DESIGN OF STRUCTURES I

CVE 308 (3 Units)

Lecture Notes

By

Engr. Dr. M. A. Tijani

June, 2025
 Course Description

Concept of reinforced concrete and historical development

of its theory and practice. Review of the physical and
mechanical properties of concrete and reinforcing bars.
Fundamentals of design process, materials selection,
building regulations and codes of practice. Scopes and
limitations and interpretation of design charts. Design
philosophies with regards to elastic, load factor and limit
state methods. Design of structural elements in reinforced
concrete (slabs, beams, columns and foundations).
 Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design
• Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC) is a combination of
concrete and steel.
• It has been experimentally found that the cement concrete is
very strong in compression, has good fire resistance, fair in
shear but weak in tension.
• It has also been observed that steel is very strong in tension,
very good both in shear and compression but offer poor
resistance to fire.
• It should be noted that steel bar can resist tension up to the
permissible limit; whereas it cannot resist compression up to
the permissible limit because of buckling.
 Introduction to Reinforced Concrete Design
• When a simply supported member is loaded, it bends and
the bottom is subjected to tension and the top to
compression.
• In the case of a cantilever, the tension is at the top and the
compression at the bottom.
• Since steel is good in tension, the member is reinforced
with steel at the lower part (tension) while the top part
(compression) is taken care of by the concrete.
• Such a member is called a reinforced concrete member.
• The method of combining concrete and steel in the most
economical way on one hand and safety on the other hand
is referred to as reinforced concrete design.
 Advantages of Reinforced Concrete Structures
• The concrete, while setting holds affirm grip on the surface
of the steel bars.

• The coefficient of linear expansion for steel and concrete are

almost the same. Therefore no internal stresses are setup due
to variation in temperature.

• The coating of cement grout on the surface of steel bars,

protects them from corrosion and thus does not produce
chemical effects on them.
Assumptions in the Theory of Reinforced Concrete
• All the tensile stresses are taken up by the steel
reinforcement only.

• There is a sufficient bond between the steel and concrete.

• The moduli of elasticity for steel and concrete are

constant.

• The steel and concrete is stressed within its elastic limit

and thus obey Hook’s law.
 Material Properties
• The two materials whose properties must be known are
concrete and steel reinforcement.
• In the case of concrete, the property with which the
designer is primarily concerned is its compressive strength.
• The compressive strength of concrete is usually determined
by carrying out compression tests on 28-day-old, 100 mm
cubes which have been prepared using a standard procedure
laid down in BS EN 12390-1 (2000). An alternative
approach is to use 100 mm diameter by 200 mm long
cylinders.
 Material Properties Contd’
• As a compromise between economy and safety, BS 8110
refers to the characteristic strength ( fcu) which is defined
as the value below which not more than 5 per cent of the
test results fall.
• The characteristic and mean strength ( fm) of a sample are
related by the expression:
fcu = fm − 1.64 s.d.
where s.d. is the standard deviation.
• The characteristic compressive strength of concrete can be
identified by its ‘strength class’.
 Material Properties Contd’
• Typical compressive strength classes of concrete (provided
in BS8110) commonly used in reinforced concrete design are
as summarised below:
 Material Properties Contd’
• Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension.
Because of this it is normal practice to provide steel
reinforcement in those areas where tensile stresses in the
concrete are most likely to develop.

• Consequently, it is the tensile strength of the reinforcement

which most concerns the designer.

• The tensile strength of steel reinforcement can be

determined using the procedure laid down in BS EN
10002: Part 1.
 Material Properties Contd’
• To take account of differences between actual and
laboratory values, local weaknesses and inaccuracies in
assessment of the resistances of sections, the characteristic
strengths (fk) are divided by appropriate partial safety
factors for strengths (γm).
• The resulting values are termed design strengths and it is
the design strengths which are used to size members.
 Design Objectives
• Under the worst system of loading, the structure must be
safe.

• Under the working load, the deformation of the structure

must not impair the appearance, durability and/or
performance of the structure.

