0% found this document useful (0 votes)

590 views45 pages

CAIE-IGCSE-Biology - Theory

The document provides summarized notes on the CAIE IGCSE Biology syllabus, covering the classification of living organisms, characteristics of life, and cell structure. It details the organization of life, including the classification of vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as the structure and function of cells. Additionally, it introduces biological molecules and their tests, emphasizing the importance of understanding diffusion, osmosis, and active transport in cellular processes.

Uploaded by

Daanya Ghani

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

590 views45 pages

CAIE-IGCSE-Biology - Theory

Uploaded by

Daanya Ghani

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 45

ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Daanya for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Organisms are classified into groups by the features they

1. Characteristics and share.
Species: a group of organisms that can reproduce to
Classification of Living produce fertile offspring.
Sequence of Classification: Kingdom → Phylum →
Organisms Classes → Orders → Families → Genus → Species.
Acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Good Soup
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms The Binomial Nomenclature
The Age-Old Acronym: MRS GREN The Binomial System of Naming Species is an
internationally agreed system in which an organism's
scientific name is comprised of two parts, namely, the
genus and species.
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalised,
and the species are not.
The classification of organisms helps show the
evolutionary relationships between them.
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help
classify organisms.
The similarity in DNA chains shows how closely the two
organisms are related.

Movement: an action by an organism or part of an

organism causing a change of position or place
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break
down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes
in the internal or external environment
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the
same kind of organism
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements Dichotomous Keys
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth,
and development

1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification

System
Sequence of Classification

Dichotomous Keys use visible features to classify Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
another option until the organism is narrowed down to their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
its genus and species. chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic and
saprotrophic organisms with cell walls not made of
cellulose, spread by spreading spores in
moist/dark/warm environments. Most have hyphae and
mycelium in structure. Ex: yeast, mushrooms.
Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true
nucleus and mitochondria. Many also have plasmids
(important for Genetic Engineering). Ex: E.coli,
Salmonella.
Protist or Protoctist: Single-celled organism with a
nucleus. Eukaryotes. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba,
seaweed.

1.3. Features of Organisms 1.4. Vertebrates

The Five Kingdoms

| Types of Vertebrates | Features | |----|----| | Mammals |

Fur on the skin, External ears (pinna), Internal fertilisation,
Mammary Glands | | Reptiles | Thick, dry, scaly skin, Usually
four legs, Internal fertilisation, Soft Shelled Eggs | | Fish |
Wet scales, Streamlined body shape, External fertilisation,
and soft eggs | | Amphibians | Smooth, moist skin, External
fertilisation, and soft eggs, Gills, & Lungs can live on land and
water. Most have four legs. | | Birds | Feathers on the body
and scales on legs, Constant internal body temperature,
Hard eggs, Internal fertilisation, birth through eggs |

1.5. Arthropods
Invertebrates: Organisms that do not have a backbone.
All arthropods have three standard features:

1. Exoskeleton
2. Jointed legs
3. Segmented body

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
| Type of Arthropod | Number of Legs | |----|----| | Insects |
6 | | Arachnids | 8 | | Crustaceans | >10 | | Myriapods | Viruses are not part of any classification system because
>20 | they are not considered living things.
They do not carry out the seven life processes for
themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s
1.6. Classification of Plants metabolic pathways to make multiple copies of
themselves.
In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA
and flowering plants. or DNA) inside a protein coat.
Ferns: Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
Do not produce flowers/seeds ribosomes)
They are plants with roots, stems and feathery leaves
Reproduce by spores
Flowering plants:
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Reproduce sexually through flowers and seeds
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower

| Monocotyledons | Dicotyledons | |----|----| | One

Tip: Differentiating monocotyledons and

dicotyledons comes up frequently in Multiple
2. Organisation of the
Choice Questions Organism
1.7. Viruses 2.1. Cell Structure

All living things are made of cells. One example of a prokaryote is bacteria.
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall made of
All typical eukaryotic cells (multicellular) have: peptidoglycan, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes,
Cell Membrane: controls movement in and out of and plasmids.
cells It lacks a nucleus and is represented by a circular
Cytoplasm: where chemical/metabolic reactions take chromosome of DNA.
place Plasmids are small, circular rings of DNA in the
Nucleus: contains DNA, stores genetic information cytoplasm with extra genes outside the chromosomal
and controls the activity of the cell DNA.
Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Ribosome: allows protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it
looks rough under the microscope.
A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all the above.
Plant cells especially also have:
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
Cell Wall: rigid to hold the shape of the cell,
strengthens the cell
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs
light energy for photosynthesis
A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has
everything above.
Syllabus 2.1.3: You must be able to identify
Prokaryotes the cell structures in diagrams and images of
plant, animal and bacterial cells
Prokaryotes (Unicellular) DO NOT have mitochondria and a
true nucleus. 2.2. Levels of Organisation
The division of existing cells produces new cells.

