ZOOL 100: General Zoology

Basic structure, function, taxonomy and ecology of groups of the animal kingdom
emphasizing on organizational and evolutionary changes through the kingdom.
Survey of vertebrates and ecological factors influencing animal functions.
Laboratory techniques with emphasis on processing of tissues for microscopic
examination.
What is an animal? A living organism that is made up of many cells that
usually collaborate to form tissues and organs, that ingests organic matter –
such as plants or other animals – for nutrition and energy.

Structural Organization in Animals

Summary:

The structural organisation in animals starts from the smallest fundamental unit
– the cell. And a group of cells that perform a similar function form tissue. When
tissues group together to perform specific functions, they form organs.
✓ A collection of tissues forms an organ; a group of organs that work
together to perform one or more functions is called an organ system.

Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ system (circulatory system, muscular

system,

TISSUES: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

Organ system: circulatory system, muscular system, digestive, respiratory,

endocrine, lymphatic, nervous, integumentary, skeletal & muscular.
BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL KINGDOM

Classification is the systematic arrangement of things around us for easy

identification and study.

The classification of the animal kingdom is based on certain identifiable features

• Animals are multicellular eukaryotes (true nucleus); do not possess a cell
wall or chlorophyll like plants.
• They are also related to their cell arrangement, body symmetry, level of
organization, coelom, presence/absence of notochord, etc.
• Based on these features, the animal kingdom has been classified into
different phyla. The different criteria for animal classification are
explained below.

i) Levels of Organisation
• Though animals are multicellular, the level of organization or arrangement
of cells varies from one animal to another.
 • Certain animals have a loose mass /loose aggregates of cells and show the
cellular level of organization e.g Phylum Porifera,
• Some animals exhibit tissue level of organisation and are classified as
coelenterate, other animals such as Phylum Platyhelminthes have an organ
level of organization.
• Non-chordates such as Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs have a specialised
organ system for their physiological activities.

ii) Symmetry
• Generally, animals show two types of symmetry-
• Radial symmetry: A symmetry where any plane passing through the
central axis divides the body into two equal halves. Examples are
Coelenterates, echinoderms etc.

• Bilateral symmetry: In BS, only a single plane divides the body into two
equal halves, e.g. Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs, e

• However, some animals do not show any symmetry i.e. their body can’t
be divided into two halves in any plane passing through the centre.
• Such animals are asymmetrical, e.g. Poriferan.

iii) Diploblastic and Triploblastic Organisation

• Animals can be classified based on the number of embryonic layers.
• Animals are classified into two- diploblastic and triploblastic animals.
 a) Diploblastic animals: The cells form two embryonic layers, i.e., an
outer layer- ectoderm and an inner layer – endoderm, e.g. Phylum
Coelenterata.
b) Triploblastic animals: In triploblastic animals, cells are arranged in
three embryonic layers- ectoderm, endoderm and a middle layer –
mesoderm. Animals belonging to Phyla Platyhelminthes to Chordata have
a triploblastic organisation.

iv) Coelom
• The coelom is a key feature for classification. The coelom is a cavity
between the body wall and gut wall, lined by mesoderm.
• Depending on the presence/absence of coelom, animals have been
classified into three:
• Coelomate: Coelom is present in a coelomate. Animals belonging to phyla
Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Hemichordata and
Chordata are examples of coelomates.
• Pseudocoelomate: In pseudocoelomates, mesoderm appears as pouches
between the endoderm and ectoderm. But the cavity formed is not lined by
mesoderm, e.g. Aschelminthes.
• Acoelomate: Coelom is absent in an acoelomate, e.g. Platyhelminthes.

v) Circulatory system
• Open circulatory system – there are no blood vessels to transport
blood in the body of an organism.
• The organs and tissues in the bodies of the organisms are directly
fed with blood. The blood flows directly through the cavities
• E.g invertebrates like snails, spiders, cockroaches, and mollusks.

• Closed circulatory system – the blood stays within blood

vessels like arteries, veins, and capillaries. E.g Vertebrates like
humans
 vi) Notochord
• The notochord is a longitudinal, cartilaginous supporting rod running
beneath the nerve cord.
• The animal kingdom has been broadly classified into two, based on the
presence or absence of notochord- Non-Chordata and Chordata. Chordates
possess notochord while non-chordates lack it.
• Animals belonging to the Phylum Porifera to Phylum Echinoderms are
non-chordates.

MAJOR GROUPS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

• The classification of animals largely can be done into two

groups: invertebrates and vertebrates.

• The basic difference between the two is the presence of backbone or a

spinal column. Animals like birds, snakes, and human beings are
vertebrates due to the presence of backbone and flatworms and insects are
the examples of invertebrates.

VERTEBRATES
“Vertebrates are animals that possess a vertebral column and/or notochord at any point in
their lives.”
One of the ways life is classified is through the presence or absence of the vertebra. Vertebrates
and invertebrates evolved from a common ancestor that was speculated to have lived around
600 million years ago.
Evidence of true vertebrates began to appear 525 million years ago and ever since then;
vertebrates have branched off into a long lineage that includes armoured fish and giant
sauropods to woolly mammoths and modern man.

Characteristics of Vertebrates
A vertebrate is an animal that has all of the following characteristic features at some point in
its life:

• A stiff rod running through the length of the animal (it could either be the vertebral
column and/or notochord)
• Humans and all other vertebrates possess a notochord as an embryo and it eventually
develops into the vertebral column.
 • A bundle of nerves run above the vertebral column (spinal cord) and the alimentary
canal exists below it.
• The mouth is present at the anterior portion of the animals or right below it.
• The alimentary canal ends in the anus, which opens to the exterior. The tail extends
after the anus.

Classification of Vertebrates
Vertebrates are classified into 7 classes based on their anatomical and physiological features.
They are:

Mammals (Class Mammalia)

This class of organisms have the ability to regulate their body temperature irrespective of the
surrounding ambient temperature. Therefore, mammals are called endothermic animals and it
includes humans and platypuses.
Animals belonging to class Mammalia are referred to as mammals. Mammals are one of the
most evolved species in the animal kingdom categorized under vertebrata.
They exhibit advanced characteristics which set them apart from all other animals. They are
characterized by the presence of mammary glands through which they feed their younger
ones.
They are distributed worldwide and have adapted well to their surroundings – from oceans,
deserts and polar regions to rainforests and rivers etc.
Let us have a detailed look at the characteristics and classifications of the animals belonging
to the class Mammalia.

