ZNOTES.

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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Organisms are classified into groups by the features they

1. Characteristics and share.
Species: a group of organisms that can reproduce to
Classification of Living produce fertile offspring.
Sequence of Classification: Kingdom → Phylum →
Organisms Classes → Orders → Families → Genus → Species.
Acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Good Soup
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms The Binomial Nomenclature
The Age-Old Acronym: MRS GREN The Binomial System of Naming Species is an
internationally agreed system in which an organism's
scientific name is comprised of two parts, namely, the
genus and species.
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalised,
and the species are not.
The classification of organisms helps show the
evolutionary relationships between them.
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help
classify organisms.
The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely the two
organisms are related.

Movement: an action by an organism or part of an

organism causing a change of position or place
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break
down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes
in the internal or external environment
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the
same kind of organism
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements Dichotomous Keys
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth,
and development

1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification

System
Sequence of Classification

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Dichotomous Keys use visible features to classify Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
another option until the organism is narrowed down to their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
its genus and species. chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic and
saprotrophic organisms with cell walls not made of
cellulose, spread by spreading spores in
moist/dark/warm environments. Most have hyphae and
mycelium in structure. Ex: yeast, mushrooms.
Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true
nucleus and mitochondria. Many also have plasmids
(important for Genetic Engineering). Ex: E.coli,
Salmonella.
Protist or Protoctist: Single-celled organism with a
nucleus. Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba,
seaweed.

1.3. Features of Organisms 1.4. Vertebrates

The Five Kingdoms

Types of Vertebrates Features

Fur on the skin, External ears (pinna),
Mammals Internal fertilisation, Mammary
Glands
Thick, dry, scaly skin, Usually four
Reptiles legs, Internal fertilisation, Soft
Shelled Eggs
Wet scales, Streamlined body shape,
Fish
External fertilisation, and soft eggs
Smooth, moist skin, External
fertilisation, and soft eggs, Gills, &
Amphibians
Lungs can live on land and water.
Most have four legs.
Feathers on the body and scales on
legs, Constant internal body
Birds
temperature, Hard eggs, Internal
fertilisation, birth through eggs

1.5. Arthropods
Invertebrates: Organisms that do not have a backbone.
All arthropods have three standard features:

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1. Exoskeleton Viruses are not part of any classification system because

2. Jointed legs they are not considered living things.
3. Segmented body They do not carry out the seven life processes for
themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s
Type of Arthropod Number of Legs metabolic pathways to make multiple copies of
Insects 6 themselves.
Arachnids 8 Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA
Crustaceans >10 or DNA) inside a protein coat.
Myriapods >20 Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
ribosomes)
1.6. Classification of Plants
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns
and flowering plants.
Ferns:
Do not produce flowers/seeds
They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves
Reproduce by spores
Flowering plants:
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Reproduce sexually through flowers and seeds
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower

Monocotyledons Dicotyledons 2. Organisation of the

One cotyledon/One-seed leaf Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf
Parallel veins Branching veins Organism
Long Narrow Leaf Broad leaves
The Number of Petals is a
Multiple of 3
The Number of Petals is a
Multiple of 4 or 5
2.1. Cell Structure
Scattered Vascular Bundles Ringed Vascular Bundles

Tip: Differentiating monocotyledons and

dicotyledons comes up frequently in Multiple
Choice Questions

1.7. Viruses

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All living things are made of cells. One example of a prokaryote is bacteria.
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall made of
All typical eukaryotic cells (multicellular) have: peptidoglycan, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes,
Cell Membrane: controls movement in and out of and plasmids.
cells It lacks a nucleus and is represented by a circular
Cytoplasm: where chemical/metabolic reactions take chromosome of DNA.
place Plasmids are small, circular rings of DNA in the
Nucleus: contains DNA, stores genetic information cytoplasm with extra genes outside the chromosomal
and controls the activity of the cell DNA.
Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Ribosome: allows protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it
looks rough under the microscope.
A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all the above.
Plant cells especially also have:
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
Cell Wall: rigid to hold the shape of the cell,
strengthens the cell
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs
light energy for photosynthesis
A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has
everything above.
Syllabus 2.1.3: You must be able to identify
Prokaryotes the cell structures in diagrams and images of
plant, animal and bacterial cells
Prokaryotes (Unicellular) DO NOT have mitochondria and a
true nucleus. 2.2. Levels of Organisation
The division of existing cells produces new cells.

Key Terms

Cells: Building Blocks of Life

Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
together to perform a shared function
Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a
specific function
Organ system: Group of organs with related functions
working together to perform body functions.
Organism: A human

Specialised Cells
Specialised Cells have Specific Functions.

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Specialised Cells Specific Function Location of Cell Diffusion: Net movement of particles down the
Movement of mucus Respiratory Tract, concentration gradient (high → low) as a result of their
Ciliated cells in the trachea and Fallopian Tube, random movement.
bronchi Testes
Root Hair cells Absorption Roots
Palisade Mesophyll
Photosynthesis Leaf Cells
cell
Conduction of Everywhere in an
Neurones
electrical impulses organism
Everywhere in an
Red Blood cells Transport of oxygen
organism
Sperm and Egg
In their respective
cells/ovum For reproduction
gonads
(gametes)

2.3. Magnification
Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
The general formula is represented in this way: the random movement of molecules and ions.
size of drawing image I The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as
M agnif ication = = = without it, molecules that are needed for life, for
size of specimen actual
​ ​ ​

A
example, glucose and oxygen for respiration, would not
Other Forms in Magnification Formula be able to get to the places they are required.
Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification through the cell membrane.
Image size = magnification x actual size
Factors that influence diffusion (Passive Transport)
Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)
Concentration gradient
1cm = 10mm Temperature
1mm = 1000μm Surface area to volume ratio
1μm = 0.001mm Distance
Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)
3.2. Osmosis
Tip: This comes out frequently in all three
papers The role of water acts as a solvent in organisms to aid
with digestion, excretion, and transport.
3. Movement Into and Out of Knowing the definition of Diffusion, Osmosis and
Active Transport is COMPULSORY!
Cells The cell membrane is partially permeable, allowing small
molecules (like water) through but not larger molecules.

3.1. Diffusion

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Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region
of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of Dialysis Tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living,
lower water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially permeable membrane made from cellulose.
partially permeable membrane. Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large
molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller
molecules (such as glucose and water) to pass through
by diffusion and osmosis.

Conc. of Conc. of Solute

Condition of the Cell
Solute (In-Cell) (Outside-Cell)
Cell Shrinks
Low High
(Flaccid/Hypertonic)
Same Same No Change (Isotonic)
High Low Turgid/Hypotonic

In Animals
3.3. Active Transport
Active Transport: The movement of particles through a cell
Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it
membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher
to burst (cell lysis) because it has too much water and
concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient)
no cell wall.
uses energy from respiration.
In Plants
Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the
cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up. The cell
wall can withstand the higher turgor pressure.
Decreasing solute concentration inside the cell causes
the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole
to get smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from
the cell wall.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.