• The structure must be economical i.e. the factor of safety

should not be too large to the extent that the cost of the
structure become prohibitive with no additional major
advantage.
 Design Stresses (Steel)
• In reinforced concrete design, either mild steel round bars
(R-bars) or high yield steel (high tensile) bars (Y or T-bars)
are used.

• The characteristic strengths of reinforcements are given in

BS 4449, BS 4461 and BS 4483.

• For mild steel round bars, the characteristic strength is

250N/mm2 while high yield steel has 460N/mm2.

• Experience has shown that a value of 410N/mm2 is the most

appropriate for high tensile bars in Nigeria.
 Design Stresses (Concrete)
• Concrete characteristic strength, fcu, forms the concrete
grade. For example, Grade 20 has fcu=20N/mm2 and grade 40
has fcu = 40N/mm2.

• This fcu value is also the minimum cube strength at 28 days.

• Section 3.1.7.2 of the BS Standard specifies minimum of

grade 25 for reinforced concrete and grade 15 for light
weight aggregate concrete.
 Design Philosophy
Elastic Theory Method
• This is guided by CP114:1957.
• Loads are assessed as the working loads but limiting the
permissible stresses in the concrete and the reinforcement to
fraction of their actual stresses.
• This method is made on elastic nature of construction
materials.
• It is not suitable where the strain is not proportional to the
stress as in slender column.
• It is unsafe where emphasis is placed on the stability of
structure under overturning.
 Design Philosophy
Load Factor Method
• This is guided by CP110:1972.
• The premium in this method is loading. It assumes that
structure fall within stress-strain concept until yielding point
is reached.
• Factor of safety is applied to every working load, but it’s not
applied to material strength. Instead ultimate strength of
material is used.
• Therefore, it makes no provision for the deflection, cracking
and variation of materials underworking load.
 Design Philosophy
Limit State Method
• This is guided by BS8110:1985 and 1997.
• The method overcomes most of the inconsistencies present
in the methods mentioned earlier.
• It make use of partial factor of safety to both loads and
material strength which is flexible for use to suite plastic
stress in the service loading state and plastic stress in the
ultimate loading state.
• Hence, the design code and standard adopted for this course
is BS8110: Part1,1997–Structural Use of Concrete.
 Beam Design
Select: Estimate:
Concrete strength class (say C28/35) Characteristic dead load
Longitudinal steel grade (say 500 Nmm−2) Characteristic imposed load
Shear reinforcement grade (say 500 Nmm−2) self weight
Minimum member size
Thickness of concrete cover
Calculate:
Ultimate loads
Design moment (M)
Estimate: Design shear force
Effective depth and width of
beam

Calculate:
ultimate moment of resistance;
Mu = 0.156fcubd²

Beam is Singly
Beam is Doubly
reinforced NO Is Mu > M ? YES reinforced

Design Flexural Reinforcement

Design Shear Reinforcement

Produce Reinforcement
Details
 Beam Design Contd’
Beam Design Procedure:
• Select concrete/steel grade, concrete cover, minimum section
and durability & fire resistance as specified in clause 3.3 of
BS8110.

• Estimate self weight, characteristic dead/imposed load and

calculate ultimate design load (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk).

• Detailed analysis is carried out to obtain bending moment

and shear force envelopes.
 Beam Design Contd’
Design as Singly Reinforced Section:

• Calculate ultimate moment of resistance;

Mu = 0.156fcubd²

• If Mu > M, design as a singly reinforced beam.

 Beam Design Contd’
Design flexural reinforcement
• Section factor:
M (else increase beam section or design as
k  0.156
f cu bd 2 doubly reinforced section)

• Lever arm:
z = d[0.5 + √(0.25 - k/0.9)] 0.95d

• Area of steel in tension required:

M
Ast 
0.95 f y z
 Beam Design Contd’
Design as Doubly Reinforced Section
(Mu < M or k > k’):
Design flexural reinforcements
• Section factors:
M Mu
k k 
'

f cu bd 2 f cu bd 2
• Lever arm:
z = d[0.5 + √(0.25 – k’/0.9)]  0.95d
where k’ = 0.156
 Beam Design Contd’
Design flexural reinforcement
• Area of steel in compression required:
M  Mu d'
Asc  ,  0.19
0.95 f y (d  d ' ) d