Characteristics Of Mammals
Following are a list of distinct characteristics of mammals that separates them from other
classes:
• Mammals are warm-blooded animals who give birth to their younger ones.
• They are the most dominant form of animals found in almost all types of habitats.
• They have mammary glands that help them produce milk to feed their younger ones
• Presence of region of the brain known as Neocortex
• Their skin possesses oil glands (sebaceous glands) and sweat glands (sudoriferous
glands).
• The fur of hair throughout the body which helps animals adapt to their environment.
• They are heterodont, i.e., possess different types of teeth.
• Mammals also possess cervical vertebrae.
• The skull is dicondylic.
• The trunk is divided into thorax and abdomen.
• The mammals respire through lungs.
 • Good sense of hearing as mammals are aided with 3 middle ear bones
• Mammals have a four-chambered heart. The sinus venous and renal portal system are
absent.
• Presence of single-boned lower jaws.
• The brain is well developed divided into cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla.
• They possess 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
• Exhibit one of the most advanced forms of Diaphragms.
• The mammals can lay eggs also. They are known as viviparous.

Classification Of Mammals
Mammalia has the largest class in the animal kingdom. Based on their reproduction, they are
classified into three subclasses:
• Eutheria
• Metatheria
• Prototheria

Eutheria
Mammals under this subclass give birth to young ones. The young ones are developed inside
the mother and derive nutrition through the placenta from the mother. Furthermore, it consists
of 19 orders, few of which are:

Metatheria
Mammals belonging to this sub-class give birth to immature young ones, hence they stay in
their mother’s pouch until they mature. For eg., Marsupials and Kangaroos. They are divided
into seven different orders:

Prototheria
Also known as Monotremes, the sub-class Prototheria consists of egg-laying mammals. It has
one order having 6 species
Order: Monotremata
Example: Duckbilled platypus, Echidna

General Classification of Mammals

Mammals are classified on a general basis which makes it easy to learn about the mammals
and their distinguishing characteristics.
Birds (Class Aves)
Birds are dinosaurs (more aptly called avian dinosaurs). This class of organisms are
characterised by feathers, toothless beaks and a high metabolic rate. Furthermore, members of
class Aves lay hard-shelled eggs.

1. limbs are adapted for walking, hopping, perching, grasping, wading and swimming.
2. There are epidermal scales on their legs.
3. The endoskeleton is bony with long hollow bones filled with air cavities. known as
pneumatic bones.
4. Their spindle-shaped body minimizes resistance of the wind.
5. The feathers help in preventing heat loss and reduce air friction by providing passage
to the air.
6. There is no skin gland except the oil gland.
7. The lower and upper and jaws are modified into a beak.
8. They have no teeth.
9. They have sharp eyesight.
10. The alimentary canal has a crop and a gizzard. The crops help in softening food, and
the gizzard helps in crushing the food.
11. Pigeons and other seed-eating birds lack a gall bladder.
12. They have spongy and elastic lungs for respiration.
13. The special vocal organ called syrinx is present at the base of trachea.
14. Their heart is four-chambered.
15. RBCs are oval, nucleated and biconvex.
16. 12 pairs of cranial nerves are present.
17. They have a single ovary and oviduct on the left side
 18. All the birds are oviparous and exhibit sexual dimorphism. The eggs have four
embryonic membranes- amnion, chorion, allantois, and yolk sac.

Classification of Aves
The class Aves is divided into two categories:

Archaeornithes
This class of birds are extinct. They had a toothed beak with a long lizard-like tail.
Eg., Archaeopteryx

Neornithes
These include extant as well as extinct birds. They have no teeth and a short tail.
Eg., Penguin, Grey Heron, Kingfisher, Duck, etc.

Reptiles (Class Reptilia)

Reptiles include tetrapods such as snakes, crocodiles, tuataras and turtles. The characteristic
feature of reptiles is that they are ectothermic in nature. Snakes are still considered tetrapods
though they have no visible limbs. This is due to the fact that snakes evolved from ancestors
that had limbs.

Characteristics of Reptilia
Following are the important characteristics of the animals belonging to Class Reptilia:
• These are creeping and burrowing terrestrial animals with scales on their body.
• They are cold-blooded animals found in most of the warmer regions of the world.
• Their skin is dry, and rough, without any glands.
• The body is divided into head, neck, trunk, and tail.
• Few of these shed the scales on their skin as skin cast.
• The respiration takes place with the help of the lungs.
• The skull is monocondylic.
• Limbs may or may not be present. If they have limbs, they are two pairs of
pentadactyl limbs, each bearing claws. Snakes do not have limbs.
• The heart is 3 chambered. However, crocodiles have a 4-chambered heart.
• The nervous system comprises 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
• Reptiles do not have external ear openings. Tympanum represents ear
• They possess a typical cloaca.
• Reptiles are generally uricotelic. They mostly excrete nitrogenous wastes as uric acid.
 • Fertilisation is internal.
• They are oviparous and the eggs are very yolky. Development is direct.
• E.g., Snakes, Turtles, Lizards, Crocodiles.

Classification of Reptilia
The class Reptilia is differentiated into three major sub-classes:
• Anapsida
• Parapsida
• Diapsida

Anapsida
• The dermal bones form a complete roof over the skull with no temporal fossae.
• These are sub-divided into Cotylosauria and Chelonia.
• Modern chelonians are classified according to the method of retracting the head in the
shell.
• Turtles, tortoises, and terrapins belong to this group.

Parapsida
• These reptiles possess one temporal fossa present high up on the skull.
• Protosaurs, Nothosaurs, Placodonts showed this type of skull.
• The two largest groups among these were Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurus. These
became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period when several other reptiles
including dinosaurs died.