Dialysis Tubing Experiment

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Positive Negative
Carrier Proteins or Protein Carriers are also used Test for: Solution Process
Result Result
during active transport. Add Benedict
solution into a
Reducing Benedict
beaker and Brick Red Blue
Sugars Solution
Heat Up to 70-
80°C
Add Iodine
Iodine
Starch solution to Blue-Black Brown
Solution
the specimen
Add Biuret
Biuret
Protein solution to Purple/Violet Blue
Solution
the sample
Add ethanol
to the sample
Fats
and shake Cloudy
(Physical Ethanol N/A
with an equal Emulsion
test)
It is embedded in the cell membrane, where it picks up volume of
specific molecules and moves them through the water.
membrane against their concentration gradient. Add DCPIP
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to Vitamin C DCPIP solution to Colourless Blue
the sample
optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by
root hair cells.
Some particles are too large to cross a membrane by
diffusion or active transport. A few very specialised cells
have developed a method for taking up these particles;
the particles are engulfed by the cell surface membrane
flowing around them. This process of phagocytosis is
used by white blood cells.

4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
4.3. Structure of a DNA
Fats and Oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})

Smaller molecules Larger molecules

Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids Proteins

4.2. Food Tests

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Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA

DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.

Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to

Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly react, complementary to the active site.
coiled DNA Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction
Two strands coiled together to form a double helix Different sequences of amino acids may lead to varying
Each strand contains chemicals called Bases shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences
Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases (temperature/pH) may be deferred in their function.
The bases always pair up in the same way:
A and T
C and G 5.2. Temperature on Enzymes
You do NOT need to know the names of the DNA bases
for this syllabus. Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the
temperature at which they work best. In animals and
humans, the fastest reaction ≈ is at 37 °C.
5. Enzymes When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, and frequently collide.
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to
5.1. Enzymes bind to active sites.
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
General Characteristics of an Enzyme too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape
and no longer binding with a substrate.
Catalyst: A substance which increases the reaction rate When the temperature is too low, there is not enough
and causes no changes in the reaction. kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly.
Biological Catalyst: A living substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
Enzymes: Specific proteins involved in all metabolic 5.3. pH on Enzymes
reactions, functioning as biological catalysts.
Enzymes are sensitive to pH.
Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
reaction to take place. Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an
It is essential in all living organisms regarding the alkaline.
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH.
reaction rate necessary to sustain life.
If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken,
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused
denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the
Lock and Key Model (Hypothesis) substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs.
Pepsin is used in acidic conditions, Amylase is used in
neutral conditions, and trypsin is used in alkalinity
conditions.

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starch as an energy store

5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme cellulose to build cell walls
Activity glucose used in respiration to provide energy
sucrose for transport in the phloem
Effect of Temperature Effect of pH
6.2. Mineral Requirements
Nitrate ions Magnesium ions
Making amino acids Making chlorophyll
Deficiency: small plant due to Deficiency: The plant lacks
slow/stunted growth chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow.

Tip! You need to know the purpose of these

required nutrients.

6. Plant Nutrition 6.3. Investigation of Chlorophyll

6.1. Photosynthesis Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
leaves.
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light. for about 48 hours.
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell
walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration
by ethanol.
Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation
Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf
The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent,
it will remain brown.

light+chlorophyll
CarbonDioxide + Water ​
Glucose + Ox
light+cholorophyll
6CO2 + 6H2 O
​ ​ ​ C6 H12 O6 + 6O2
​ ​ ​ ​

Only EXTENDED Students must know the Balanced

Chemical Equation
The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of 6.4. Investigation of Light Intensity
a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
Chlorophyll is a green pigment that traps light energy NOTE: This type of question is famous in IGCSE Biology
and converts it into chemical energy to form Paper 2.
carbohydrates and their subsequent storage.
Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
cell walls, and making proteins and sugars.

Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in

Photosynthesis

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Hydrogencarbonate indicator: measures the carbon
De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48 dioxide concentration
hours
Place a stencil over part of a leaf
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
Remove the stencil and test for starch
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue-
black
-ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain
brown

Key: PMROY, purple being the lowest carbon dioxide

concentration, and yellow the highest.

6.5. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide 6.6. Limiting Factors

Concentration Limiting Factors: something present in the environment
(Temperature, Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Light
Take two de-starched potted plants. Intensity) in such short supply that it restricts life processes.
Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
B.
Inside A, keep N aHCO3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
​

produces CO2 . ​

Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs

CO2 .​

Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight

for at least 6 hours
Light Intensity
As the amount of light
increases, the rate of
photosynthesis increases (a-b)
The limiting factor is light
Increasing the amount of light
after a certain point does not
affect the rate (c)

The limiting factor is now

carbon dioxide or temperature
The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch 6.7. Leaf Structure
test

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Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area
and are thin.

Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain

how the structures above adapt leaves for
Structure Function photosynthesis
A waterproof waxy layer that
Waxy Cuticle prevents water loss from the top
of the leaf
6.8. Adaptations of Leaf Structure for
Thin and transparent to allow light Photosynthesis
Upper & Lower Epidermis to enter the palisade mesophyll
cells Here is a table of different adaptations of the specific leaf
Found at the top of the cell and structure helping towards photosynthesis.
contains the MOST chloroplasts
Palisade Mesophyll Cells
that absorb sunlight for Adaptation Functions
photosynthesis. Increase surface area for diffusion
Irregularly shaped cells create air Large Surface Area of Leaf of carbon dioxide and absorption
spaces to allow the gaseous of light for photosynthesis.
Spongy Mesophyll Cells
exchange to take place; do not Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse
contain many chloroplasts
Thin quickly into the palisade
Vascular Bundle Made up of xylem and phloem mesophyll cells
A tissue vessel that transports Absorb light energy so
Xylem Chlorophyll
water and mineral ions photosynthesis can take place.
A tissue vessel that transports Allow efficient transport of water
Phloem
sucrose and amino acids Network of Veins and mineral ions throughout the
Little holes that open and close to plant
Stomata/Stoma allow the gaseous exchange to Allow more light to reach the
occur Epidermis is thin
palisade mesophyll cells
Control the opening and closing of Allow oxygen and carbon dioxide
Guard Cells
stomata Stomata/Stoma to continuously diffuse in and out
of stomata

7. Human Nutrition
7.1. Diet
Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
to maintain good health and metabolism.

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Incisors Canines Premolars Molars
Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle:
Children Below 12: Require more calcium
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Males: Generally require more energy

7.2. Nutrition
Blunt
Blunt for chewing
Nutrients Uses Rectangular Sharp- chewing and
and grinding, one
Carbohydrates Energy shape, sharp for pointed for grinding. Two
or two roots,
cutting and piercing and or three
Source of energy, building materials, cusps/bumps at
biting tearing roots, ridges
Fats and oils energy store, insulation, buoyancy, the end
at the end
making hormones
Energy, building materials, enzymes,
Proteins haemoglobin, structural material
Structure of Tooth
(muscle), hormones, antibodies
Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases
Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums
Vitamin D Absorption of calcium
Development and maintenance of strong
Calcium
bones and teeth
Iron Making haemoglobin
Fibre (Roughage) Provides bulk for faeces, helps peristalsis
Water Chemical reactions, solvent for transport

7.3. Deficiencies
Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones
and teeth
Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from
7.4. Teeth calcium salts
Cement: helps to anchor tooth
Our teeth play a key role in mechanical digestion to help Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and
increase the surface area of food. nerve endings that detect pain.
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
collagen fibres
Nerves
Blood vessels

7.5. Digestive System

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Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an

area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
ingestion takes place
Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
and helps food slide down the oesophagus
Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis
(circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
from mouth to stomach
Stomach: has pepsin (a protease that works best in
acidic conditions) to break down proteins into amino
acids and kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They also
have elastic walls.
Mechanical digestion in the stomach occurs via
Process of Digestion peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle.
Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the parts:
body through the mouth. Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested
Physical/Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food into by pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
smaller pieces without chemical change. Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
It increases the surface area of food for the action down starch.
of enzymes in chemical digestion. Jejunum: Contains many microvilli, majority of the
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food primary nutrient absorption happens here.
molecules into small, soluble molecules. Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the is where absorption also takes place.
intestines into the blood Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin (a protease that
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells works best in alkaline conditions), and lipase.
Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat
as faeces molecules), deamination, and makes urea to be sent to
the kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol
Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal and other toxins.
Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is
released.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need
to be known.