• Area of steel in tension required:

Mu
Ast   Asc
0.95 f y z
 Area of steel reinforcement, As
Design flexural reinforcement
• Area of steel in compression required:
M  Mu d'
Asc  ,  0.19
0.87 f y (d  d ' ) d

• Area of steel in tension required:

 Beam Design Contd’
 Shear Strength of Beam Sections
• The equation in BS 8110 (Cl 3.4.5.2)
V
v
bv d
• Where:
v = design shear stress
V = design shear force due to ultimate loads
bv=breadth of the section
d =effective depth

• v ≤ 0.8 √(fcu) or ≤ 5 N/mm2

 Beam Design Contd’

𝑏𝑣 𝑠𝑣 (𝑣 −𝑣𝑐 )
𝐴𝑠𝑣 ≥
0.95𝑓𝑦𝑣
• This is the equation given in Table 3.7 of the code for the
cross-sectional area of designed links when the design shear
stress v at a cross-section is greater than (vc + 0.4). It is
recognised that the truss analogy produces conservative
results and the code specifies that: designed links are
required when:
(vc + 0.4) < v < 0.8 (fcu)1/2 or 5 N/mm2
 Beam Design Contd’
• It is important to provide minimum areas of steel in concrete
to minimize thermal and shrinkage cracking, etc.
• Minimum links are specified in the code which provide a
shear resistance of 0.4N/mm2 in addition to the design
concrete shear stress vc, and consequently designed links are
required when v > (vc + 0.4) as indicated.
• In Table 3.7: minimum links are required when 0.5vc < v <
(vc + 0.4)
• The cross-sectional area of the links required is given by:
0.4𝑏𝑣 𝑠𝑣
𝐴𝑠𝑣 ≥
0.95𝑓𝑦𝑣
 Beam Design Contd’
• Example: Carry out the structural design for Floor Beam
shown below which supports the following uniformly
distributed loads: Gk=45kN/m including self-weight,
Qk=1.5kN/m. The characteristic material strengths are
fcu=30N/mm2 and fy=460N/mm2.
 Beam Design Contd’
Given that: Gk = 45KN/m including self-weight
Qk = 1.5kN/m
Fcu = 30N/m
Fy = 460N/𝑚𝑚2
H = 600mm effective depth, d = 550mm
B = 225mm
Analysis
Ultimate load w = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
= 1.4(45) + 1.6(1.5)
= 63 + 24
= 65.4 kN/m
Moment
𝑤𝑙 2 65.4𝑥5.2602
Maximum design moment m = =
8 8

= 226.18kN/m
 Slab Design
• Design

𝑀 226.18 𝑥 106
K= = = 0.11
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 30𝑥225𝑥5502

𝐾
• 𝐿𝑎 = 0.5 + 0.25 − = 0.86
0.9
Z = lad = 0.86 x 550 = 473

𝑀 226.18 𝑥 106
𝐴𝑠 = = = 1094.24 𝑚𝑚2
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧 0.95𝑥380𝑥473
Provide 4T20 bars, (area = 1260mm2)
 Slab Design
• Check for Deflection
(477−𝑓𝑠 )
𝑀𝑓 = 0.55 + 𝑀 <2
120(0.9+ 2 )
𝑏𝑑
𝑀 226.18 𝑥 106
= = 3.32
𝑏𝑑 2 225𝑥5502
2 𝐴𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑞 2 1094.24
• 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑓 = x 460 x = 266.32
3 𝑦 𝐴 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 3 1260
(477−2666.32)
• 𝑀𝑓 = 0.55 + = 0.97 ≤ 2
120(0.9+3.32)
• Basic Ratio = 20
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
• Maximum = 20 x 0.97 = 19.4
𝑑
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 5260
• Actual = = 9.56
𝑑 550
• Hence 19.4 > 9.56 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 OK
 Slab Design
• A slab is designed as a series of very wide, shallow
rectangular beams placed side by side and connected
transversely such that it is possible to share the applied
load between adjacent beams. The combination of beams
would act as a slab as shown;

• Consequently, the design procedure for a slab follows that

of a beam, as summarised next slide.
 Slab Design Contd’
Slab Design Procedure:
• Select concrete strength class (Fcu), longitudinal steel
grade (Fy) and thickness of concrete cover.