Key Terms

Cells: Building Blocks of Life

Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
together to perform a shared function
Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a
specific function
Organ system: Group of organs with related functions
working together to perform body functions.
Organism: A human

Specialised Cells
Specialised Cells have Specific Functions.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
| Specialised Cells | Specific Function | Location of Cell | |--- Diffusion: Net movement of particles down the
-|----|----| | Ciliated cells | Movement of mucus in the concentration gradient (high → low) as a result of their
trachea and bronchi | Respiratory Tract, Fallopian Tube, random movement.
Testes | | Root Hair cells | Absorption | Roots | | Palisade
Mesophyll cell | Photosynthesis | Leaf Cells | | Neurones |
Conduction of electrical impulses | Everywhere in an
organism | | Red Blood cells | Transport of oxygen |
Everywhere in an organism | | Sperm and Egg cells/ovum
(gametes) | For reproduction | In their respective gonads |

2.3. Magnification
The general formula is represented in this way:
$$ Magnification = \frac{\text{size of drawing}}{\text{size of
specimen}} = \frac{\text{image}}{\text{actual}} = \frac{I}{A}
$$
Other Forms in Magnification Formula Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
the random movement of molecules and ions.
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as
Image size = magnification x actual size without it, molecules that are needed for life, (Such as
glucose and oxygen for respiration) would not be able to
Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)
get to the places they are required.
1cm = 10mm Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
1mm = 1000μm through the cell membrane.
1μm = 0.001mm
Factors that influence diffusion (Passive Transport)
Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’)
Concentration gradient
Tip: This comes out frequently in all three Temperature
papers Surface area to volume ratio
Distance

3. Movement Into and Out of 3.2. Osmosis

Cells The role of water acts as a solvent in organisms to aid
with digestion, excretion, and transport.
3.1. Diffusion Knowing the definition of Diffusion, Osmosis and
Active Transport is COMPULSORY!
The cell membrane is partially permeable, allowing small
molecules (like water) through but not larger molecules.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region
of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of Dialysis Tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living,
lower water potential (concentrated solution) through a partially permeable membrane made from cellulose.
partially permeable membrane. Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large
molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller
molecules (such as glucose and water) to pass through
by diffusion and osmosis.

| Conc. of Solute (In-Cell) | Conc. of Solute (Outside-Cell) |

Condition of the Cell | |----|----|----| | Low | High | Cell
Shrinks (Flaccid/Hypertonic) | | Same | Same | No Change
(Isotonic) | | High | Low | Turgid/Hypotonic |

In Animals
Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it 3.3. Active Transport
to burst (cell lysis) because it has too much water and
no cell wall. Active Transport: The movement of particles through a cell
membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher
In Plants concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient)
uses energy from respiration.
Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the
cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up. The cell
wall can withstand the higher turgor pressure.
Decreasing solute concentration inside the cell causes
the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole
to get smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from
the cell wall.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.

Dialysis Tubing Experiment

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
| Test for: | Solution | Process | Positive Result | Negative
Carrier Proteins or Protein Carriers are also used Result | |----|----|----|----|----| | Reducing Sugars | Benedict
during active transport. Solution | Add Benedict solution into a beaker and Heat Up
to 70-80°C | Brick Red | Blue | | Starch | Iodine Solution |
Add Iodine solution to the specimen | Blue-Black | Brown |
| Protein | Biuret Solution | Add Biuret solution to the
sample | Purple/Violet | Blue | | Fats (Physical test) |
Ethanol | Add ethanol to the sample and shake with an
equal volume of water. | Cloudy Emulsion | N/A | | Vitamin
C | DCPIP | Add DCPIP solution to the sample | Colourless |
Blue |

It is embedded in the cell membrane, where it picks up

specific molecules and moves them through the
membrane against their concentration gradient.
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by
root hair cells.
Some particles are too large to cross a membrane by
diffusion or active transport. A few very specialised cells
have developed a method for taking up these particles;
the particles are engulfed by the cell surface membrane 4.3. Structure of a DNA
flowing around them. This process of phagocytosis is
used by white blood cells.

4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and Oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
Nitrogen and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})
| Smaller molecules | Larger molecules | |----|----| | Simple
sugars | Starch, glycogen and cellulose | | Fatty acids and
glycerol | Fats and oils | | Amino acids | Proteins |

4.2. Food Tests

Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA

DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.

Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to

Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly react, complementary to the active site.
coiled DNA Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction
Two strands coiled together to form a double helix Different sequences of amino acids may lead to varying
Each strand contains chemicals called Bases shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences
Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases (temperature/pH) may be deferred in their function.
The bases always pair up in the same way:
A and T
C and G 5.2. Temperature on Enzymes
You do NOT need to know the names of the DNA bases
for this syllabus. Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the
temperature at which they work best. In animals and
humans, the fastest reaction ≈ is at 37 °C.
5. Enzymes When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, and frequently collide.
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to
5.1. Enzymes bind to active sites.
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
General Characteristics of an Enzyme too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape
and no longer binding with a substrate.
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of reaction When the temperature is too low, there is not enough
and is not used up itself. kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly.
Biological Catalyst: A living substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
Enzymes: Specific proteins involved in all metabolic 5.3. pH on Enzymes
reactions, functioning as biological catalysts.
Enzymes are sensitive to pH.
Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
reaction to take place. Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an
It is essential in all living organisms for sustaining life. alkaline.
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH.
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused
If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken,
Lock and Key Model (Hypothesis) denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the
substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs.
Pepsin is used in acidic conditions, Amylase is used in
neutral conditions, and trypsin is used in alkaline
conditions.

5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme

Activity
| Effect of Temperature | Effect of pH | |----|----| |

$$ Carbon Dioxide + Water \xrightarrow{light + chlorophyll}

Glucose + Oxygen $$
$$ 6CO_2 + 6H_2O\xrightarrow{light +
cholorophyll}C_6H_{12}O_6+6O_2 $$

Only EXTENDED Students must know the Balanced

Chemical Equation
| The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of
a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
Chlorophyll is a green pigment that traps light energy
and converts it into chemical energy to form
carbohydrates and their subsequent storage.
Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
cell walls, and making proteins and sugars.

Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in

Photosynthesis

starch as an energy store

cellulose to build cell walls
glucose used in respiration to provide energy
| sucrose for transport in the phloem

6.2. Mineral Requirements

6. Plant Nutrition
| Nitrate ions | Magnesium ions | |----|----| | Making amino
6.1. Photosynthesis acids | Making chlorophyll | | Deficiency: small plant due to
slow/stunted growth | Deficiency: The plant lacks
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture chlorophyll, leaves turn yellow. |
carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light. Tip! You need to know the purpose of these
required nutrients.

6.3. Investigation of Chlorophyll

Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)

leaves. 6.5. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness Concentration
for about 48 hours.
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days. Take two de-starched potted plants.
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration B.
by ethanol. Inside A, keep $NaHCO_3$ (Sodium Bicarbonate). It
Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract produces $CO_2$.
chlorophyll, which would mask the observation Inside B, keep $NaOH$ (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs
Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf $CO_2$.
The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight
starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent, for at least 6 hours
it will remain brown.
The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
test
Hydrogencarbonate indicator: measures the carbon
dioxide concentration

6.4. Investigation of Light Intensity

NOTE: This type of question is famous in IGCSE Biology
Paper 2.

De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48

hours
Place a stencil over part of a leaf
Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
Remove the stencil and test for starch Key: PMROY, purple being the lowest carbon dioxide
+ve result = parts which received light turn blue- concentration, and yellow the highest.
black
-ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain
brown 6.6. Limiting Factors
Limiting Factors: something present in the environment
(Temperature, Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Light
Intensity) in such short supply that it restricts life processes.

6.8. Adaptations of Leaf Structure for

Photosynthesis
Here is a table of different adaptations of the specific leaf
structure helping towards photosynthesis.
| Adaptation | Functions | |----|----| | Large Surface Area
6.7. Leaf Structure of Leaf | Increase surface area for diffusion of carbon
dioxide and absorption of light for photosynthesis. | | Thin |
Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse quickly into the palisade
and are thin. mesophyll cells | | Chlorophyll | Absorb light energy so
| Structure | Function | |----|----| | Waxy Cuticle | A photosynthesis can take place. | | Network of Veins | Allow
waterproof waxy layer that prevents water loss from the top efficient transport of water and mineral ions throughout the
of the leaf | | Upper & Lower Epidermis | Thin and plant | | Epidermis is thin | Allow more light to reach the
transparent to allow light to enter the palisade mesophyll palisade mesophyll cells | | Stomata/Stoma | Allow oxygen
cells | | Palisade Mesophyll Cells | Found at the top of the and carbon dioxide to continuously diffuse in and out of
cell and contains the MOST chloroplasts that absorb stomata |
sunlight for photosynthesis. | | Spongy Mesophyll Cells |
Irregularly shaped cells create air spaces to allow the
gaseous exchange to take place; do not contain many
7. Human Nutrition
chloroplasts | | Vascular Bundle | Made up of xylem and
phloem | | Xylem | A tissue vessel that transports water and 7.1. Diet
mineral ions | | Phloem | A tissue vessel that transports
sucrose and amino acids | | Stomata/Stoma | Little holes Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of
that open and close to allow the gaseous exchange to occur carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
| | Guard Cells | Control the opening and closing of stomata to maintain good health and metabolism.
|
Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle:
Children Below 12: Require more calcium
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Males: Generally require more energy