7.6. The Stomach

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The stomach lining contains many smooth muscles that
contract to squeeze physically and mix the food with the Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose in the
strong digestive juices present, a process also known as membrane of the epithelium lining in small intestines.
"stomach-churning."

The food will be digested within the stomach for several

hours
First stop for protein digestion

Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides and

amino acids. Pepsin comes from the stomach (acidic),
and trypsin comes from the pancreas (alkali).

7.7. Chemical Digestion

Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,
Chemical Digestion: the breakdown of large insoluble produced by the pancreas.
molecules into small soluble molecules
The role of chemical digestion in producing small soluble
molecules that can be absorbed

7.8. Enzymes in Digestion 7.9. Hydrochloric Acid and Bile

Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is Functions of Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:
produced in the pancreas (secreted into the duodenum) Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms
and salivary glands. Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Kills pathogens
Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid
mixture of food and gastric juices entering the
duodenum from the stomach to provide a suitable pH
for enzyme action.

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8. Transport in Plants
8.1. Xylem and Phloem
Functions of Xylem

transport water and mineral ions, and support the

plant’s overall structure.

Functions of Phloem

transport sucrose and amino acids from the sink to the

7.10. Absorption and Villus source (and vice versa)

Adaptations of Xylem
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood 1. thick walls with lignin (dead cell)
2. no cell contents
3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
long, continuous tube

The small intestine is the region for absorption of

digested food. Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and
The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
the surface area for absorption. One villus will have sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
tiny folds on the cells on its outside called microvilli. dicotyledonous plants
The epithelium is one cell thick, allowing efficient
diffusion of nutrients.
A large surface area means more absorption of
8.2. Water Uptake
nutrients can happen. Root Hair Cells
Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Capillaries: provide a good blood supply and a steep
concentration gradient.
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
some from the colon (large intestine).

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Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, which
Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the
They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area, air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the
which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis stomata.
and ions by active transport.

The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases

the uptake of water and mineral ions.
Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm.
Then, it enters the root cortex cells, xylem, and
mesophyll cells.

Investigate the Pathway of Water through the

Above-Ground Parts of a Plant
Water uptake can be investigated by placing a plant (like Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by
celery) into a beaker of water with a stain (dye, food an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
colouring) added. diffuses out of the stomata.
A few hours later, the celery leaves turn the same colour Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
as the dyed water. area provided by the interconnecting air spaces
When the cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain between mesophyll cells and the size and number of
areas are stained by the colour of the water, showing stomata.
that it is being carried in specific vessels through the Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
stem - a.k.a xylem vessels. transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
water molecules.

Wilting
Wilting occurs if water loss exceeds water uptake. Cells
become flaccid, and tissues become limp.

This is when all the cells of the plant are not full of water,
so the strength of the cell walls cannot support the plant
and it starts to collapse

Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration

8.3. Transpiration

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Temperature: The kinetic energy of the water molecules Single Circulation System (fish):
increases, so they evaporate and diffuse faster from the Blood flows through the heart once every complete
mesophyll cells, increasing the transpiration rate circuit (No Septum)
Humidity: Low humidity increases the concentration Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle)
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, hence Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills in lower-pressure
increasing the transpiration rate, while high humidity Released in body cells, then back to the heart
decreases the gradient, reducing the transpiration rate. Double Circulation System:
Wind Speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a Four heart chambers
steep concentration gradient Blood passes through the heart twice every complete
circuit
8.4. Translocation Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body,
and back to the heart
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated
storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth blood to it from the lungs, preventing the mixing of
(sinks). oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

Translocation in different seasons: 9.2. Heart

Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from circuit.
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.

9. Transport in Animals
9.1. Circulatory Systems
Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
to ensure a one-way flow of blood.

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Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in
Right Atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to arteries (0610/42/F/M/23)
the right ventricle
Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)
Pulmonary Artery: carries deoxygenated blood from pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
the right ventricle to the lungs contract/pump
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood
separate. 9.4. Exercise on Heart Rate
Pulmonary Vein: carries oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the left atrium The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
Left Atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
the left ventricle listening to the sounds of the valves closing.
Left Ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and
the aorta deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle.
to the rest of the body
Atrioventricular and Semi-lunar Valves: prevent
backflow of blood 9.5. Coronary Heart Disease
IMPORTANT! Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.
Ventricle < Left Ventricle
The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting
blood supply to the heart muscle.
9.3. Functioning of the Heart Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
heart attack
The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
into the right atrium via the vena cava. genetic predisposition, age and sex
Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty
pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the food (a good diet) and exercising regularly
right ventricle.
The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed
into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar 9.6. Blood Vessels
valve, which prevents blood from flowing backwards
into the heart.
The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the
capillaries, passing the alveoli.
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the
pulmonary vein
It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the
left ventricle
The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push
the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body
The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood
from flowing back down into the heart

Example Past Year Question

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Vessel Function Structure
Elastic tissue walls stretch The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the
and relax as blood is heart to the liver
forced out; causes pulse The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the
Transport high-pressure liver back to the heart
Arteries Thick walls to withstand
blood away from heart The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood
high pressure
Small lumen maintains from the gut to the liver
(high) blood pressure.
Valves prevent backflow
of blood.
Blood is at low pressure,
but nearby muscles
Transport low pressure
Veins squeeze veins and help
blood to the heart
push blood to the heart
Large and wide lumen to
reduce resistance to the
flow of blood
One cell thick wall for
easy diffusion Arterioles and Venules
Highly branched; large
Allow substances to
Capillaries surface area
diffuse into cells
Capillary beds constantly
supplied with fresh
blood, so diffusion occurs

Major Blood Vessels

Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins
Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein arterioles
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
venules

9.7. Blood
Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and
oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody
production
Platelets: allows/promotes blood clotting
Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
dissolved substances)

Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify

red and white blood cells in
photomicrographs and diagrams

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Mechanical barriers:
Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells
Chemical barriers:
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens
White Blood Cells In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which
kills many of the bacteria in food
Phagocyte Lymphocyte Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these
Phagocytes have
defences are destroyed by white blood cells:
lobed/irregular C-shaped nuclei Lymphocytes have a circular Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens
and vesicles containing nucleus and are found in blood by phagocytosis
digestive enzymes. Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill
Phagocytosis: engulfs the pathogen and vaccination against disease helps
pathogen, vesicles fuse with Large nucleus/small cytoplasm, antibodies to be made very quickly
the vacuole, enzymes digest and they produce antibodies,
bacteria. Ways of Controlling the Spread of Diseases
Antigens: Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins
protein/carbohydrate on the bind to label pathogens, a clean water supply
surface of the pathogen which marking them for destruction hygienic food preparation
provokes the immune system by the phagocytes.
good personal hygiene
waste disposal
Blood Clotting sewage treatment
Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out
Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a 10.3. Active and Passive Immunity
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to
form a scab. Antibody: proteins that bind to antigens, directly destroying
or marking pathogens for destruction by phagocytes.