Diapsida
• There are two temporal vacuities in the skull.
• They are diverse of all reptiles.
• The dinosaurs and pterosaurs are included in this group.
• These are divided into two major groups- Archosauria and Lepidosauria.
• Eg., Crocodilus, Chameleon

Amphibians (Class Amphibia)

Amphibians include ectothermic tetrapods such as frogs toads and salamanders. The
distinguishing feature that separates amphibians from reptiles is their breeding behaviour. Most
amphibians need a body of water to breed as their eggs are shell-less. Furthermore, they
undergo metamorphosis where the young ones transform from fully-aquatic larval form (with
gills and fins) to terrestrial adult form.
Characteristics of Class Amphibia
The characteristics of the organisms present in class amphibia are as follows:
• These can live both on land and in water.
• They are ectothermic animals, found in a warm environment.
• Their body is divided into head and trunk. The tail may or may not be present.
• The skin is smooth and rough without any scales, but with glands that make it moist.
• They have no paired fins. Unpaired fins might be present.
• They have two pairs of limbs for locomotion.
• They respire through the lungs and skin. Gills might be present externally in some
adults.
• The heart is three chambered.
• The kidneys are mesonephric. The excretory material includes ammonia and urea.
• They possess ten pairs of cranial nerves.
• The lateral line is present during their development.
• The sexes are separate and fertilization is usually external. However, in salamanders,
the fertilization is internal.
• Development is indirect with metamorphosis.
• Breeding occurs in water. The copulatory organs are absent in males. Eg., Frogs,
Salamanders.

Classification of Amphibia
The Amphibians are divided into three orders. The classification of amphibia is given below:

Apoda (Gymnophiona or Caecilia)

• Apoda means “without legs”.These are limbless organisms with scales on their body.
• They are also known as “blind-worms” because their eyes are covered by skin or
bone.
• The tentacles on their head are the chemosensory organs that help them to detect the
underground prey. Eg., Caecilians
• They possess venom glands.
• They secrete mucus to reduce water loss.

Urodela (Caudata)
• These are the organisms with a tail.
• The body is elongated with four equally sized limbs.
• The skin is smooth with poison glands.
 • Fertilization is internal.
• They feed on insects and worms. Eg., Salamanders
• They are found under leaf litter, in the soil, or in water.
• In the southern US, they reproduce primarily in winters.
• Very little differences between male and female.
• Spermatophores are utilized for internal fertilization.
• They possess hidden gills.

Anura (Salientia)
• There are around 3400 species of Anura in the world.
• They have four limbs. The front limbs are elongated and modified to jump.
• The head and trunk are fused together.
• The tail is present only in the larval stage and is lost in the adults.
• Fertilization is external and the eggs are laid in water. Eg., frogs and toads.

TASK: READ AND WRITE NOTES ON CHARACTERITICS AND

CLASSIFICATION OF PISCES

INVERTEBRATES
Invertebrates are animals that don’t have a backbone. The vertebral column is another
name for the backbone. Over 90% of all species on Earth are invertebrates, and
invertebrate species have been found in the fossil record as far back as 600 million years
ago.
Characteristics of invertebrates

• All invertebrates do not have a spinal cord or vertebral column, instead, most of them possess an
exoskeleton that encompasses the entire body.
• Normally, these are tiny and don’t grow very large.
• Do not possess lungs since they respire through their skin.
• Since they cannot produce their own food, Invertebrates are heterotrophic.
• Reproduction occurs through fission.

GROUPS OF INVERTEBRATES
They are divided into two major groups based on morphological and
physiological advancement.
Lower invertebrates
• The lower invertebrates are simple in body organization.
• They are generally small in size.
• These are thought to have originated in the main lines of evolution, near
the base of the phylogenetic tree of Animal kingdom.
• Lower Invertebrates includes Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata (Cnidaria),
Platyhelminthes and Nematoda.

Higher invertebrates
• They possess a complex body organization.
• They are generally larger in size.
• These occupy a higher position in the phylogenetic tree of Animal
kingdom.
• Higher Invertebrates include Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda, and
Echinodermata.
CLASSIFICATION OF LOWER INVERTEBRATES
Lower invertebrates include various phyla such as protozoa, porifera, cnidaria
(coelenterate), nematoda and platyhelminthes.
a) Protozoa

What is Protozoa?
Protozoa are unicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms. They are either free-living or
parasites. There are around 65000 species of protozoans categorised in different groups. They
lack a cell wall. There are many different cell organelles, that perform various tasks performed
by different organs in higher animals, e.g. mouth, anus, intestinal tract, etc.

There are many protozoa, that cause various diseases in animals and humans, e.g. Plasmodium
(malarial parasite), Trypanosoma (sleeping sickness), Trichomonas (trichomoniasis), etc.
The protozoa have many stages in their life cycle. Some of the stages of the life cycle are
infectious. The cyst stage is dormant and resistant to environmental stress, the trophozoite stage
is reproductive and causes disease.

General Characteristics of Protozoa

Habitat- Protozoa are found in the aquatic environment. They live in freshwater or oceans.
Some are free-living and some are parasitic in plants and animals. Mostly they are aerobic but
some are anaerobic and present in the rumen or human intestine.
Some of the species are found in extreme environments like hot springs. Some of them form
resting cyst to overcome dry environments.
Size and Shape- The size and shape of Protozoa vary greatly, from microbial (1µm) to large
enough and can be seen by the naked eye. The shell of unicellular foraminifera can have a
diameter of 20 cm.
They lack a rigid cell wall, so they are flexible and found in various shapes. Cells are enclosed
in a thin plasma membrane. Some of the species have a hard shell on the outer surface. In some
of the protozoans especially in ciliates, the cell is supported by Pellicle, which may be flexible
or rigid and give organisms the definite shape and help in locomotion.
Cellular Structure- They are unicellular having a eukaryotic cell. The metabolic functions are
performed by some specialised internal structures.