7.2. Nutrition
| Nutrients | Uses | |----|----| | Carbohydrates | Energy | |
Fats and oils | Source of energy, building materials, energy
store, insulation, buoyancy, making hormones | | Proteins |
Energy, building materials, enzymes, haemoglobin,
Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain structural material (muscle), hormones, antibodies | |
how the structures above adapt leaves for Vitamin C | Collagen, resistance to diseases | | Vitamin D |
photosynthesis Absorption of calcium | | Calcium | Development and
maintenance of strong bones and teeth | | Iron | Making
haemoglobin | | Fibre (Roughage) | Provides bulk for faeces,
helps peristalsis | | Water | Chemical reactions, solvent for
transport |

7.3. Deficiencies

Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
and teeth ingestion takes place
Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
7.4. Digestive System and helps food slide down the oesophagus
Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis
Process of Digestion (circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
from mouth to stomach
Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the Stomach: has pepsin (a protease that works best in
body through the mouth. acidic conditions) to break down proteins into amino
Physical/Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food into acids and kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They also
smaller pieces without chemical change. have elastic walls.
It increases the surface area of food for the action Mechanical digestion in the stomach occurs via
of enzymes in chemical digestion. peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle.
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of three
molecules into small, soluble molecules. parts:
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested
intestines into the blood by pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body down starch.
as faeces Jujenum (not in syllabus)
Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal is where absorption also takes place.
Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin (a protease that
works best in alkaline conditions), and lipase.
Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat
molecules), deamination, and makes urea to be sent to
the kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol
and other toxins.
Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is
released.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need
to be known.

7.5. Teeth

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Our teeth play a key role in mechanical digestion to help
increase the surface area of food. Structure of Tooth
| Incisors | Canines | Premolars | Molars | |----|----|----|----|
| Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums

Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from

calcium salts
Cement: helps to anchor tooth
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and
nerve endings that detect pain.
Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
collagen fibers
| Nerves: Detect sensation
Blood vessels: Provide nutrition

7.6. The Stomach

The stomach lining contains many smooth muscles that
contract to squeeze physically and mix the food with the
strong digestive juices present, a process also known as
| "stomach-churning."

The food will be digested within the stomach for several

hours
First stop for protein digestion

| | Rectangular shape, sharp for cutting and biting | Sharp-

pointed for piercing and tearing | Blunt for chewing and 7.7. Chemical Digestion
grinding, one or two roots, cusps/bumps at the end | Blunt
chewing and grinding. Two or three roots, ridges at the end Chemical Digestion: the breakdown of large insoluble
| molecules into small soluble molecules
The role of chemical digestion in producing small soluble
molecules that can be absorbed

7.8. Enzymes in Digestion

Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is
produced in the pancreas (secreted into the duodenum) 7.9. Hydrochloric Acid and Bile
and salivary glands.
Functions of Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:
Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms
Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Kills pathogens
Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid
mixture of food and gastric juices entering the
duodenum from the stomach to provide a suitable pH
for enzyme action.

Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose in the

membrane of the epithelium lining in small intestines.

Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides and

amino acids. Pepsin comes from the stomach (acidic),
and trypsin comes from the pancreas (alkali).

7.10. Absorption and Villus

Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood

Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,

produced by the pancreas.

Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and

images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
The small intestine is the region for absorption of sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
digested food. dicotyledonous plants
The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing
the surface area for absorption. One villus will have 8.2. Water Uptake
tiny folds on the cells on its outside called microvilli.
The epithelium is one cell thick, allowing efficient Root Hair Cells
diffusion of nutrients.
A large surface area means more absorption of
nutrients can happen.
Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Capillaries: provide a good blood supply and a steep
concentration gradient.
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
some from the colon (large intestine).

8. Transport in Plants
Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil
8.1. Xylem and Phloem They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area,
which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis
Functions of Xylem and ions by active transport.
transport water and mineral ions, and support the The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases
plant’s overall structure. the uptake of water and mineral ions.
Functions of Phloem Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
transport sucrose and amino acids from the sink to the
cytoplasm.
source (and vice versa)
Then, it enters the root cortex cells, xylem, and
Adaptations of Xylem mesophyll cells.

1. thick walls with lignin (dead cell) Investigate the Pathway of Water through the
2. no cell contents Above-Ground Parts of a Plant
3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
long, continuous tube

Water uptake can be investigated by placing a plant (like Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by
celery) into a beaker of water with a stain (dye, food an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
colouring) added. diffuses out of the stomata.
A few hours later, the celery leaves turn the same colour Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
as the dyed water. area provided by the interconnecting air spaces
When the cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain between mesophyll cells and the size and number of
areas are stained by the colour of the water, showing stomata.
that it is being carried in specific vessels through the Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
stem - a.k.a xylem vessels. transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
water molecules.

Wilting
Wilting occurs if water loss exceeds water uptake. Cells
become flaccid, and tissues become limp.