• Estimate self weight, characteristic dead/imposed load

and calculate ultimate design load (1.4Gk + 1.6Qk).

• Estimate effective depth of slab. Width of slab is taken

as 1000mm
 Slab Design Contd’

d = h – cover – Ø/2 …….(Effective depth of slab)

• Calculate ultimate moment of resistance;

Mu = 0.156fcubd²
 Slab Design Contd’
 Detailed analysis is carried out to obtain bending
moment (BM) envelopes.

• One way simply supported slab;

wl 2
Moment, M 
8

 Two way slab;

• Short span
Mid-span, M sx   sx nlx2
Continous edge, M sx   sx nlx2
 Slab Design Contd’

 Two way slab;

• Long span

Mid-span, M sy    sy  nlx2

Continous edge, M sy    sy  nlx2

 Slab Design Contd’
Design flexural reinforcement
If Mu ≥ M, which is the usual condition for slabs,
compression reinforcement will not be required and the area
of tensile reinforcement, As, calculated as follows:
• Section factor:
M
k  0.156 (else increase slab section & redesign)
f cu bd 2
• Lever arm:
z = d[0.5 + √(0.25 - k/0.9)  0.95d
 Slab Design Contd’
• Area of steel required:
M
Ast 
0.95 f y z

Check deflection:
• Design service stress:
M
k 2
 0.156
f cu bd

• Modification factor:
(477  f s )
MF  0.55   2.0
M
120(0.9  2 )
bd
 Slab Design Contd’
• Required depth:
lx
d req 
l
Basic  MF
d

• Deflection is satisfied if the required minimum depth

does not exceed the value provided i.e dreq < dprov
 Areas/metre width for various pitches of bars
Design flexural reinforcement
• Area of steel in compression required:
M  Mu d'
Asc  ,  0.19
0.87 f y (d  d ' ) d

• Area of steel in tension required:

 Slab Design

Example: Carry out the structural calculation for floor

panel P1 in the figure shown below.

Solution
𝑙𝑦 5260
= = 1.1
𝑙𝑥 4800
 Slab Design Contd’
• Slab Loading
Self-weight of slab = 0.15 x 24 = 3.6 KN/m
Finishes = 1.2
Partition allowance = 1.2
Total dead load, Gk = 6.0
Live load Qk = 1.5
Ultimate load w = 1.4Gk+ 1.6Qk
= 1.4(6.0) + 1.6(1.5)
= 8.4 + 2.4
= 10.80KN/m
 Slab Design Contd’
From Moment Coefficients Table for Restrained Slab.
• Short Span
Span + ve = 0.042
Edge – ve = 0.056
• Long Span
Span + ve = 0.034
Edge – ve = 0.045
Using moment = ßsxnlx2
• Short Span Moment
Msx = ßsxnlx2
Msx = 0.042 x 10.8 x 4.82 = 10.45kN/m
Msx = 0.056 x 10.8 x 4.82 = 13.93kN/m
 Slab Design Contd’

• Long Span Moment

Msy = ßsynlx2
Msy = 0.034 x 10.8 x 4.82 = 8.46kN/m
Msy = 0.045 x 10.8 x 4.82 = 11.20kN/m
 Slab Design
• Design

𝑀 13.93 𝑥 106
K= = = 0.03
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 30𝑥1000𝑥124 2