• They mostly have one membrane-bound nucleus in the cell

• The nucleus has diffused appearance due to scattered chromatin, the vesicular nucleus
contains a central body called endosome or nucleoli. Nucleoli of apicomplexans have
DNA, whereas amoeboids lack DNA in their endosome
• Ciliates have micronucleus and macronucleus
• The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and other locomotory projections like
flagella, pseudopodia and cilia
• Some of the genera have a membranous envelope called pellicle, which gives a definite
shape to the cell. In some of the protozoans, epibiotic bacteria attach to the pellicle by
their fimbriae
• The cytoplasm is differentiated into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm, ectoplasm
is transparent and endoplasm contains cell organelles
• Some of the protozoa have cytostome for ingesting food. Food vacuoles are present,
where ingested food comes. Ciliates have a gullet, a body cavity which opens outside
• The central vacuole is present for osmoregulation, that removes excess water
• Membrane-bound cell organelles, like mitochondria, Golgi bodies, lysosomes and other
specialised structures are present.
• Nutrition- Protozoa are heterotrophic and have holozoic nutrition. They ingest their
food by phagocytosis. Some of the protozoan groups have a specialised structure
called cytostome for phagocytosis.
 • The pseudopodia of amoeboids help in catching the prey. Thousands of cilia present in
ciliates drive the food-laden water into the gullet.
• The ingested food comes to the food vacuole and gets acted on by lysosomal enzymes.
The digested food gets distributed throughout the cell.
• Locomotion- Most of the protozoa species have flagella, cilia or pseudopodia.
Sporozoa, which don’t have any locomotory structure, have subpellicular microtubules,
which help in the slow movement.
• Life Cycle- The life cycle of most of the protozoa alternates between dormant cyst
stage and proliferating vegetative stage, e.g. trophozoites.
• The cyst stage can survive harsh conditions without water and nutrients. It can remain
outside the host for a longer duration and get transmitted.
• The trophozoite stage is infectious, and they feed and multiply during this stage.
• Reproduction- Mostly they reproduce by asexual means. They multiply by binary
fission, longitudinal fission, transverse fission or budding.
• In some of the species, sexual reproduction is present. The sexual reproduction is by
conjugation, syngamy or by gametocytes formation.

Protozoa Classification and Examples

Protozoa is a phylum having unicellular heterotrophs. It comes under Kingdom Protista.
Protozoa are divided into four major groups based on the structure and the part involved in the locomotion:

1. Mastigophora or Flagellated protozoans:

They are parasites or free-living.

• They have flagella for locomotion

• Their body is covered by a cuticle or pellicle
• Freshwater forms have a contractile vacuole
• Reproduction is by binary fission (longitudinal division)
• Examples: Trypanosoma, Trichomonas, Giardia, Leishmania, etc.
 Structure of Trypanosoma

2. Sarcodina or Amoeboids:
They live in the freshwater, sea or moist soil.

• The movement is by pseudopodia. They capture their prey by pseudopodia

• There is no definite shape and pellicle is absent
• The contractile vacuole is present in the amoeboids living in freshwater
• Reproduction is by binary fission and cyst formation
• Examples: Amoeba, Entamoeba, etc.

Structure of amoeba

3. Sporozoa or Sporozoans:
They are endoparasitic.

• They don’t have any specialised organ for locomotion

• The pellicle is present, which has subpellicular microtubules, that help in movement
• Reproduction is by sporozoite formation
• Examples: Plasmodium, Myxidium, Nosema, Globidium, etc.
4. Ciliophora or Ciliated protozoans:
They are aquatic and move actively with the help of thousands of cilia.

• They have fixed shape due to covering of pellicle

• They may have tentacles, e.g. in the sub-class Suctoria
• Contractile vacuoles are present
• Some species have an organ for defence called trichocysts
• They move with the help of cilia and the movement of cilia also helps in taking food inside the
gullet
• They reproduce by transverse division and also form cysts
• Examples: Paramecium, Vorticella, Balantidium, etc.
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF PROTOZOA
• Protozoa provide food for insect larvae, crustaceans and worms,
which are taken by large animals like fishes, lobsters, clams, and
crabs, which are eaten by man. Thus, they form sources of food supply
to man both directly and indirectly.

• Certain protozoa like Trichonympha and Colonymphya etc

(symbiotic protozoa). live in the gut of termite, which help in the
digestion of cellulose. The digested cellulose is utilized by the host.

• Insect control: Several protozoa control harmful insects by persisting

their bodies.

• Help in sanitation: A large number of protozoa living in polluted

water feed upon waste organic matters and thus purify it. Many
 protozoa feed upon bacteria and play important role in the sanitary
betterment and keeping water safe for drinking.

• Industry: The skeletal deposits of marine protozoa (Foraminifera

and Radiolaria) from occanic ooze at the sea-bottom. About 30% of
oceanic bed is covered with the Globigerina ooze. These skeletal
deposits are put to many uses. Some are employed as filtering agents,
others are made into chalk and still others are used for abrasives.

• Building Material: The skeletal deposits in due course of time

change into the limestone rock. Limestone is provided by the
Globigerina ooze, such as that of cliffs of Dover, which have played
an important role in the defence of England. Comerina (Formally
known as Nummulites, are the largest protozoa, which form
limestone. Thus, limestone-beds are used as building material.

• Oil Exploration: Petroleum is organic origin. The skeletal deposit

of Forminifera and Radiolaria are often found in association with oil
deposits. In this mean; they help in the exact location of oil.

• Scientific Study: Many protozoa are used in biological and medical

researches. A. Holotricha. Tetrachymena geleii is used in nutritional
research. The effects of various foods and poison have been
investigated on this protozoan.

• Pollution of Water: Drinking water in natural condition is made

unpalatable by the reproduction of some free-living protozoa in it. For
example, Uroglenopsis brings flashy odour like that of cod- liver oil.
Peridinium emits smell resembling that of clam-shells.

• Destruction of Animals of Food Value: dinoflagellates like

Noctiluca and Gonyaulax, when become abundant, are responsible for
turning the ocean red. The water becomes foul and cause toxic
reaction to molluscs like clam oysters and mussels and they become
unfit for eating by human beings.
 • Destruction of Wooden Articles: Some flagellates like
Trichonympha and Colonympha live in the gut of termites and help in
the process of cellulose digestion. In the absence of these flagellates
the termites will die or change their diet. Thus, such protozoa
indirectly help in distraction of wooden articles and books.

• Reduction in Fertility of Soil: It has been observed that about 200-

300 species of protozoa are present in soil. These protozoa feed on
nitrogen-fixing bacteria thus reduce the fertility of soil.

Phylum Porifera (Sponges)

Definition
The Porifera may be defined as an asymmetrical or radially symmetrical
multicellular organism with a cellular grade of an organization without well-
definite tissues and organs; with body perforated by pores, canals, and chambers
through which water flows; with one or more internal cavities lined with
choanocytes; and with a characteristic skeleton made of calcareous spicules,
siliceous spicules or horny fibers of spongin.
Habitat:
All sponges are aquatic, mostly marine, rarely fresh water (e.g., Spongillidae),
solitary or colonial, sessile and grow like plants.