This is when all the cells of the plant are not full of water,
so the strength of the cell walls cannot support the plant
and it starts to collapse

Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration

8.3. Transpiration Temperature: The kinetic energy of the water molecules
increases, so they evaporate and diffuse faster from the
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, which mesophyll cells, increasing the transpiration rate
evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the Humidity: Low humidity increases the concentration
air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, hence
stomata. increasing the transpiration rate, while high humidity
decreases the gradient, reducing the transpiration rate.
Wind Speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a
steep concentration gradient

8.4. Translocation
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of
storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth
(sinks).

Translocation in different seasons:

Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.

Right Atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to

the right ventricle
Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs
Pulmonary Artery: carries deoxygenated blood from
the right ventricle to the lungs
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood
separate.
Pulmonary Vein: carries oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the left atrium
Left Atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to
the left ventricle
Left Ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via
9. Transport in Animals the aorta
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle
to the rest of the body
9.1. Circulatory Systems Atrioventricular and Semi-lunar Valves: prevent
backflow of blood
Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins) IMPORTANT! Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right
to ensure a one-way flow of blood. Ventricle < Left Ventricle

Single Circulation System (fish): 9.3. Functioning of the Heart

Blood flows through the heart once every complete
circuit (No Septum) The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows
Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle) into the right atrium via the vena cava.
Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills in lower-pressure Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is
Released in body cells, then back to the heart pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the
Double Circulation System: right ventricle.
Four heart chambers The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed
Blood passes through the heart twice every complete into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar
circuit valve, which prevents blood from flowing backwards
Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body, into the heart.
and back to the heart The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the
Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues capillaries, passing the alveoli.
around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the
blood to it from the lungs, preventing the mixing of pulmonary vein
oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the
left ventricle
9.2. Heart The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push
the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body
The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood
circuit. from flowing back down into the heart

Example Past Year Question

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in
arteries (0610/42/F/M/23) The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the
heart to the liver
caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle) The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the
pressure increases when the heart / ventricles liver back to the heart
contract/pump The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood
pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax from the gut to the liver

9.4. Exercise on Heart Rate

The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
listening to the sounds of the valves closing.
Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and
deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle.

9.5. Coronary Heart Disease Arterioles and Venules

The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.

The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting

blood supply to the heart muscle.
Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
heart attack
Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
genetic predisposition, age and sex
This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty
food (a good diet) and exercising regularly The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called
arterioles
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called
9.6. Blood Vessels venules

Major Blood Vessels

9.7. Blood
Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and
Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody
production
Platelets: allows/promotes blood clotting
Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and
dissolved substances)

Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify

red and white blood cells in
photomicrographs and diagrams

Mechanical barriers:
Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells
Chemical barriers:
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens
White Blood Cells In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which
kills many of the bacteria in food
| Phagocyte | Lymphocyte | |----|----| | Phagocytes have Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these
lobed/irregular C-shaped nuclei and vesicles containing defences are destroyed by white blood cells:
digestive enzymes. | Lymphocytes have a circular nucleus Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens
and are found in blood | | Phagocytosis: engulfs pathogen, by phagocytosis
vesicles fuse with the vacuole, enzymes digest bacteria. | Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill
Large nucleus/small cytoplasm, and they produce the pathogen and vaccination against disease helps
antibodies, | | Antigens: protein/carbohydrate on the antibodies to be made very quickly
surface of the pathogen which provokes the immune system
| Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins bind to label pathogens, Ways of Controlling the Spread of Diseases
marking them for destruction by the phagocytes. |
a clean water supply
Blood Clotting hygienic food preparation
good personal hygiene
Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out waste disposal
Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a sewage treatment
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to
form a scab. 10.3. Active and Passive Immunity

10. Diseases and Immunity Antibody: proteins that bind to antigens, directly destroying
or marking pathogens for destruction by phagocytes.