10. Diseases and Immunity The surface of the pathogen contains antigens, and they
have specific shapes.
Specific antibodies have complementary shapes which
10.1. Pathogens fit specific antigens.
To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be
Pathogen: a disease-causing organism. made that are exactly the right shape to fit into antigens
Transmissible Disease: a disease in which the pathogen outside the pathogen.
can be passed from one host to another. Antibodies lock onto antigens, leading to the destruction
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be of pathogens/marking of pathogens for phagocytes to
transmitted either: engulf.
Direct Contact: the pathogen is passed directly from If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many
one host to another through blood, body fluids, lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen
semen, etc. and divide rapidly by mitosis.
Indirect Contact: the pathogen leaves the host and These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, creating
is carried in some way to another e.g., contaminated active immunity.
surfaces/food, from animals, from air
Active Immunity
10.2. Body Defences
Active Immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
The human body has many natural defences against production in the body.
pathogens.

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Properties Reasons
Active Immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen Thin surface Short distance to diffuse (one cell thick)
or by vaccination.
Many molecules can diffuse at
Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by Large surface area
once/More alveoli
pathogens. Regular fresh air supplies keep up
Having a population vaccinated against a particular Good ventilation concentration gradients for oxygen and
disease helps to achieve herd immunity. carbon dioxide.
Process of Vaccination: Gases can be carried to/from the cells
weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into Good blood supply
that need/produce them
the body Allow gases to dissolve, ready for
Moist
the antigens stimulate an immune response by diffusion
lymphocytes, which produce antibodies
memory cells are produced that give long-term
immunity
11.2. Structure of the Lungs
The lung contains a diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles,
Passive Immunity larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated
capillaries
Passive Immunity: short-term defences against a pathogen
by antibodies acquired from another individual.

Memory cells are NOT made in passive Immunity

Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding.
Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother,
which are passed on to her baby.
Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it
against any diseases.
Some diseases are caused by the immune system
targeting and destroying body cells.

10.4. Cholera
Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from
Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces collapsing during the absence of air and protects it by
Oral rehydration therapy and antibiotics are used to keeping it open.
cure this**.** Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and
One of these is infectious by a bacterium, “Vibrio expand and contract (and efficient breathing).
cholerae”, causing cholera. Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated
Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium transmitted between the ribs that create and move the chest wall.
in contaminated water. Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes the thorax, leading to the ventilation of the lungs.
the secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine,
causing lower osmotic water movement into the gut, Composition of Breathing Dry Air
causing diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from the
blood. Inspired Air Expired Air
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4%
11. Gas Exchange in Humans Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water Vapour Lower Higher
11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces

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Test for CO2: Add CO2 through limewater. +ve result =

turns cloudy 12. Respiration
11.3. Physical Activity on Breathing 12.1. Respiration
Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient
respiration - and higher CO2 concentration in the blood. molecules in living cells to release energy.
This is measured with a spirometer to produce a
spirogram. Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle
During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate; the contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active
change in breathing volume and rate helps keep CO2 transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the
concentration and pH safe. maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to
speed up the reaction.
11.4. Breathing
Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast
Inspiration Expiration
External intercostal muscles External intercostal muscles An indicator, Methylene Blue, can be used to investigate
contract – pulls ribcage relax – ribcage falls downwards the effect of temperature on yeast cells.
upwards and outwards and inwards
Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically,
Diaphragm muscles contract – Diaphragm muscles relax – though, in this experiment, their aerobic respiration rate
the diaphragm moves return to a dome shape, and
downwards, and the volume of the volume of the thorax is being investigated.
the thorax increases decreases The time taken for the methylene blue to lose its colour
Atmospheric Pressure > Atmospheric Pressure < measures the respiration rate of the yeast cells in the
Pressure in Thorax Pressure in Thorax suspension.
Air moves into the lungs Air moves out of the lungs The faster the dye changes from blue to colourless,
the faster the respiration rate.
IV: Effect of Temperature
DV: Rate of Respiration (recording the time taken for
methylene blue dye to change from blue to colourless)

Internal intercostal muscles are used in coughing and

sneezing.
Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
Exam Tip! In the exam, always state that
and eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms.
energy is released; it is NEVER made,
Ciliated cells have cilia, little hairs which sweep/beat
produced, or created.
back and forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus
up the lungs into the mouth.
12.2. Aerobic Respiration

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Aerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells that use
oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy
13. Excretion in Humans
Glucose + Oxygen → CarbonDioxide + Water

C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
13.1. Excretion
Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials,
12.3. Anaerobic Respiration the waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in
cells including respiration) and substances in excess of
Anaerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells break requirements.
down nutrient molecules to release energy without using
oxygen. Substances should include carbon dioxide (lungs), urea,
excess water and ions (kidney).
In muscles (vigorous exercise): The importance of excretion is due to the toxicity of the
Glucose → Lactic Acid urea.
In yeast (single-cell fungi):
Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide
C6 H12 O6 → 2C2 H5 OH + 2CO2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
13.2. Function of Liver
Disadvantages of Anaerobic Respiration: The role of the liver is in the assimilation of amino acids by
Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose converting them to proteins.
molecule that aerobic respiration would
Produces poisonous lactic acid
Lactic Acid:
Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
exercise
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do
this, which causes you to continue breathing heavily
after exercise.
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt.
Oxygen Debt is removed by:
continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid
in the blood from the muscles to the liver
continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply
oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid
Deamination: removal of the nitrogen-containing part of
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver
amino acids to form urea.
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by body cells
12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and
Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.
Anaerobic Respiration Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver.
Aerobic Anaerobic
Oxygen Needed Not needed
13.3. Function of Kidney
Breakdown of Complete Incomplete
Glucose combustion combustion Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption
Animals: Lactic Acid &
of glucose and some salts
Carbon Dioxide
Products Yeast: Carbon Dioxide
and Water
and Ethanol
Amount of Energy
More Less
Released

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1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters

the glomerulus. Water, urea, salts, and glucose are
forced into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and
large proteins cannot pass through.
2. Selective reabsorption: in the tubule, two-thirds of
the salt and water and all the glucose move out of the
nephron by active transport. These substances are
reabsorbed back into the blood capillary.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to water but
not salt. Water is drawn out of the filtrate in the
nephron by osmosis because of the low water
potential of the medulla tissue fluid.
4. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move into
the collecting duct, forming urine.
Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules
Ureter: carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
Medulla: has loops of Henlé and collecting ducts
14. Coordination and
Urethra: carrying urine from the bladder to the outside.
Bladder: stores urine
Response
Renal artery: brings wastes and water from the blood
Renal vein: reabsorbs water and functional molecules 14.1. Mammalian Nervous System
and leaves wastes behind
The mammalian nervous system consists of two parts:
13.4. Structure and Function of the Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain
and spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination.
Nephron Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) comprises nerves
and neurones, which coordinate and regulate body
functions.
Electrical impulses travel through the neurones.
The nervous system helps with the coordination and
regulation of body functions.