Sponges like warmer water. They are not usually found in cold water.

Body Form:
- Two layered body wall or diploblastic, - one type of cell can change
from carrying out one function to another.
- Their body is porous, viz., provided with pores. The pores are of two types:
i) the Ostia through which water enters the body and
ii) one or more large openings, the oscula by which the water exists.
- The continuous water current flowing through the canal system is very
important for the life of a sponge. It brings in food and oxygen and carries away
carbon dioxide, excretory matter and reproductive bodies. Thus the canal system
helps the sponge in nutrition, respiration, excretion and reproduction.
- The multicellular organism with the cellular level of body organization. No
distinct tissues or organs.
- They consist of outer ectoderm and inner endoderm with an intermediate layer
of mesenchyme, therefore, diploblastic
- The interior space of the body is either hollow or permeated by numerous canals
lined with choanocytes. The interior space of the sponge body is called
spongocoel.
Characteristic skeleton consisting of either fine flexible spongin fibers, siliceous
spicules, or calcareous spicules.
(a) Pinacoderm (= dermal layer): It is outer cellular layer which consists of:
(i) Flattened pinacocytes and
(ii) Oporocytes
(b) Choanoderm (= gastral layer):
It is inner cellular layer which consists of highly specialized flagellated
cells called choanocytes or collar cells. Both pinacoderm and choanoderm
do not have basement membrane.
(c) Mesohyl layer (= mesenchyme):
Basically, it is a non-cellular layer found in between pinacoderm and
choanoderm. It has fine dispersed spongin fibres and numerous spicules. It
also contains amoebocytes (amoeba-like cells) of both pinacoderm and
choanoderm.
Amoebocytes are modified into following cells:
(i) Archaeoytes may be converted into other types of cells and are also
called undifferentiated “totipotent” cells.
(ii) Trophocytes provide food to developing cells and are called nurse cells,
(iii) Thesocytes store food granules.
(iv) Gland cells secrete a slimy substance,
(v) Collencytes secrete spongin fibres of the mesohyl layer,
(vi) Scleroblasts secrete spicules. In calcareous sponges, they are called
calcoblasts.
(vii) Myocytes form a circular ring around the osculum and help in closing
and opening of the osculum.
(viii) Germ cells (Sex cells) form sperms and ova and develop during
breeding season,
(ix) Chromocytes contain pigment granules and excretory substance,
(x) Phagocytes collect food from choanocytes through their pseudopodia
and also engulf excreta and damaged tissues.
Food:
- The majority of sponges are filter-feeders feeding on bacteria and other food
particles in the water. Particles are ingested by phagocytosis.
- However, a few species of sponge that live in food-poor environments are
carnivores that prey mainly on small crustaceans.
- It is intracellular and takes place inside food vacuoles as in protozoans.

Circulation:
Distribution of food from the ingesting cells to others is brought about by
wandering amoebocytes of mesohyl layer.

Respiration:
Exchange of gases occurs by diffusion through the plasma membranes of the cells
as in protozoans.

Excretion:
Removal of excretory matter also occurs by diffusion through the plasma
membranes of the cells as in protozoans. Ammonia is chief excretory waste.

Reproduction:
- Sponges are monoecious (hermaphrodite).
- Both asexual and sexual reproductions occur in sponges.
Asexual reproduction occurs by
- budding and
- gemmules (a tough-coated dormant cluster of embryonic cells produced
by a freshwater sponge for development in unfavourable conditions) - survival
pods” of unspecialized cells that remain dormant until conditions improve. They
then either form completely new sponges or recolonize the skeletons of their
parents.
- The sponge possesses a high power of regeneration.
- Sexual reproduction occurs via ova and sperms.
- Most species use sexual reproduction, releasing sperm cells into the water to
fertilize ova that in some species are released and in others are retained by the
“mother”. Fertilization is internal but cross-fertilization can occur.
- The fertilized eggs form larvae which swim off in search of places to settle.
- Sponges are also known for regenerating from fragments that are broken off,
although this only works if the fragments include the right types of cells. A few
species reproduce by budding.
Development:
Zygote undergoes holoblastic cleavage (complete division of the zygote). The
development includes a free swimming larva, the amphiblastula (in Sycon) or
parenchymula (in Leucosolenia) for dispersal of the species.

Unique features:
(i) Ostia and oscula present,

(ii) Presence of canal system and

(iii) Skeleton made up of spicules and spongin fibres.

Advancement over Protozoa:

(i) Multicellular body,

(ii) Division of labour among the cells,

(iii) Male and female gametes are sperms and ova.

(iv) Unicellular zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) to form embryo.

Classification
The phylum includes about 5,000 species of sponges, grouped into 3 classes
depending mainly upon the types of skeleton found in them. The classification
here is based on Storer and Usinger (1971) which appears to be a modification
from Hyman’s classification.
Class 1. Calcarea

• Small-sized calcareous sponges, below 10 cm in height.

• Solitary or conical; body shape vase-like or cylindrical.
• They may show asconoid, Syconoid, or leuconoid structures.
• A skeleton of separate one or three or four-rayed calcareous spicules.
• Exclusively marine.
Orders: Homocoela (Asconosa), Heterocoela (Syconosa)

Class 2. Hexactinellida
• Moderate -sized. Some reach 1 meter in length.
• Called glass sponges.
• Body shape cup, urn, or vase-like.
• Skeleton is of siliceous spicules which are triaxon with 6 rays. In some, the
spicules are fused to form a lattice-like skeleton.
• No epidermal epithelium.
• Choanocytes line finger-shaped chambers.
• Cylindrical or funnel-shaped
• Found in deep tropical seas.
Orders: Hexasterophora, Amphidiscophora

Class 3. Demospongiae
Contains the largest number of sponge species.
• Small to large-sized.
• Conical or solitary.
• The body shape is a vase, cup, or cushion.
• Skeleton of siliceous spicules or spongin fibers, or both, or absent.
• Spicules are never 6-rayed, they are monaxon or tetraxon and are
differentiated into large megascleres and small microscleres.
• The body canal system is leucon type.
• Choanocytes restricted to small rounded chambers.
• Generally marine, few freshwater forms.
Orders: Myxospongida, Carnosa, Choristida, Hadromerina

