal with slope equal to A.
First sketch 3r(t) and then and then shift it by one unit sample.
(iv) Given x(t)=-2r(t)
The signal x(t)is a ramp signal with slope -2.
(v) Given r(t)=r(-t+2)
➢ First draw the unit sample signal.
➢ Fold the signal r(t) about t=0.
(vi) Given x(t)=π(t+3)
Π(t) is a rectangular pulse function, which is shown in fig.
1
Π(t)=1 for 𝑡 ≤
2
➢ The signal x(t) can be obtained by shifting π(t) left by 3 units of
times as shown in fig.
Problem 8: For the signal x(t) shown in fig. find
𝟑
the signals (i) x(t-2) (ii) x(2t+3) (iii) x( t) (iv)
𝟐
x(-t+1)
Problem 9: Determine if the following signals are Energy
signals, Power signals, or neither, and evaluate E and P for
each signal.
So, the signal a(t) is definitely an Power signal.
So, the signal b(t) is definitely an energy signal.
ANALOGY BETWEEN SIGNALS
AND VECTORS
 ANALOGY BETWEEN SIGNALS AND VECTORS
• Signals & Vectors: There is a perfect analogy between signals
and vectors.
• A vector can be represented as a sum of its components in various
ways.
• A signal can also be represented as a sum of its components in
various ways.

• Vector: A vector contains magnitude and direction. The name of

the vector is denoted by bold face (A, B, C, ….) type and their
magnitude is denoted by light face type.
• Example: Vഥ is a vector with magnitude V. Consider two vectors V1
and V2 as shown in the following diagram.

ഥ1 along with V
• Let the component of V ഥ2 is given by C12 V
ഥ2 .
ഥ1 along with the vector V
• The component of a vector V ഥ2 can obtained
by taking a perpendicular from the end of Vഥ1 to the vector Vഥ2 as
shown in diagram.
• The vector Vഥ1 can be expressed in terms of vector V
ഥ2 ,
ഥ1 = C12 V
V ഥ2 + Vഥe
Where V ഥe is the error vector, C12 is coefficient.
• But this is not the only way of expressing vector Vഥ1 in terms of V
ഥ2 .
The alternate possibilities are:
ഥ1 = C1 V
V ഥ2 + Vഥe1 and Vഥ1 = C2 Vഥ2 + Vഥe2
• The error signal is minimum for large component value. If C12=0,
then two signals are said to be orthogonal.

ഥ. B
• The Dot Product of Two Vectors, A ഥ = AB cosθ

ഥ1 . V
• Similarly, V ഥ2 = V1 V2 cosθ
Where, θ = Angle between V1 and V2

ഥ1 . V
• The dot product obeys commutative law, V ഥ2 = V
ഥ2 . V
ഥ1
• The components of V1 along V2 is V2cos(θ)
Vഥ1 . V
ഥ2 ഥ1 . V
V ഥ2
V2 cosθ = and V1 cosθ =
V1 V2
• From the diagram, components of V1 along V2 is C12 V2
ഥ1 . V
V ഥ2
==> V1 cosθ = = C12 V2
V2
ഥ1 . V
V ഥ2
==> C12 =
V22
• If the two vectors V ഥ1 & V ഥ2 are orthogonal, then the dot product of
ഥ1 & V
V ഥ2 is zero. i. e. , V
ഥ1 . V
ഥ2 = 0
• So, C12 = 0
• Signal (Component of a Signal): The concept of orthogonality can
be applied to signals. Let us consider two signals f1(t) and f2(t).
• Similar to vectors, we can approximate f1(t) in terms of f2(t) as
f1 t = C12 f2 t + fe t for t1 < t < t 2
==> fe t = f1 t − C12 f2 t
Where, fe(t) is error function.
• One possible way of minimizing the error is integrating over the
interval t1 to t2.
t2
1
i. e. , න fe t dt
t 2 − t1
t1
 t2
1
==> න f1 t − C12 f2 t dt
t 2 − t1
t1

• However, this step also does not reduce the error to appreciable
extent.
• This can be corrected by taking the square of error function and it is
denoted by ϵ.
t2 t2
1 2
1 2
𝜖= න fe (t) dt ==> 𝜖 = න f1 t − C12 f2 t dt
t 2 − t1 t 2 − t1
t1 t1
• Where ε is the mean square value of error signal. The value of C12
dϵ
which minimizes the error, we need to calculate =0
dC12
t2
d 1 2
==> න f1 t − C12 f2 t dt = 0
dC12 t 2 − t1
t1
t2
d 1 2 2 2
==> න f1 t + C12 f2 t − 2C12 f1 t f2 t dt = 0
dC12 t 2 − t1
t1
t2
1 d
==> න f12 t + C12 2 f22 t − 2C12 f1 t f2 t dt = 0
t 2 − t1 dC12
t1
 t2
1 d 2 d 2 2 d
=> න f1 t + C12 f2 t − 2C12 f1 t f2 t dt = 0
t 2 − t1 dC12 dC12 dC12
t1
t2
1
==> න 0 + f22 t 2C12 − 2f1 t f2 t dt = 0
t 2 − t1
tt21

==> න f22 t 2C12 − 2f1 t f2 t dt = 0

t1 t2 t2

==> 2C12 න f22 t dt − 2 න f1 t f2 t dt = 0

t1 t1
 t2 t2

==> 2C12 න f22 t dt = 2 න f1 t f2 t dt

t1 t1
t2
‫׬‬t f1 t f2 t dt
1
==> C12 = t2 2
‫׬‬t f2 t dt
1
• If C12 component is zero, then two signals are said to be orthogonal.