14.2. Types of Neurones

Nerve Impulse: an electrical signal that passes along the
nerve cells called neurones

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Axons: Ensure less time is wasted when the impulse is Reflex Action: automatically and rapidly integrates and
transferred from one neurone to another coordinates the stimuli with the responses of effectors
Dendrites: Extensions which form a network for easy (muscles and glands).
communication.
E.g. quickly removing your hand from the hot metal
Motor Neurone surface
They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay
Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or neurone and a motor neurone.
the glands) The gap between neurones is called a synapse.
How the simple reflex arc works:
A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that
converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse)
A sensory neurone carries impulses from the
receptor to the CNS (spinal cord)
Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly
(because it has no myelin sheath) across the spinal
cord
The motor neurone carries impulses from the CNS to
the effector
The effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out
the response

Sensory Neurone
Carry impulses from the sense organs (sensory
receptors) to the CNS.

14.4. Synapse

Relay Neurone (Interneurone)

The middleman inside the CNS connects sensory to
motor neurones.

14.3. Simple Reflex Arc

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Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a
gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter

Cornea: refracts light

Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
Lens: focuses light onto the retina
The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light
direction only. of different colours (Rods and cones)
Synaptic cleft: the small gap between each pair of Optic nerves: carry impulses to the brain
neurones Pupil: A hole which allows light to enter
Inside the neurone’s axon, there are 100s of tiny
vacuoles (vesicles, each containing a chemical called 14.6. Pupil Reflex
neurotransmitter)
When an impulse arrives, the vesicles move to the cell
membrane and empty their content into the synaptic
cleft.
The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
and attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
of the relay neurone.
This can happen because the neurotransmitter
molecules' shape complements the receptor shape.

14.5. Sense Organs

Sense Organ: groups of receptor cells responding to specific
stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature, and chemicals.
Adjusting for high and low light intensity
An involuntary response

Low Light High Light

Intensity Intensity
Radial Muscles Contract Relax
Circular Muscles Relax Contract
Pupil Size Wide Narrow
Amount of Light
More Less
Entering

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Rods Cones
14.7. Accommodation Provide low detail, black &
Provide detailed, coloured
white images, suitable for
images; they work in high light
seeing in low-intensity light (at
Accommodation: Adjusting for near and distant objects. intensity.
night).
The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called Packed most tightly around the Most tightly packed at the
accommodation edge of the retina, so you can retina's centre, objects are
see things most clearly when seen most clearly when directly
The lens is elastic, and its shape can be changed when not looking directly at them. looking at them.
the suspensory ligaments attached to it become tight
or loose Fovea:
The contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed
brings about the changes most closely together
Near Object Distant Object Where light is focused when you look straight at an
Ciliary muscles Contract Relax
object
Distribution of Rods and Cones
Suspensory Ligaments Slack Tighten
More rod cells than cone cells
Lens Short and fat Long and thin
A number of cone cells peaked in the middle,
showing the location of the fovea. No rod cells are
present in the peak.
No rod and cone cells at the blind spot, as the optic
nerve is located there. \n

Example Past Year Question

Explain why a person cannot focus on distant objects if
the suspensory ligaments become permanently
overstretched. (0610/42/F/M/23) 14.9. Hormones
1. ciliary muscles relax Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and
2. suspensory ligaments can no longer become tight carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more
3. the lens is not stretched/remains wide specific target organs.
4. the angle of refraction remains unchanged
Endocrine Glands
14.8. Rods and Cones adrenal glands and adrenaline
pancreas and insulin
testes and testosterone
ovaries and oestrogen

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Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
Adrenaline Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
Electrical impulses Chemical messengers
A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. Nature of message travelling along (hormones) travelling
It increases pulse rate, heart rate and pupil diameter. nerves in the bloodstream
Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration. Duration of Usually within It may take years
Adrenaline is secreted, for example, bungee jumping or response seconds (puberty)
riding a rollercoaster. Localized response
Widespread response
Area of response (only one area
Gland Hormone Function (in many organs)
usually)
Prepares the body for vigorous Example of process- Reflexes such as Development of the
Adrenal gland Adrenaline
action controlled blinking reproductive system
Reduces the concentration of
Pancreas Insulin
glucose in the blood
Causes the development of male
14.12. Homeostasis: Blood Glucose
Testes Testosterone
sexual characteristics Control
Causes the development of
Ovary Oestrogen
female sexual characteristics Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the
Increases concentration of pancreas
Pancreas Glucagon
glucose in the blood The pancreas produces and releases different hormones
depending on the blood glucose level
14.10. Homeostasis Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high –
the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low –
environment. the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose and
releases it into the blood
Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration.
The concept of homeostatic control by negative feedback
with reference to a set point

Negative Feedback Concept

Negative Feedback: controls the production of hormones
and regulates their own production

A negative feedback control is when the change in

hormone level acts as a signal to cancel out that change,
so when the blood hormone level is low, hormone
production is stimulated; when it is high, it is inhibited.
When the control of blood glucose does not work, a
person is said to have diabetes
14.11. Nervous and Hormonal Control
Type 1 Diabetes
Type 1 Diabetes: caused by the death of the cells that
secrete insulin.

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Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry mouth,

blurred vision, and thirsty) or hypoglycaemia (tired,
showing confusion and irrational behaviour)
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce
blood glucose concentration

14.13. Homeostasis: Temperature

Regulation
Control of body temperature is a homeostatic mechanism
The human body maintains the temperature at which Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation
enzymes work best, around 37°C
If body temperature increases over this temperature, Vasoconstriction: blood flow in capillaries slows down
enzymes will denature and become less effective at because arterioles leading to the skin capillaries get
catalysing reactions such as respiration narrower when we are cold.

This reduces the amount of heat lost from the blood by

The Structure of the Skin radiation as less blood flows through the surface of the
skin
Vasodilation: blood flow in capillaries increases because
blood vessels to the skin capillaries get wider when we are
hot.

This cools the body as blood (which carries heat around

the body) flows at a faster rate through the skin’s surface
and so more heat is lost by radiation

Temperature Regulation by The Skin

Regulation is controlled by the brain which contains
thermoreceptors (sensitive to the temperature of the
blood)
The skin also has thermoreceptors and sends nervous
impulses to the brain via sensory neurones
The brain responds to this information by sending nerve
impulses to the motor neurones, then to the effectors in
the skin to maintain the temperature within a narrow 14.14. Tropic Responses
range of the optimum, 37°C
Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation Auxin:
to prevent too much body heat from being lost through Plant hormones or growth substances
the skin Controls tropisms
It is produced by cells at the tip of the roots and
shoots of plants

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Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards
(positive) or away (negative) from gravity. Mutation, giving rise to variation
Antibiotics kill bacteria without changing genes
Auxins’ role in gravitropism: Competition for food space, among others
Made in the shoot tip Reproduce via binary fission
Then, it diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip Then, alleles are passed on to offspring to reproduce.
Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light
and gravity An example of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is Methicillin-
Auxin stimulates cell elongation resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards

(positive) or away (negative) from the direction light is 16. Reproduction
coming.
Auxins’ role in phototropism: 16.1. Asexual Reproduction
If the sun shines on the right side of a plant’s shoot,
auxins accumulate on the dark opposite left side. Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the
Auxins accumulating makes cells on the left side grow production of genetically identical offspring from one
faster than cells on the right. parent.
When the left side of the shoot starts growing faster Bacteria:
than the right side, the shoot will start to bend to the Reproduced by binary fission, each bacterium divides
right side towards sunlight. into two.
The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
15. Drugs divide into 2.