Economic importance

• The members of the phylum Porifera are used commercially for

cleaning or bathing sponges.
• They help to clean up the ocean floor by boring into dead shells and
corals releasing chemicals to break them down.
• Sponges have a great capacity to absorb water and hence, these are used
in surgical operations for absorbing fluid and blood.
• It can be used to eliminate stink odour from the refrigerator by
sprinkling it a small amount.
• Scientific studies - Many protozoa are used in biological and medical
research. A. Holotricha. Tetrachymena geleii is used in nutritional
research.
• They are important in nutrient cycles in the coral reef systems and highly
help in supporting the marine food web.
• Economically they are treated as protective habitats for animals like
crustaceans, molluscs, small fishes, etc. providing them food as well.
• Sponges are also used for Medicinal use in the preparation of various
antibiotics, anticancer, antifungal, immunosuppressive drugs, and all.
• Pests of economic importance e.g. boring sponge which bore wood
structures.
• They foul the aquatic environment
• Contribute to aesthetic value to the environment particularly for touring
because of various body sizes and colours.
• They uniquely accumulate certain chemical substances e.e. iodine,
bromine – used as antibacterial agents
• Used as fumigants to drive away pests and insects
 • Used in fine pottery work e.g. elephant hill sponge

Cnidaria: Coelenterata
corals, sea anemones, jellyfish, and relatives
A group made up of more than 9,000 living species.

Mostly marine animals, the cnidarians include the corals, hydras, jellyfish, Portuguese
men-of-war, sea anemones, sea pens, sea whips, and sea fans.

• Only cnidarians manufacture microscopic intracellular stinging capsules,

known as nematocysts or cnidae, which give the phylum its name.
• The alternative name, coelenterate, refers to their simple organization around
a central body cavity (the coelenteron).
• As first defined, coelenterates included not only the animals now designated
cnidarians but also sponges (phylum Porifera) and comb jellies (phylum
Ctenophora). In contemporary usage, “coelenterate” generally refers only to
cnidarians, but the latter term is used in order to avoid ambiguity.
• All cnidarians share several attributes, supporting the theory that they had a
single origin.
• Variety and symmetry of body forms, varied coloration, and the sometimes
complex life histories of cnidarians fascinate layperson and scientist alike.
• Inhabiting all marine and some freshwater environments, these animals are
most abundant and diverse in tropical waters.
• Their calcareous skeletons form the frameworks of the reefs and atolls in most
tropical seas, including the Great Barrier Reef that extends more than 2,000
kilometres along the northeastern coast of Australia.
•

General features

• Cnidarians are radially symmetrical (i.e., similar parts are arranged around a
central axis).
• They lack cephalization (concentration of sensory organs in a head), their
bodies have two cell layers rather than the three of so-called higher animals.
• A gastrovascular cavity (coelenteron) (saclike) has a single exterior opening that serves
as both mouth and anus. Often tentacles surround the opening
• They are the most primitive of animals whose cells are organized into
distinct tissues,- in which some similar cells are associated into groups
or aggregations called tissues (tissue level of organization) but they
lack organs.
• The phylum Cnidaria is made up of four
classes: Hydrozoa (hydrozoans); Scyphozoa (scyphozoans); Anthozoa (anthoz
oans); and Cubozoa (cubozoans).
• Cnidarians have two body forms—polyp – (juvenile body
form) and medusa- (adult form) —which often occur within the life cycle of a
single cnidarian.
• An example of the polyp form is Hydra spp.; perhaps the most well-known
medusoid animals are the jellies (jellyfish)
• The body of a medusa, commonly called a jellyfish, usually has the shape of a
bell or an umbrella, with tentacles hanging downward at the margin.
• Medusae are free-swimming or floating. They usually have umbrella-shaped bodies
and tetramerous (four-part) symmetry.
• The mouth is usually on the concave side, and the tentacles originate on the rim of the
umbrella.
•
• Polyps, in contrast, are usually sessile. They have tubular bodies
(‘stalk’); one end is attached to the substrate, and a mouth (usually
surrounded by tentacles) is found at the other end.
• Polyps may occur alone or in groups of individuals; in the latter case,
different individuals sometimes specialize for different functions, such
as reproduction, feeding or defense.

• Most species of cubozoans, hydrozoans, and scyphozoans pass through the

medusoid and polypoid body forms, with medusae giving rise sexually
to larvae that metamorphose into polyps, while polyps produce medusae
asexually.
• Thus, the polyp is essentially a juvenile form, while the medusa is the adult
form.
• In contrast, anthozoans are polypoid cnidarians and do not have a medusa
stage. Commonly polyps, and in some species medusae too, can produce more
of their own kind asexually.
• One body form may be more conspicuous than the other. For example,
scyphozoans are commonly known as true jellyfishes, for the medusa form is
larger and better known than the polyp form.
•
• In hydrozoans, the polyp phase is more conspicuous than the medusa phase in
groups such as hydroids and hydrocorals.
•
• Hydromedusae are smaller and more delicate than scyphomedusae or
cubomedusae; they may be completely absent from the life cycle of some
hydrozoan species.
• Some other species produce medusae, but the medusae never separate
themselves from the polyps.
• Cubozoans have medusae commonly known as box jellyfish, from their shape.
• Some of these are responsible for human fatalities, mostly in tropical Australia
and Southeast Asia, and include the so-called sea wasps. The polyp is tiny and
inconspicuous.
•
• Many cnidarian polyps are individually no more than a mm or so across. Polyps
of most hydroids, hydrocorals, and soft and hard corals, however, proliferate
asexually into colonies, which can attain much greater size and longevity than
their component polyps.
•
• Certain tropical sea anemones (class Anthozoa) may be a metre in diameter,
and some temperate ones are nearly that tall. Anthozoans are long-lived, both
individually and as colonies; some sea anemones are centuries old.
• All medusae and sea anemones occur only as solitary individuals.
Scyphomedusae can weigh more than a ton, whereas hydromedusae are, at
most, a few centimetres across.
• Tentacles of medusae, however, may be numerous and extensible, which allows
the animals to influence a considerably greater range than their body size might
suggest.
•
• Large populations of hydroids can build up on docks, boats, and rocks.
Similarly, some medusae attain remarkable densities—up to thousands per litre
of water—but only for relatively brief periods.
• Reproduction in polyps is by asexual budding (polyps) or sexual formation of
gametes (medusae, some polyps).
• Cnidarian individuals may be monoecious (male and female reproductive
organ in the same individual) or dioecious (male and female reproductive
organ in separate individuals) – for plants and invertebrates. The result of
sexual reproduction is a planula larva, which is ciliated and free-swimming.