𝐾
• 𝐿𝑎 = 0.5 + 0.25 − = 0.97
0.9
Z = lad = 0.97 x 124 = 119.76

𝑀 13.93 𝑥 106
𝐴𝑠 = = = 266. 17𝑚𝑚2
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧 0.95𝑥460𝑥119.76
Provide T12 @ 250 c/c B (452mm2)
 Slab Design
• Check for Deflection
(477−𝑓𝑠 )
Modification factor = 0.55 + 𝑀
120(0.9+ )
𝑏𝑑2
𝑀 13.93 𝑥 106
= = 0.91
𝑏𝑑 2 1000𝑥124 2
2 𝐴𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑞 2 266.17
• 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑓 = x 460 x = 180.59
3 𝑦 𝐴 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 3 452
(477−180.59)
• 𝑀𝑓 = 0.55 + = 1.92 ≤ 2
120(0.9+0.91)
• Basic Ratio = 26
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
• Maximum = 26 x 1.92 = 49.92
𝑑
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 4800
• Actual = = 38.71
𝑑 124
• Hence 49.92 > 38. 71 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑂𝐾
 Slab Design
• Design
M = 11.20 kN/ m
𝑀 11.20 𝑥 106
K= = = 0.02
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 30𝑥1000𝑥124 2

𝐾
𝐿𝑎 = 0.5 + 0.25 − = 0.95
0.9

Z = lad = 0.95 x 124 = 117.8

𝑀 11.20 𝑥 106
𝐴𝑠 = = = 217.5 𝑚𝑚2
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧 0.95𝑥460𝑥117.8

Provide T10 @ 250 c/c T (314mm2)

 Slab Design
• Check for Deflection
(477−𝑓𝑠 )
Modification factor = 0.55 + 𝑀
120(0.9+ )
𝑏𝑑2
𝑀 11.2 𝑥 106
= = 0.73
𝑏𝑑 2 1000𝑥124 2
2 𝐴𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑞 2 217.5
• 𝐹𝑠 = 𝑓 = x 460 x = 212.4
3 𝑦 𝐴 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 3 314
(477−212.4)
• 𝑀𝑓 = 0.55 + = 1.9 ≤ 2
120(0.9+0.73)
• Basic Ratio = 26
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛
• Maximum = 26 x 1.9 = 49.4
𝑑
𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 4800
• Actual = = 38.71
𝑑 124
• Hence 49.4 > 38. 71 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑂𝐾
 Column Design
Column in a structure carrying the loads from the beams
and slabs down to the foundations, and therefore they are
primarily compression members, although they may also
have to resist bending forces due to the continuity of the
structure.
Modes of failure of a column
• Material failure with negligible lateral deflection, which
usually occurs with short columns but can also occur
when there are large end movements on a column with
an intermediate slenderness ratio.
• Material failure intensified by the lateral deflection and
the additional moment. This type of failure is typical of
intermediate columns.
• Instability failure which occurs with slender columns and
liable to be preceded by excessive deflections.
 Column Design Cont‘d
 Classification of Columns:
• Short (Clause 3.8.1.3 of BS 8110)
 Column Design Contd‘
 Classification of Columns:
• Braced (Clause 3.8.1.5 of BS 8110)
 Column Design Contd’

 Effective length & minimum eccentricity:

Effective length le = ßlo
ß – depends on end condition at top and bottom of column.
emin = 0.05 x dimension of column in the plane of
bending ≤ 20mm

52
 Column Design Contd’
 Design of Axially Loaded Columns:
• Ultimate load supported by column

N  0.45 f cu Ac  0.87 f y Asc …..(1)

• The equation assumes that the load is applied
perfectly axially to the column. However, in
practice, perfect conditions never exist. To allow for
a small eccentricity BS 8110 reduces the design
stresses in the equation by about 10 per cent giving
the following expression

N  0.4 f cu Ac  0.75 f y Asc …..(2)

53
 Column Design Contd’
 Design of columns supporting an approximately
symmetrical arrangement of beams:
N  0.35 f cu Ac  0.67 f y Asc …..(3)

• Where the column is subject to an axial load and

‘small’ moment (section 3.13.5), the latter is taken
into account simply by decreasing the design
stresses in equation (2) by around 10 per cent,
giving the following expression for the load
carrying capacity of the column
• Equation (2) and (3) can also be used for initial
sizing of the columns. 54
 Column Design Contd’
 Design of columns resisting axial load and
bending:
• The area of longitudinal steel for columns resisting
axial loads and uniaxial or biaxial bending is normally
calculated using the design charts in Part 3 of BS
8110.
• These charts are available for columns having a
rectangular cross section and a symmetrical
arrangement of reinforcement.
• Each chart is particular for a selected, characteristic
strength of concrete, fcu; characteristic strength of
steel, fy; and d/h ratio.
55
Column Design Contd’

56
 Column Design Contd’
 Uniaxial Bending:
• The procedure simply involves plotting the
N/bh² and M/bh² ratios on the appropriate
chart and reading off the corresponding area
of reinforcement as a percentage of the
gross-sectional area of concrete (100Asc/bh)
• Where the actual d/h ratio for the section
being designed lies between two charts, both
charts may be read and the longitudinal steel
area found by linear interpolation.