• Put C12 = 0 to get condition for orthogonality.

t2 t2
‫׬‬t f1 t f2 t dt
0 = 1 t2 ==> න f1 t f2 t dt = 0
‫׬‬t f22 t dt t
1 1
 MEAN SQUARE ERROR [MSE]
• The average of square of error function fe(t) is called as mean
square error. It is denoted by ε.
t2
1 2
𝜖= න fe t dt
t 2 − t1
t1
t2 𝑛 2
1
𝜖= න f t − ෍ Cr g r t dt
t 2 − t1
t1 𝑟=1
 t2 𝑛 t2 𝑛 t2
1
𝜖= න f 2 t dt + ෍ Cr 2 න g r 2 t dt − 2 ෍ Cr න f t g r t dt −
t 2 − t1
t1 𝑟=1 t1 𝑟=1 t1
→ (1)

t2
‫׬‬t f t gj t dt 1 t2
• But, Cj = 1
t2 2 ==> Cj = ‫׬‬ f t g j t dt
‫׬‬t gj t dt Kj t1
1
t2
‫׬‬t f t gr t dt 1 t2
1
(or) Cr = t2 2 ==> Cr = ‫׬‬t
f t g r t dt
‫׬‬t gr t dt Kr 1
1
t2 t2

==> න f t g r t dt = Cr න g 2r t dt = Cr K r −−−→ (2)

t1 t1
• Substituting eq(2) in eq(1), we get,
𝜖
t2 𝑛 t2
1 2
= ቐ න f t dt + ෍ Cr න g r 2 t dt
2
t 2 − t1
t1 𝑟=1 t1
𝑛 t2

− 2 ෍ Cr න f t g r t dtቑ
𝑟=1 t1

t2 𝑛 𝑛
1
=⇒ 𝜖 = න f 2 t dt + ෍ Cr 2 K r − 2 ෍ Cr (Cr K r )
t 2 − t1
t1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
 t2 𝑛 𝑛
1
=⇒ 𝜖 = න f 2 t dt + ෍ Cr 2 K r − 2 ෍ Cr 2 K r
t 2 − t1
t1 𝑟=1 𝑟=1
t2 𝑛
1 2 2
=⇒ 𝜖 = න f t dt − ෍ Cr K r
t 2 − t1
t1 𝑟=1

t2
1 2 2 2 2
𝜖= න f t dt − C1 K1 + C2 K 2 + ⋯ … … + Cn K n
t 2 − t1
t1
• The above equation is used to evaluate the mean square error.
 Closed and Complete Set of Orthogonal Functions
• The MSE is given by,
t2 𝑛
1 2 2
𝜖= න f t dt − ෍ Cr K r
t 2 − t1
t1 𝑟=1

• Let us consider a set of n mutually orthogonal functions g1(t), g2(t),

…..., gn(t) over the interval t1 to t2.
• This is called as closed and complete set when there exist no
t2
function f(t) satisfying the condition ‫׬‬t f t g r t dt = 0
1
 t2
• If this function is satisfying the equation ‫׬‬t f t g r t dt = 0 for r =
1
1, 2, 3, ……, then f(t) is said to be orthogonal to each and every
function of orthogonal set. This set is incomplete without f(t). It
becomes closed and complete set when f(t) is included.

• f(t) can be approximated with this orthogonal set by adding the

components along mutually orthogonal signals
i.e. f t = C1 g1 t + C2 g 2 t + C3 g 3 t + ⋯ … … + Cn g n t + fe t

• If the infinite series C1 g1 t + C2 g 2 t + C3 g 3 t + ⋯ … … +

Cn g n t converges to f(t) then mean square error is zero.
 Orthogonality in Complex Functions
• If f1(t) and f2(t) are two complex functions, then f1(t) can be
expressed in terms of f2(t) as f1 t = C12 f2 t with negligible error

• Where,
t2 ∗
‫׬‬t 1 f t f 2 t dt
1
C12 = t2
‫׬‬t |f2 t |2 dt
1

• Where, f2∗ t is complex conjugate of f2(t)

• If f1(t) and f2(t) are orthogonal then C12 = 0
t2
‫׬‬t f1 t f2∗ t dt
1
0 = t2
‫׬‬t |f2 t |2 dt
1
t2

==> න f1 t f2∗ t dt = 0
t1
• The above equation represents orthogonality condition in complex
functions.