• Cnidarians contain specialized cells known as cnidocytes (“stinging cells”),

which contain organelles called nematocysts (stingers).
• These cells are present around the mouth and tentacles, serving to immobilize
prey with toxins contained within the cells. Nematocysts contain coiled threads
that may bear barbs.
• The outer wall of the cell has hairlike projections called cnidocils, which are
sensitive to touch. When touched, the cells are known to fire coiled threads that
can either penetrate the flesh of the prey or predators of cnidarians, or ensnare
it. These coiled threads release toxins into the target that can often immobilize
prey or scare away predators.
• If collar cells and spicules are defining characteristics of the Phylum Porifera,
then nematocysts define cnidarians.

• Nematocysts: These tiny organelles, likened to cocked guns, are both highly
efficient devices for capturing prey and extremely effective deterrents to preda-
tors.
• Each contains a coiled, tubular thread, which may bear barbs and which is
often poisoned.
•
• A nematocyst discharges when a prey species or predator comes into contact
with it, driving its threads with barb and poison into the flesh of the victim by
means of a rapid increase in hydrostatic pressure.
• Hundreds or thousands of nematocysts may line the tentacles or surface of the
cnidarian. They are capable even of penetrating human skin, sometimes pro-
ducing a painful wound or in extreme cases, death.
•
• Some cnidarians are polymorphic, having two body plans during their life cycle.
An example is the colonial hydroid called an Obelia. The sessile polyp
form has, in fact, two types of polyps.
• The first is the gastrozooid, which is adapted for capturing prey and feeding;
the other type of polyp is the gonozooid, adapted for the asexual budding of
medusa.
• When the reproductive buds mature, they break off and become free-swimming
medusa, which are either male or female (dioecious).
• The male medusa makes sperm, whereas the female medusa makes eggs. After
fertilization, the zygote develops into a blastula and then into a planula larva.
The larva is free swimming for a while, but eventually attaches and a new
colonial reproductive polyp is formed.

• All cnidarians show the presence of two membrane layers in the body that are derived
from the endoderm and ectoderm of the embryo. The outer layer (from ectoderm) is
called the epidermis and lines the outside of the animal, whereas the inner layer (from
endoderm) is called the gastrodermis and lines the digestive cavity. Between these two
membrane layers is a non-living, jelly-like mesoglea connective layer. In terms of
cellular complexity, cnidarians show the presence of differentiated cell types in each
tissue layer: nerve cells, contractile epithelial cells, enzyme-secreting cells, and
nutrient-absorbing cells, as well as the presence of intercellular connections. However,
the development of organs or organ systems is not advanced in this phylum.
• The nervous system is primitive, with nerve cells scattered across the body. This nerve
net may show the presence of groups of cells in the form of nerve plexi (singular:
plexus) or nerve cords. The nerve cells show mixed characteristics of motor as well as
sensory neurons. The predominant signaling molecules in these primitive nervous
systems are chemical peptides, which perform both excitatory and inhibitory functions.
Despite the simplicity of the nervous system, it coordinates the movement of tentacles,
the drawing of captured prey to the mouth, the digestion of food, and the expulsion of
waste.
• The cnidarians perform extracellular digestion in which the food is taken into the
gastrovascular cavity, enzymes are secreted into the cavity, and the cells lining the
cavity absorb nutrients. The gastrovascular cavity has only one opening that serves as
both a mouth and an anus; this is termed an incomplete digestive system. Cnidarian
cells exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide by diffusion between cells in the epidermis
with water in the environment, and between cells in the gastrodermis with water in the
gastrovascular cavity. The lack of a circulatory system to move dissolved gases limits
the thickness of the body wall, necessitating a non-living mesoglea between the layers.
There is no excretory system or organs; nitrogenous wastes simply diffuse from the
cells into the water outside the animal or in the gastrovascular cavity. There is also no
circulatory system, so nutrients must move from the cells that absorb them in the lining
of the gastrovascular cavity through the mesoglea to other cells.
• The phylum Cnidaria contains about 10,000 described species divided into four classes:
Anthozoa, Scyphozoa, Cubozoa, and Hydrozoa. The anthozoans, the sea anemones and
corals, are all sessile species, whereas the scyphozoans (jellyfish) and cubozoans (box
 jellies) are swimming forms. The hydrozoans contain sessile forms and swimming
colonial forms like the Portuguese Man O’ War.

Class Anthozoa

Members of the class Anthozoa display only polyp morphology and have cnidocyte-
covered tentacles around their mouth opening.

• Anthozoans include sea anemones, sea pens, and corals.