57
 Column Design Contd’
 Biaxial Bending:
• Here the problem is reduced to one of
uniaxial bending simply by increasing the
moment about one of the axes using the
procedure outlined below.

Figure 1

58
 Column Design Contd’
 Biaxial Bending cont:
• Referring to Fig.1 , if Mx/My ≥ h′/b′ the enhanced
design moment, about the x–x axis, Mx′, is;
h '
M x'  M x  '
My
b
• If Mx/My < h′/b′, the enhanced design moment
about the y-y axis, My′, is
b '
M y'  M y  '
Mx (Fig. 1)
h

59
Column Design Contd’

60
 Column Design Contd‘
• Example: Design the longitudinal reinforcement for a 300
mm square column which supports an axial load of 1700kN,
𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 30𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑦 = 460𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
Solution
Given: Column dimension = 300 x 300𝑚𝑚2
i.e b = 300 mm and h = 300 mm
Axial load N = 1700kN = 1700 x 103 𝑁
𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 30𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
𝑓𝑦 = 460𝑁/𝑚𝑚2
N = 0.4𝑓𝑐𝑢 bh + 𝐴𝑠𝑐 0.8𝑓𝑦 − 0.4𝑓𝑐𝑢
𝑁 −0.4𝑓𝑐𝑢 bh 1700 𝑥 103 − 0.4 𝑥 30 𝑥 300 𝑥 300
𝐴𝑠𝑐 = =
0.8𝑓𝑦 −0.4𝑓𝑐𝑢 0.8 𝑥 460 −0.4 𝑥 30
= 1741𝑚𝑚2
Provide 4T25 bars (area = 1960 𝑚𝑚2 )
 Foundation Design
Foundations are horizontal or vertical members
supporting the entire structure and transmitting the loads
to the soil below. They are sub-structure supporting the
super- structures of columns, beams, walls, slab and
roofs.
Types of Foundation
• Strip foundation
• Wide strip foundation
• Pad foundation
• Strap foundation
• Raft foundation
• Pile foundation
 Pad Footing Design
 The general procedure to be adopted for the design of
pad footings is as follows:

• Calculate the plan area of the footing using

serviceability loads.

Design axial load, N  1.0Gk  1.0Qk

N
Plan area of base, A 
Soil Bearing capacity
63
 Pad Footing Design Contd’
• Determine the reinforcement areas required for
bending using ultimate loads.
Total ultimate load, W  1.4Gk  1.6Qk
W
Earth pressure,  s 
Plan Area of base
 sl 2
Design moment, M 
2

Ultimate moment, M u  0.156 f cu bd 2

64
 Pad Footing Design Contd’
 Determine the reinforcement areas required for
bending using ultimate loads
• If Mu > M no compression reinforcement is
required.

M
• Section factor, k 2
 0.156
f cu bd
  k 
• Lever arm, z  d 0.5   0.25  
  0.9  

65
 Pad Footing Design Contd’
 Determine the reinforcement areas required for
bending using ultimate loads cont..:

M
• Main Steel, Ast 
0.95 f y z

 Check for punching, face and transverse shear

failures:
• Critical perimeter, Pcrit  column perimeter 81.5d

66
 Pad Footing Design Contd’
 Check for punching, face and transverse shear
failures:

Acrit  column area  3d 

2
• Area within perimeter,

67
 Pad Footing Design Contd’
 Check for punching, face and transverse shear
failures:
• Ultimate punching force;

Load on shaded area, V  s  plan area of base  Acrit 

• Design punching shear stress

v V
Pcrit d

• Permissible shear stress;

vc  0.8  f cu  or  5 N 2
mm
68
 Foundation Design Cond‘
Example: Design a pad footing to resist characteristic
axial dead and imposed loads of 1000 kN and 350 kN
respectively from a 400 mm square column. The safe
bearing pressure of the soil is 200 kN/m2 and the
characteristic strength of 35 N/mm2 and 460 N/mm2 for
concrete and reinforcing steel respectively. Assuming a
footing weight of 150kN.