Advantages Disadvantages
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or Fast: no need to find a mate, No genetic
affects chemical reactions in the body. All drug metabolism fertilise, etc. variation/biodiversity
is done in the Liver. Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred
Overcrowding: fighting for
Do not need to carry offspring
15.1. Antibiotics food/competition
Prone to extinction, disease,
No pollinators
Antibiotics work by disrupting crucial systems that environmental change
bacteria need to survive and multiply, such as their cell
walls, DNA, or protein synthesis, while not harming 16.2. Sexual Reproduction
human cells.
Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, which reduces Sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the
the effectiveness of antibiotics. nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
The development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can production of offspring that are genetically different from
be minimized by limiting antibiotics only when each other
essential and ensuring treatment is completed.
Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they do not Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei
have a cell wall and make the host cell perform their The nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a
tasks. zygote is diploid
Diploid: Full Set of Chromosomes
Haploid: Half Set of Chromosomes
15.2. Antibiotic Resistance
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can be reproduced through the
theory of natural selection:

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Advantages Disadvantages
Produces genetically different Sepal: protect the flower bud.
It takes lots of time and energy Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have
offspring
Reduced risk of extinction Mate required nectars, which are all used to attract insects. Petals in
Energy on improving
wind-pollinated flowers are tiny and used for pushing the
appearances or pollen volume bracts (leaf-like structures) apart from exposing stamens
for pollination (plants) and stigma.
Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains that contain
the male nucleus (male gamete).
16.3. Parts of a Flowering Plant Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls.
Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant
They usually contain both male and female reproductive
parts 16.4. Pollination
The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are
slightly different as each is adapted for their specific Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of
function the plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant
(stigma).
Insect Pollinated Flowers
Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water
and wind
Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a
nucleus in an ovule

Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated

Bright, colourful petals – attract Dull petals
Sweetly scented No scent
Contains nectar No nectaries
A moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen
Pollen is spiky/sticky, large in Pollen round and smooth,
size Small and light

Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on the stigma and

Wind Pollinated Flowers creates a tunnel down the style, through the micropyle
to ovules.
Ovule: seed
Ovary: fruit

Self Pollination
Self Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a
different flower on the same plant.
Advantages Disadvantages
Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation
High chance of successful Increases competition between
pollination plants
Susceptible to the same
Fast and saves time
Functions disease

Cross-Pollination

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Cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different 16.7. Sexual Reproduction In Humans
plant of the same species.
Advantages Disadvantages Male Reproductive System
Increases variation Reliance on pollinators
Quick to adapt to surroundings Wastage of pollen Testes: have many coiled tubes that produce sperm, and
Less susceptible to diseases More energy required the cells between tubes produce testosterone.
Scrotum: holds testicles
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid
Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of
the penis
Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the
female.

16.5. Fertilisation in Plants

Pollen tube growing from a pollen grain

Pollen (tube/grain) releases enzymes
The pollen tube then grows down the style/grows into Female Reproductive System
the ovary Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and
Pollen nucleus travels down the pollen tube
produces progesterone and oestrogen
Pollen tube grows and moves through the micropyle into
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus
the ovule
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops.
Fertilisation occurs Cervix: neck of the uterus: a robust and rigid muscle,
The pollen nucleus fuses with the female nucleus moist by mucus with a small opening
A zygote is formed
Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way
out for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and
16.6. Germination secretes mucus

Germination: A process controlled by enzymes

Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores

into soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that
the testa splits
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with
water), and is used in aerobic respiration.
Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
optimum temperature).

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Development of a Zygote:
One sperm penetrates
The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against
sperm
The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches
and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
The zygote divides over and over to make a ball of
cells called an embryo.
It implants itself in the uterus (implantation) wall,
followed by conception.
Development of fetus: The zygote is changed through
growth (mitosis) and development (organisation of cells
into tissues and organs)
16.8. Fertilisation and Early Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from
Development the fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which
carries oxygenated blood and soluble food from the
Fertilisation: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete placenta to the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood)
(sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell). Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such
as foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus;
physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains
mother’s blood)
Amniotic Sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
broken at birth.
Amniotic Fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical
shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta
and affect the fetus.

16.9. Adaptive Features of Gametes

Sperm (Male Gamete)
1. Small in size
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes

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Features Functions
Flagellum Propels the sperm to swim In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to
stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary.
Respiration to release energy for
Mitochondria In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;
swimming
Release digestive enzymes to
menstruation
Enzymes in the acrosome Day 5 to 12:
digest the jelly coat
In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
Egg Cell (Female Gamete) In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the
ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
1. Larger in size Day 13/14/15:
2. Spherical protein/fat in the cytoplasm In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary
3. Moved with the help of Cillia Gland to trigger the release of the egg from the
4. Released once per month containing 23 follicle into the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens on
chromosomes Day 14.
Day 15 to 28:
In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus
Luteum
In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus
Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for
possible embryo implants.
Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
No implantation takes place, and the Corpus Luteum
Features Functions degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.
Energy storage Development of zygote This means that endometrium is no longer thick, back
Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation to Day 1
Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised
16.10. Sexual Hormones in Humans Implantation occurs.
This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum
The roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development maintained, which means that progesterone is high.
and regulation of secondary sexual characteristics during This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy
puberty
Primary sexual characteristics: present during
development in the uterus and are the differences in
reproductive organs etc., between males and females
Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes
that occur during puberty as children become
adolescents
At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the
primary sex organs: the testes in males and the ovaries
in females.
They only affect the target organs, which have receptors
that can recognize them.
Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the
growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs. 16.12. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle
16.11. The Menstrual Cycle
Day 1 to 5:

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Oestrogen: secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
being produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle, information in the form of genes
and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
hormone LH. Allele: an alternative form of a gene
Progesterone: secreted by the placenta during Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y
pregnancy, while during the menstrual cycle is by the chromosomes.
ovaries. Its primary function is maintaining the uterus Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of
lining during the middle of the menstrual cycle and unpaired chromosomes (e.g., sperm and egg)
pregnancy. Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): secreted by the chromosomes (e.g., in body cells)
pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
and stimulates ovaries to release oestrogen hormone. sequence of amino acids used to make a specific
Luteinizing hormone (LH): secreted by the pituitary protein.
gland and causes mature eggs to be released from the Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes
ovary. to protein molecules.

16.13. Sexually Transmitted Infections 17.2. DNA and Protein Synthesis

Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of
sexually transmitted infection. proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers, and
receptors for neurotransmitters
Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ
transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG
How it affects the immune system: mRNA has AU and CG bases
Infects and destroys lymphocytes Overall, protein synthesis occurs outside of the nucleus
Decreases the efficiency of the immune system in the cytoplasm
The body becomes liable to infection by other Protein synthesis has two stages:
pathogens Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into
This may lead to AIDS and death from infection bases of mRNA)
Translation (using mRNA base sequence to build

17. Inheritance amino acids into a sequence in a protein)

How proteins are made:
the gene coding for the protein remains in the
17.1. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins nucleus
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
to the cytoplasm
the mRNA passes through ribosomes
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
molecules
the sequence determines the specific order of amino
acids of bases in the mRNA
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but
many genes in a particular cell are not expressed
because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs

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Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.

17.3. Cell Division: Mitosis Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced
are not all genetically identical.
Mitosis: The nuclear division gives rise to genetically Gametes such as sperm and ovum are produced via
identical cells
meiosis.