• The pharynx of anthozoans (ingesting as well as egesting food) leads to the
gastrovascular cavity, which is divided by mesenteries.
• In Anthozoans, gametes are produced by the polyp; if they fuse, they will give rise to a
free-swimming planula larva, which will become sessile once it finds an optimal
substrate.
• Sea anemonies and coral are examples of anthozoans that form unique mutualistic
relationships with other animal species; both sea anemonies and coral benefit from food
availability provided by their partners.
• The mouth of a sea anemone is surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes.
They have slit-like mouth openings and a pharynx, which is the muscular part
of the digestive system that serves to ingest as well as egest food. It may extend
for up to two-thirds the length of the body before opening into the gastrovascular
cavity. This cavity is divided into several chambers by longitudinal septa called
mesenteries. Each mesentery consists of one ectodermal and one endodermal
cell layer with the mesoglea sandwiched in between. Mesenteries do not divide
the gastrovascular cavity completely; the smaller cavities coalesce at the
pharyngeal opening. The adaptive benefit of the mesenteries appears to be an
increase in surface area for absorption of nutrients and gas exchange.
• Sea anemones feed on small fish and shrimp, usually by immobilizing their prey
using the cnidocytes. Some sea anemones establish a mutualistic relationship
with hermit crabs by attaching to the crab’s shell. In this relationship, the
anemone gets food particles from prey caught by the crab, while the crab is
protected from the predators by the stinging cells of the anemone. Anemone
fish, or clownfish, are able to live in the anemone since they are immune to the
toxins contained within the nematocysts. Another type of anthozoan that forms
an important mutualistic relationship is reef building coral. These hermatypic
corals rely on a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae. The coral gains
photosynthetic capability, while the zooxanthellae benefit by using nitrogenous
waste and carbon dioxide produced by the cnidarian host.
• Anthozoans remain polypoid throughout their lives. They can reproduce
asexually by budding or fragmentation, or sexually by producing gametes. Both
gametes are produced by the polyp, which can fuse to give rise to a free-
swimming planula larva. The larva settles on a suitable substratum and
develops into a sessile polyp.

Class Scyphozoa

• Scyphozoans are free-swimming, polymorphic, dioecious, and carnivorous

cnidarians with a prominent medusa morphology.
 • Scyphozoans have a ring of muscles that lines the dome of their bodies; these
structures provide them with the contractile force they need to swim through water.
• Scyphozoans have separate sexes and form planula larvae through external
fertilization.
• Jellies exhibit the polyp form, known as a scyphistoma, after their larvae settle on a
substrate; these forms will later bud-off and transform into their more prominenent
medusa forms.
Key Terms
• dioecious: having the male and female reproductive organs on separate parts (of the
same species)
• rhopalia: small sensory structures found within Scyphozoa that are characterized by
clusters of neurons that can be used to sense light
• scyphistoma: the polypoid form of scyphozoans
• nematocyst: a capsule, in certain cnidarians, containing a barbed, threadlike tube that
delivers a paralyzing sting

• Class Scyphozoa, an exclusively marine class of animals with about 200 known
species, includes all the jellies.
• The defining characteristic of this class is that the medusa is the prominent
stage in the life cycle, although there is a polyp stage present. Members of this
species range from 2 to 40 cm in length, but the largest scyphozoan
species, Cyanea capillata, can reach a size of 2 m across. Scyphozoans
display a characteristic bell-like morphology.
• In the jellyfish, a mouth opening, surrounded by tentacles bearing nematocysts, is
present on the underside of the animal. Scyphozoans live most of their life cycle as free-
swimming, solitary carnivores. The mouth leads to the gastrovascular cavity, which
may be sectioned into four interconnected sacs, called diverticuli. In some species, the
digestive system may be further branched into radial canals. Like the septa in
anthozoans, the branched gastrovascular cells serve to increase the surface area for
nutrient absorption and diffusion; thus, more cells are in direct contact with the nutrients
in the gastrovascular cavity.
• In scyphozoans, nerve cells are scattered over the entire body. Neurons may even be
present in clusters called rhopalia. These animals possess a ring of muscles lining the
dome of the body, which provides the contractile force required to swim through water.
Scyphozoans are dioecious animals, having separate sexes. The gonads are formed from
the gastrodermis with gametes expelled through the mouth. Planula larvae are formed
by external fertilization; they settle on a substratum in a polypoid form known as
scyphistoma. These forms may produce additional polyps by budding or may transform
into the medusoid form. The life cycle of these animals can be described as polymorphic
because they exhibit both a medusal and polypoid body plan at some point.

Class Cubozoa

Cubozoans live as box-shaped medusae while Hydrozoans are true polymorphs and
can be found as colonial or solitary organisms.
Key Points

• Cubozoans differ from Scyphozoans in their arrangement of tentacles; they are also
known for their box-shaped medusa.
• Out of all cnidarians, cubozoans are the most venomous.
• Hydrozoans are polymorphs, existing as solitary polyps, solitary medusae, or as
colonies.
• Hydrozoans are unique from all other cnidarians in that their gonads are derived from
epidermal tissue.

Key Terms

• hydroid: any of many colonial coelenterates that exist mainly as a polyp; a hydrozoan

Class Cubozoa includes jellies that have a box-shaped medusa: a bell that is square
in cross-section; hence, they are colloquially known as “box jellyfish.” These species
may achieve sizes of 15–25 cm. Cubozoans display overall morphological and
anatomical characteristics that are similar to those of the scyphozoans. A prominent
difference between the two classes is the arrangement of tentacles. This is the most
venomous group of all the cnidarians.

• The cubozoans contain muscular pads called pedalia at the corners of the
square bell canopy, with one or more tentacles attached to each pedalium.
• These animals are further classified into orders based on the presence of single
or multiple tentacles per pedalium. In some cases, the digestive system may
extend into the pedalia. Nematocysts may be arranged in a spiral configuration
along the tentacles; this arrangement helps to effectively subdue and capture
prey.
• Cubozoans exist in a polypoid form that develops from a planula larva. These
polyps show limited mobility along the substratum. As with scyphozoans, they
may bud to form more polyps to colonize a habitat. Polyp forms then transform
into the medusoid forms.

Class Hydrozoa

• Hydrozoa includes nearly 3,200 species; most are marine, although some
freshwater species are known. Animals in this class are polymorphs: most
exhibit both polypoid and medusoid forms in their lifecycle, although this is
variable.
• The polyp form in these animals often shows a cylindrical morphology with a
central gastrovascular cavity lined by the gastrodermis. The gastrodermis and
epidermis have a simple layer of mesoglea sandwiched between them.
• A mouth opening, surrounded by tentacles, is present at the oral end of the
animal. Many hydrozoans form colonies that are composed of a branched
colony of specialized polyps that share a gastrovascular cavity, such as in the
colonial hydroid Obelia.
• Colonies may also be free-floating and contain medusoid and polypoid
individuals in the colony as in Physalia (the Portuguese Man O’ War)
or Velella (By-the-wind sailor). Other species are solitary polyps (Hydra) or
solitary medusae (Gonionemus). The true characteristic shared by all these
diverse species is that their gonads for sexual reproduction are derived from
epidermal tissue, whereas in all other cnidarians they are derived from
gastrodermal tissue.