400 sq

h = 600
 Foundation Design Contd‘
• For the service ability limit state
Total design axial load = 1.0𝐺𝑘 + 1.0𝑄𝑘
= 1150 + 350
= 1500kN
1500
Required base area = = 7.5𝑚2
200
Provide a base 2.8m square, area = 7.8𝑚2
• For the ultimate limit state
Column design axial load = 1.4𝐺𝑘 + 1.6𝑄𝑘
= 1.4 x 1000 + 1.6 x 350
= 1960kN
𝑁 1960
Earth pressure = = 250kN/𝑚2
𝐵𝐷 2.82
 Foundation Design Contd‘
• Assume a 600mm thickness footing. Take minimum cover as
50mm, effective depth d = 520mm
At the column face
𝑁
Shear stress, 𝑉𝑐 =
𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑑
1960 𝑥 103
=
1600 𝑥 520
= 2.36N/ 𝑚𝑚2 < 0.8 𝑓𝑐𝑢
• Punching shear
Critical perimeter = column perimeter + 8 x 1.5d
= 4 x 400 + 12 x 520
= 7740 mm
Area within perimeter = (400 + 3d)2
 Foundation Design Contd‘
= (400 + 1560)2
= 3.84 x 106 mm2
Punching shear force V = 250(2.82 − 3.84) = 1000kN
𝑣 1000 𝑥103
Punching shear stress v = =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑑 7840 𝑥 520
= 0.25N/ mm2
From the table, ultimate shear stress is not excessive,
therefore;
h = 600 mm will be suitable
 Foundation Design Contd‘
• Bending reinforcement
At the column face which is the critical section
M = ½ wl2
= ½ (250 x 2.8) x 1.22
= 504kNm
For the concrete
𝑀𝑢 = 0.156𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑2
= 0.156 x 35 x 2800 x 5202 𝑥10−6
= 4133kNm > 504
𝑀
𝐴𝑠 =
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧
 Foundation Design Contd‘

𝑀
𝐴𝑠 =
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧

504 𝑥 106
= = 2335 mm2
0.95 𝑥 460(0.95 𝑥 520)

Provide 9T20 bars at 330mm centers, 𝐴𝑠 = 2830 mm2

100𝐴𝑠 100 𝑥 2335

= = 0.33N/ mm2 < 0.4
𝑏ℎ 1000 𝑥 520

Therefore: the section is adequate in shear .

 Foundation Design Contd‘

• Final check of punching shear

100𝐴𝑠
From the table, for 𝑓𝑐𝑢 = 35 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 0.19
𝑏ℎ
Ultimate shear stress, 𝑉𝑐 = 0.4𝑁/ 𝑚𝑚2
Punching shear stress was 0.25 𝑁/ 𝑚𝑚2 , therefore a
600mm thick pad is adequate.

• Shear stress
At the critical section for shear, 1.0d from the column face
V = 250 x 2.8 x 0.68 = 476 kN
476 𝑥 103
V= = 0.33𝑁/ 𝑚𝑚2 < 0.4
2800 𝑥 520
Therefore; the section is adequate in shear.
 Stair Design
A staircase is a set of steps or flight leading from one floor
to another. Each step consists of horizontal portion or tread
connected to a front part known as riser. The going of a
step is the horizontal distance between the faces of two
consecutive risers. The rise of a step is the vertical distance
between the tops of two consecutive treads.
Types of stairs
• Straight flight stair
• Half-turn / dogleg stair
• Quarter-turn / open well stair
• Helical stair
• Spiral stair
• Cantilevered stair
• Free standing/scissors stair
 Stair Design Contd‘
Example: Carry out the structural calculation for the
stair shown below.