17.5. Monohybrid Inheritance

Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from
generation to generation.

Here are some common terminologies you should know

to understand monohybrid inheritance.
Mitosis is needed for:
Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new Terminologies
cells when needed.
Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms
your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cuts. of the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
Replacement of worn-out cells Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g.
Asexual reproduction: in plants tall plant or green seed)
The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before genotype + environment + random variation →
mitosis phenotype
During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate, Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular
maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous
cell individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a
Stem Cells: unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
produce daughter cells that can become specialised for Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g.
specific functions T or G)
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
17.4. Cell Division: Meiosis no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)

Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome Pedigree Diagram

number is halved from diploid to haploid
Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a
specific characteristic (usually a disease) through
generations of a family.
Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that
characteristic
This can determine the probability that someone in the
family will inherit the genetic disorder.

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There is more variation in this cross, with a 3:1 ratio of

brown eyes: blue eyes, meaning each offspring has a
75% chance of having brown eyes and a 25% chance of
having blue eyes

Genetic Diagrams
Monohybrid Inheritance can be determined using a
genetic diagram known as a Punnett square.
A Punnett square diagram shows the possible
combinations of alleles that could be produced in the
offspring.
The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter, and 17.6. Modification of Mendelian
the recessive allele uses the same letter but lowercase. Genetics
If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the
alleles in a Punnett square, try to choose a letter that is Codominance
obviously different as a capital than the lowercase so the
examiner is not left doubt as to which is dominant and Codominance: a condition where two alleles of a gene are
which is recessive. equally dominant (50%)
1:1 Monohybrid Crosses Both alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype of
In this cross, there is a 1:1 ratio of boy to girl, meaning the heterozygote.
a 50% chance of the offspring being a boy and a 50% For example, if the parent phenotype is red and white, a
chance of the offspring being a girl. co-dominant will have both red and white colour in the
offspring.

ABO Blood Group (Codominance and Multiple

Allele)
Inheritance of blood group is an example of
codominance
There are three alleles for the blood group given by the
symbols IA, IB and IO.
IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB,
and both dominant to IO.

Sex-Linked Characteristics
3:1 Monohybrid Crosses
Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the
gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome, making it
more common in one sex than in the other.

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Syllabus 18.1.5: You must be able to investigate and
Generally, in the IGCSE syllabus, the most common is X- describe examples of continuous and discontinuous
linked recessive trait. variation
X-linked recessive disorders are more common in males
than in females.

Mutation
Mutation: A genetic change.

Gene Mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA

Syllabus 17.4.18: You must be able to use Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed
genetic diagrams to predict the results of Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random
monohybrid crosses involving codominance fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in
or sex linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios. populations
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate
of mutation
18. Variation and Selection
18.1. Variation
Variation: differences between individuals of the same
species
Both genetic and environmental factors cause
phenotypic variation
Continuous Variation: results in a range of phenotypes
between two extremes; examples include body length
and body mass
Discontinuous Variation: results in a limited number of
phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. ABO blood
groups, seed shape in peas and seed colour in peas) 18.2. Adaptive Features
It is usually caused by genes only, and genes and the
environment cause continuous variation. Adaptive Feature: an inherited (structural) feature that
helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its
environment

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Xerophytes live in deserts where water is scarce, and 1. genetic variation within populations
evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features 2. production of many offspring
are: 3. struggle for survival, including competition for
Deep roots reach the water far underground resources
Leaves have reduced spines with minimum surface 4. Individuals better adapted to the environment have a
area for transpiration greater chance of reproduction than others; these
Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain individuals pass on their alleles to the next
Rolled leaves, leaf hairs, and stomata sunk in pits to generation.
trap moist air
Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable to water Adaptation: the process of natural selection by which
Stomata open at night and close at midday when populations become more suited to their environment over
evaporation is highest many generations.
E.g. cactus and marram grass
Artificial Selection
Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.
Their features are: Artificial Selection: breeds organisms with valued
Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface characteristics together to produce offspring that share
area for absorption and photosynthesis those valuable characteristics.
Minimal cuticle formation
It can be used to produce organisms that are more
Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves
economically valued
Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick
For example, cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata
open and clear easier to separate from grain, dogs that have a better
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often appearance
absent Process of Selective Breeding:

18.3. Selection Selecting by individuals with desirable features

Crossing these individuals to produce the next
Natural Selection generation
Selection of offspring showing the desirable features
In any environment, the individuals that have the best
adaptive features are the ones most likely to survive and
reproduce.
19. Organisms and their
The greater chance of the best-adapted organisms Environment
passing on genes.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant 19.1. Energy Flow
bacteria is an example of natural selection.
The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get The sun is the principal source of energy input to
eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve. biological systems.
Process of Natural Selection: Energy flow is NOT a cycle; it starts from the sun, and
then that energy is harnessed by plants, which are eaten
by animals, which other animals eat.
At each step, energy is lost to the environment.

19.2. Food Chains and Food Webs

Food Chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from
one organism to the next, beginning with a producer, for
example:

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Food Web: showing a network of interconnected food
chains. Sun produces light, and less than 1% of the energy falls
onto leaves.
Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy because of
transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength.
Primary consumers only get between 5-10% because
some parts are indigestible (e.g., cellulose) and do not
eat the whole plant.
The secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because
the animal matter is more digestible & has a higher
energy value.
At each level, heat is lost by respiration.
Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans
Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain eating animals because:
by ingestion
Producer: an organism that makes its organic nutrients, We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal
usually using energy from sunlight through but to have the meat, we must feed the animal a lot of
photosynthesis plant material to get far less meat.
Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding When raising an animal, plants lose energy to the
on other organisms. environment. Then, the animal loses energy to the
Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary, environment and does not use up all the plant material,
tertiary and quaternary according to their position so it is inefficient.
in a food chain
Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating Ecological Pyramids
plants
Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
animals
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from
dead or waste organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph)
Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food
chain, food web or ecological pyramid.
Primary consumer: eat vegetables
Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk
Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon Shows the number of each Pyramid, which shows the
organism in a food chain biomass
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels When moving up the pyramid,
(number of individuals × their
because energy transfer is inefficient: the number of individuals
individual mass)
decreases

The pyramids of biomass are always pyramid-shaped or

upright.

19.3. Nutrient Cycles

Carbon Cycle

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Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for

plants; these may exist in the root nodules where they
live in symbiosis with the plants (nitrogen fixation), or
this can happen because of lightning or microorganisms
providing them through decomposition.
Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing
substances into nitrates for the plants (nitrification).
Plants absorb these substances and convert them into
proteins
Death and decay happen at each trophic level, leading to
stage one
Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they
convert nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric
Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
nitrogen
(plants)
It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding.
It is returned by respiration in plants and animals and 19.4. Population
decomposed by microorganisms.
Population: a group of organisms of one species living in
Fossilisation is NOT needed anymore - from the same area at the same time.
2023 onwards Community: all of the populations of different species in
an ecosystem.
Nitrogen Cycle Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of
organisms and their environment interacting together.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Population Growth

Food Supply: quantity and quality; snails need calcium
to reproduce to make a shell.
Predation: if the predator population falls, the prey
population will rise.
Disease: causes organisms to die, so a high death rate
partly cancels out the birth rate, meaning less population
growth, especially if the organism dies before giving
birth, or even population decline.