The surface of the pathogen contains antigens, and they

10.1. Pathogens have specific shapes.
Specific antibodies have complementary shapes which
Pathogen: a disease-causing organism. fit specific antigens.
Transmissible Disease: a disease in which the pathogen To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be
can be passed from one host to another. made that are exactly the right shape to fit into antigens
The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be outside the pathogen.
transmitted either: Antibodies lock onto antigens, leading to the destruction
Direct Contact: the pathogen is passed directly from of pathogens/marking of pathogens for phagocytes to
one host to another through blood, body fluids, engulf.
semen, etc. If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many
Indirect Contact: the pathogen leaves the host and lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen
is carried in some way to another e.g., contaminated and divide rapidly by mitosis.
surfaces/food, from animals, from air These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, creating
active immunity.
10.2. Body Defences
Active Immunity
The human body has many natural defences against
pathogens. Active Immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
production in the body.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
| Properties | Reasons | |----|----| | Thin surface | Short
Active Immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen distance to diffuse (one cell thick) | | Large surface area |
or by vaccination. Many molecules can diffuse at once/More alveoli | | Good
Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by ventilation | Regular fresh air supplies keep up
pathogens. concentration gradients for oxygen and carbon dioxide. | |
Having a population vaccinated against a particular Good blood supply | Gases can be carried to/from the cells
disease helps to achieve herd immunity. that need/produce them | | Moist | Allow gases to dissolve,
Process of Vaccination: ready for diffusion |
weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into
the body
the antigens stimulate an immune response by 11.2. Structure of the Lungs
lymphocytes, which produce antibodies
memory cells are produced that give long-term The lung contains a diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles,
immunity larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated
capillaries
Passive Immunity Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from
collapsing during the absence of air and protects it by
Passive Immunity: short-term defences against a pathogen keeping it open.
by antibodies acquired from another individual.
Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and
Memory cells are NOT made in passive Immunity expand and contract (and efficient breathing).
Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding. Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated
Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother, between the ribs that create and move the chest wall.
which are passed on to her baby. Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in
Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not the thorax, leading to the ventilation of the lungs.
well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it
against any diseases. Composition of Breathing Dry Air
Some diseases are caused by the immune system
| | Inspired Air | Expired Air | |----|----|----| | Oxygen | 21%
targeting and destroying body cells.
| 16% | | Carbon Dioxide | 0.04% | 4% | | Nitrogen | 78% |
78% | | Water Vapour | Lower | Higher |
10.4. Cholera
Test for CO2: Add CO2
Diarrhoea: loss of watery faeces through limewater. +ve result = turns cloudy
Oral rehydration therapy and antibiotics are used to
cure this**.** 11.3. Physical Activity on Breathing
One of these is infectious by a bacterium, “Vibrio
cholerae”, causing cholera. Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more
Cholera is a disease caused by a bacterium transmitted respiration - and higher CO2 concentration
in contaminated water. in the blood.
The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes This is measured with a spirometer to produce a
the secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine, spirogram.
causing lower osmotic water movement into the gut, During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate; the
causing diarrhoea, dehydration and loss of salts from the change in breathing volume and rate helps keep
blood. CO2 concentration and pH safe.

11. Gas Exchange in Humans 11.4. Breathing

11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
| Inspiration | Expiration | |----|----| | External intercostal
muscles contract – pulls ribcage upwards and outwards | An indicator, Methylene Blue, can be used to investigate
External intercostal muscles relax – ribcage falls downwards the effect of temperature on yeast cells.
and inwards | | Diaphragm muscles contract – the Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically,
diaphragm moves downwards, and the volume of the thorax though, in this experiment, their aerobic respiration rate
increases | Diaphragm muscles relax – return to a dome is being investigated.
shape, and the volume of the thorax decreases | | The time taken for the methylene blue to lose its colour
Atmospheric Pressure > Pressure in Thorax | Atmospheric measures the respiration rate of the yeast cells in the
Pressure < Pressure in Thorax | | Air moves into the lungs | suspension.
Air moves out of the lungs | The faster the dye changes from blue to colourless,
the faster the respiration rate.
IV: Effect of Temperature
DV: Rate of Respiration (recording the time taken for
methylene blue dye to change from blue to colourless)

Internal intercostal muscles are used in coughing and

sneezing.
Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
and eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms. Exam Tip! In the exam, always state that
Ciliated cells have cilia, little hairs which sweep/beat energy is released; it is NEVER made,
back and forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus produced, or created.
up the lungs into the mouth.
12.2. Aerobic Respiration
12. Respiration Aerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells that use
oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy
12.1. Respiration $$ Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water $$
$$ C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2\rightarrow6CO_2+6H_2O $$
Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient
molecules in living cells to release energy. 12.3. Anaerobic Respiration
Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle Anaerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells break
contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active down nutrient molecules to release energy without using
transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the oxygen.
maintenance of a constant body temperature.
Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to
speed up the reaction.

Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast

In muscles (vigorous exercise):

$Glucose \rightarrow Lactic\ Acid$ 13.2. Function of Liver
In yeast (single-cell fungi):
$Glucose \rightarrow Ethanol + Carbon\ Dioxide$ The role of the liver is in the assimilation of amino acids by
converting them to proteins.
$C_6H_{12}O_6 \rightarrow 2C_2H_5OH + 2CO_2$
Disadvantages of Anaerobic Respiration:
Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose
molecule that aerobic respiration would
Produces poisonous lactic acid
Lactic Acid:
Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
exercise
The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do
this, which causes you to continue breathing heavily
after exercise.
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt.
Oxygen Debt is removed by:
continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid
in the blood from the muscles to the liver Deamination: removal of the nitrogen-containing part of
continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply amino acids to form urea.
oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by body cells
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.
Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver.
12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and
Anaerobic Respiration 13.3. Function of Kidney
| | Aerobic | Anaerobic | |----|----|----| | Oxygen | Needed | Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption
Not needed | | Breakdown of Glucose | Complete of glucose and some salts
combustion | Incomplete combustion | | Products | Carbon
Dioxide and Water | Animals: Lactic Acid & Yeast: Carbon
Dioxide and Ethanol | | Amount of Energy Released | More
| Less |

13. Excretion in Humans

13.1. Excretion
Excretion: the removal from organisms of toxic materials,
the waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in
cells including respiration) and substances in excess of
requirements.