1st flight
Tread = 250 mm
L = 0.25 x 8 = 2m
Span = L + ½ (𝑙𝑎 ) = 2 + ½ (𝑙𝑎 )
= 2 + ½ (1.45) = 2.725 m
 Stair Design Contd‘
Loading
Self weight of stair = 0.175 x 24 = 4.2
Steps = ½ (0.175) x 24 = 2.1
Finishes = 1.2
𝑇 2 +𝑅 2 2502 +1502
Slope factor = = = 1.166
𝑇 250
𝐺𝑘 = 8.67
Total dead load 𝐺𝑘 = 8.67
Live load 𝑄𝑘 = 1.50
Ultimate load (w) = 1.4𝐺𝑘 + 1.6𝑄𝑘
= 1.4 (8.67) + 1.6 (1.5)
= 14.54 kN/ m
 Stair Design Contd’
• Moment
M = 0.125 F𝐿2
M = 0.125 x 14.54 x 2.7252 = 13.50𝑘𝑁𝑚
• Design
𝑀 13.50 𝑥 106
K= = = 0.02
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 30𝑥1000𝑥1502

𝐾
𝐿𝑎 = 0.5 + 0.25 − = 0.95
0.9

Z = lad = 0.95 x 150 = 142.5

𝑀 13.50 𝑥 106
𝐴𝑠 = = = 216.79 𝑚𝑚2
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧 0.95𝑥460𝑥142.5

Provide T12 @ 200 c/c (566mm2)

 Stair Design Contd‘
2nd flight
Tread = 250 mm
L = 0.25 x 8 = 2m
Span = L + ½ (𝑙𝑎 + 𝑙𝑏 ) = 2 + ½ (1.45 + 1.0)
= 3.225 m
Loading
Same as in flight one
w = 14.54kN/m
Moment
M = 0.10 F𝐿2 = 0.10 x 14.54 x 3.2252
= 15.12kN/m
 Stair Design Contd’

• Design
𝑀 15.12 𝑥 106
K= = = 0.0224
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 30𝑥1000𝑥1502

𝐾
𝐿𝑎 = 0.5 + 0.25 − = 0.95
0.9

Z = lad = 0.95 x 150 = 142.5

𝑀 13.50 𝑥 106
𝐴𝑠 = = = 242. 8𝑚𝑚2
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧 0.95𝑥460𝑥142.5

Provide T12 @ 200 c/c (566mm2)

 Stair Design Contd‘
• Half Landing
Span = 2150 + 225 = 2375mm
• Loading
Self-weight of concrete = 0.175 x 24 = 4.2
Finishes = 1.2
250 𝑥 8
Flight = 14.54 x = 14.54
2
𝐺𝑘 = 19.94 𝑘𝑁/𝑚
Live load 𝑄𝑘 = 1.5
w = 1.4𝐺𝑘 + 1.6𝑄𝑘
= 1.4 (19.94) + 1.6 (1.5)
= 30.32 kN/ m
 Stair Design Contd‘
• Moment
M = 0.125 F𝐿2
M = 0.125 x 30.32 x 2.3752 = 21.38𝑘𝑁𝑚
• Design
𝑀 21.38 𝑥 106
K= = = 0.03
𝑓𝑐𝑢 𝑏𝑑 2 30𝑥1000𝑥1502

𝐾
𝐿𝑎 = 0.5 + 0.25 − = 0.95
0.9

Z = lad = 0.95 x 150 = 142.5

𝑀 13.50 𝑥 106
𝐴𝑠 = = = 343.33 𝑚𝑚2
0.95𝑓𝑦 𝑧 0.95𝑥460𝑥142.5

Provide T12 @ 200 c/c (566mm2)

 Stair Design Contd‘
Distribution bar
𝐴𝑠 = 0.0013𝑏ℎ
= 0.0013 x 1000 x 175
= 227.5 𝑚𝑚2
Provide T12 @ 250 c/c B (452mm2)
Bibliography:

• Oyenuga, V. O. (2008) Simplified reinforced concrete

design. Lagos: Asros).

• Mosley, W. H. and Bungey, J. H. (1987) Reinforced

concrete design. London: Macmillan.