19.5. Sigmoid Curve of Population

Growth

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Positive Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture

Increasing yield due to single crop specialisation
Lower food prices
Reduce labour costs
Negative Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture
If a natural disaster occurs, the whole crop could be
wiped out.
If pests & diseases attack crops, they could harm
them easily
Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety
of species. This hinders biodiversity.
When insecticides are used persistently, the pests
may eventually become resistant to them, reducing
Lag phase: The number of mature, reproducing
their effectiveness
individuals is low and they may be widely dispersed
Exponential (Log) phase: exponential growth occurs, Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production
the conditions are ideal, and the maximum growth rate Welfare issues for the livestock
is reached. Limiting factors do not limit growth much. Diseases can spread easily among them
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as the Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby
population has reached the “carrying capacity” of its
environment; when mortality rate = birth rate, the curve
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum
20.2. Habitat Destruction
population size.
Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an
Death phase: death rate > birth rate due to lack of food,
area.
competition, etc.
Reason for habitat destruction
20. Human Influences on Increased area for food crop growth, livestock
production, and housing
Ecosystems Extraction of natural resources
Freshwater and Marine pollution
By altering food webs and food chains, humans can
20.1. Food Supply harm habitats.
Effects of deforestation
Humans have increased food production because: Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction
Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global
Agricultural Machinery to use larger areas of land and warming
improve efficiency Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil and go into
Chemical Fertilisers help crops grow better rivers, making the water dirty & causing blockages,
Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects and the soil becomes less fertile
Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds Flooding: 75% of water is usually absorbed by
Selective Breeding to improve production by crop foliage, root systems or evaporates. After
plants and livestock deforestation, water accumulates in valleys.
Large-scale Monoculture: the continuous production of
one type of genetically identical crop. 20.3. Pollution
Pollution due to pesticides:

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Sustainable Resource: one which is produced as rapidly as
Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat it is removed from the environment so that it does not run
crops, but can kill other useful insects such as bees, out
which are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the
increase in the dose of toxin from one level of the food Some resources can be conserved and managed
chain to the next) sustainably but are limited to forests and fish stocks.
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals
which eat the plants 1. Forests can be conserved using education, protected
areas, quotas and replanting.
Non-biodegradable plastics: 2. Fish stocks can be conserved using education,
closed seasons, protected areas, controlled net types
Choke birds, fish and other animals and mesh size, quotas and monitoring.
Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food
Collect in rivers and get in the way of fish Natural Resources:
Global Warming: Water: used to grow food, keep it clean, provide power,
control fires, and drink. We get water constantly through
Increase in the average temperature of the Earth rainfall, but we use the planet’s freshwater faster than it
Methane from the burping of cows can be replenished.
It started at the same time as humans began burning Fossil fuels must be conserved as they will soon run out;
fossil fuels therefore, they should be replaced with green energy.
Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not
proven yet Recycling:
It increased carbon dioxide and methane concentrations
in the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect that Water: water from sewage can be returned to the
leads to climate change. environment for human use by sanitation and sewage
treatment
Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
nutrients. raw materials for industry
Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles → fleece clothing
Fertilisers are put in soil by farmers. Metal: mining takes a lot of energy, so recycling saves
Fertilisers with nitrates/detergents with phosphates energy
leach into rivers and lakes after rain.
Water plants grow more than usual Species and habitats need to be conserved because:
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath
They die and sink to the bottom Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value)
Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and Maintaining biodiversity to reduce extinction
decreasing the O2 concentration Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants =
Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation new drugs)
Genetic resources are helpful to humans as well and are
lost when species disappear (DNA for genetic
engineering)
Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed,
then the whole ecosystem could collapse

Endangered species:

20.4. Conservation

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Bacteria are useful due to their rapid reproduction rate and
How they become endangered: climate change, habitat ability to make complex molecules.
destruction, hunting, pollution and introduced species
If the population size drops, variation decreases
Endangered species can be conserved by monitoring and
protecting species and habitats, education, captive
breeding programmes, and seed banks
Reasons for Conservation Programmes include:
reducing extinction
protecting vulnerable environments
maintaining ecosystem functions by nutrient cycling
and resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and
genes
increase biodiversity Why are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic
modification?
20.5. Artificial Insemination in Captive 1. There are a few ethical concerns over their
Breeding Programmes manipulation and growth
2. The presence of plasmids
3. Producing complex molecules
4. Replicates rapidly

21.2. Biotechnology
Biofuel
Use plants to make sugars, which yeast then breaks
down to make ethanol.
This process also uses anaerobic respiration.

Bread-Making
The sperm/gamete is collected from the male. Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make
Males can be chosen from different breeding the dough.
programmes to maximise genetic variation. Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and
The sperm is screened for quality checks. glucose. This is used by yeast in respiration.
After checking, the sperm/semen is frozen, and the
The dough is kept warm and moist (28°C). Yeast
female is given drugs to induce ovulation. ferments sugar, making carbon dioxide, which creates
The sperm/semen is then placed in the bubbles, so bread rises.
vagina/uterus/oviduct, where the sperm/semen is Cooking (at 180°C) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and
inserted at the appropriate time for ovulation. hardens the outer surface.

21. Biotechnology and Use of Enzymes in Biotechnology

Genetic Modification Pectinase:

21.1. Introduction

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Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down

pectin) 21.3. Fermenters
Pectin helps plant walls stick together
If pectin is broke down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from
the fruit
Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear, not
cloudy

Biological Washing powders:

Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzymes

that help remove the stain
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in
the wash, releasing the enzyme
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier
for detergents to remove
Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass, Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called
blood Penicillium.
Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil They require proper temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient
Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such supply and waste products.
as starch The stainless steel fermentation vessel contains a
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres medium containing sugars and ammonium salts.
Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
Lactase: for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
nucleic acids
The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’
milk), people can stop making lactase naturally and, Probes monitor temperature and pH
therefore, can’t digest lactose. Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus
A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a
temperature of 24°C.
Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended
(allowing access to nutrients and oxygen) while
maintaining an even temperature.

It is filtered to remove fungus and then can be

crystallized to make capsules.

Mycoprotein

Lactose-free milk production

Lactase made from yeast

Lactase bound to the surface of alginate beads
Milk passed down beads
Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose
Immobilized enzymes are reused

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The fungus Fusarium is cultured (grown) on an industrial Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using
scale in fermenters. restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends.
These fermenters are large vats that can be kept at the Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same
optimum pH and temperature to grow. restriction enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends.
The fungus is grown in aerobic conditions and provided Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA
with glucose syrup as a food source. using DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid –
The fungus grows and multiplies within the fermenter insertion of the plasmid into bacteria.
It is then harvested and purified to produce mycoprotein Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids,
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich food suitable for which make human protein as they express the gene
vegetarians, eg. It is used in QuornTM products.
21.5. Genetically Modified Crops
21.4. Genetic Modification
Advantages Disadvantages
Genetic Modification: changing the genetic material of an Uniform in shape – easy to
Natural species may die
organism by removing, altering, or inserting individual genes transport/appeal to consumers
Decrease biodiversity/genetic
Examples of genetic modification: Growing season shorter
diversity
the insertion of human genes into bacteria to Led to the development of
produce human insulin Drought resistant – less water superweeds – stronger than
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer GM
resistance to herbicides No one knows the long-term
Higher yields
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer effects on humans
resistance to insect pests Solve global hunger Expensive seeds
the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide
additional vitamins

Human Insulin in Bacteria

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Biology

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