Substances should include carbon dioxide (lungs), urea,

excess water and ions (kidney).
The importance of excretion is due to the toxicity of the
urea.

Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules The mammalian nervous system consists of two parts:
Ureter: carries urine from the kidney to the bladder Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain
Medulla: has loops of Henlé and collecting ducts and spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination.
Urethra: carrying urine from the bladder to the outside. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) comprises nerves
Bladder: stores urine and neurones, which coordinate and regulate body
Renal artery: brings wastes and water from the blood functions.
Renal vein: reabsorbs water and functional molecules Electrical impulses travel through the neurones.
and leaves wastes behind The nervous system helps with the coordination and
regulation of body functions.
13.4. Structure and Function of the
Nephron 14.2. Types of Neurones
Nerve Impulse: an electrical signal that passes along the
nerve cells called neurones
Axons: Ensure less time is wasted when the impulse is
transferred from one neurone to another
Dendrites: Extensions which form a network for easy
communication.

Motor Neurone
Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or
the glands)
1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters
the glomerulus. Water, urea, salts, and glucose are
forced into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and
large proteins cannot pass through.
2. Selective reabsorption: in the tubule, two-thirds of
the salt and water and all the glucose move out of the
nephron by active transport. These substances are
reabsorbed back into the blood capillary.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to water but
not salt. Water is drawn out of the filtrate in the
nephron by osmosis because of the low water
potential of the medulla tissue fluid.
4. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move into Sensory Neurone
the collecting duct, forming urine.
Carry impulses from the sense organs (sensory
14. Coordination and receptors) to the CNS.

Response
14.1. Mammalian Nervous System

E.g. quickly removing your hand from the hot metal

surface
They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay
neurone and a motor neurone.
The gap between neurones is called a synapse.
How the simple reflex arc works:
A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that
converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse)
A sensory neurone carries impulses from the
receptor to the CNS (spinal cord)
Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly
(because it has no myelin sheath) across the spinal
cord
Relay Neurone (Interneurone) The motor neurone carries impulses from the CNS to
the effector
The middleman inside the CNS connects sensory to The effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out
motor neurones. the response

14.4. Synapse
14.3. Simple Reflex Arc
Reflex Action: automatically and rapidly integrates and
coordinates the stimuli with the responses of effectors
(muscles and glands).

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a
gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a Adjusting for high and low light intensity
neurotransmitter An involuntary response

| | Low Light Intensity | High Light Intensity | |----|----|----| |

14.7. Accommodation
Accommodation: Adjusting for near and distant objects.

The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called

accommodation
The lens is elastic, and its shape can be changed when
the suspensory ligaments attached to it become tight
The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one or loose
direction only. The contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles
Synaptic cleft: the small gap between each pair of brings about the changes
neurones
Inside the neurone’s axon, there are 100s of tiny | | Near Object | Distant Object | |----|----|----| | Ciliary
vacuoles (vesicles, each containing a chemical called muscles | Contract | Relax | | Suspensory Ligaments | Slack
neurotransmitter) | Tighten | | Lens | Short and fat | Long and thin |
When an impulse arrives, the vesicles move to the cell
membrane and empty their content into the synaptic
cleft.
The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
and attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
of the relay neurone.
This can happen because the neurotransmitter
molecules' shape complements the receptor shape.

14.5. Sense Organs

Sense Organ: groups of receptor cells responding to specific
stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature, and chemicals.
Example Past Year Question
Cornea: refracts light
Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil Explain why a person cannot focus on distant objects if
Lens: focuses light onto the retina the suspensory ligaments become permanently
Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light overstretched. (0610/42/F/M/23)
of different colours (Rods and cones)
Optic nerves: carry impulses to the brain 1. ciliary muscles relax
Pupil: A hole which allows light to enter 2. suspensory ligaments can no longer become tight
3. the lens is not stretched/remains wide
14.6. Pupil Reflex 4. the angle of refraction remains unchanged

14.8. Rods and Cones

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
| Rods | Cones | |----|----| | Provide low detail, black &
white images, suitable for seeing in low-intensity light (at A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland.
night). | Provide detailed, coloured images; they work in high It increases pulse rate, heart rate and pupil diameter.
light intensity. | | Packed most tightly around the edge of Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration.
the retina, so you can see things most clearly when not Adrenaline is secreted, for example, bungee jumping or
looking directly at them. | Most tightly packed at the retina's riding a rollercoaster.
centre, objects are seen most clearly when directly looking at
| Gland | Hormone | Function | |----|----|----| | Adrenal
them. | gland | Adrenaline | Prepares the body for vigorous action |
Fovea: | Pancreas | Insulin | Reduces the concentration of glucose
Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed in the blood | | Testes | Testosterone | Causes the
most closely together development of male sexual characteristics | | Ovary |
Where light is focused when you look straight at an Oestrogen | Causes the development of female sexual
object characteristics | | Pancreas | Glucagon | Increases
Distribution of Rods and Cones concentration of glucose in the blood |
More rod cells than cone cells
A number of cone cells peaked in the middle, 14.10. Homeostasis
showing the location of the fovea. No rod cells are
present in the peak. Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal
No rod and cone cells at the blind spot, as the optic environment.
nerve is located there. \n
Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration.
The concept of homeostatic control by negative feedback
with reference to a set point

Negative Feedback Concept

Negative Feedback: controls the production of hormones
and regulates their own production
A negative feedback control is when the change in
hormone level acts as a signal to cancel out that change,
so when the blood hormone level is low, hormone
production is stimulated; when it is high, it is inhibited.
14.9. Hormones 14.11. Nervous and Hormonal Control
Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and
carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more | Comparison | Nervous system | Endocrine system | |----|-
specific target organs. ---|----| | Speed of action | Very rapid | Can be slow | |
Nature of message | Electrical impulses travelling along
Endocrine Glands nerves | Chemical messengers (hormones) travelling in the
bloodstream | | Duration of response | Usually within
adrenal glands and adrenaline seconds | It may take years (puberty) | | Area of response |
pancreas and insulin Localized response (only one area usually) | Widespread
testes and testosterone response (in many organs) | | Example of process-
ovaries and oestrogen controlled | Reflexes such as blinking | Development of the
reproductive system |
Adrenaline
14.12. Homeostasis: Blood Glucose
Control

Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the Temperature Regulation by The Skin
pancreas
The pancreas produces and releases different hormones Regulation is controlled by the brain which contains
depending on the blood glucose level thermoreceptors (sensitive to the temperature of the
Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high – blood)
the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen The skin also has thermoreceptors and sends nervous
Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low – impulses to the brain via sensory neurones
the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose and The brain responds to this information by sending nerve
releases it into the blood impulses to the motor neurones, then to the effectors in
the skin to maintain the temperature within a narrow
When the control of blood glucose does not work, a range of the optimum, 37°C
person is said to have diabetes Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation
to prevent too much body heat from being lost through
Type 1 Diabetes the skin
Type 1 Diabetes: caused by the death of the cells that
secrete insulin.

Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry mouth,

blurred vision, and thirsty) or hypoglycaemia (tired,
showing confusion and irrational behaviour)
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce
blood glucose concentration

14.13. Homeostasis: Temperature

Regulation
Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation
Control of body temperature is a homeostatic mechanism
Vasoconstriction: blood flow in capillaries slows down
The human body maintains the temperature at which because arterioles leading to the skin capillaries get
enzymes work best, around 37°C narrower when we are cold.
If body temperature increases over this temperature,
enzymes will denature and become less effective at This reduces the amount of heat lost from the blood by
catalysing reactions such as respiration radiation as less blood flows through the surface of the
skin
The Structure of the Skin
Vasodilation: blood flow in capillaries increases because
blood vessels to the skin capillaries get wider when we are
hot.

This cools the body as blood (which carries heat around

the body) flows at a faster rate through the skin’s surface
and so more heat is lost by radiation

15.1. Antibiotics
Antibiotics work by disrupting crucial systems that
bacteria need to survive and multiply, such as their cell
walls, DNA, or protein synthesis, while not harming
human cells.
Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, which reduces
the effectiveness of antibiotics.
The development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can
be minimized by limiting antibiotics only when
essential and ensuring treatment is completed.
Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they do not
have a cell wall and make the host cell perform their
14.14. Tropic Responses tasks.
Auxin:
Plant hormones or growth substances 15.2. Antibiotic Resistance
Controls tropisms
It is produced by cells at the tip of the roots and Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can be reproduced through the
shoots of plants theory of natural selection:

Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards Mutation, giving rise to variation
(positive) or away (negative) from gravity. Antibiotics kill bacteria without changing genes
Competition for food space, among others
Auxins’ role in gravitropism: Reproduce via binary fission
Made in the shoot tip Then, alleles are passed on to offspring to reproduce.
Then, it diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip
Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light An example of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is Methicillin-
and gravity resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
Auxin stimulates cell elongation

Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards 16. Reproduction

(positive) or away (negative) from the direction light is
coming. 16.1. Asexual Reproduction
Auxins’ role in phototropism:
If the sun shines on the right side of a plant’s shoot, Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the
auxins accumulate on the dark opposite left side. production of genetically identical offspring from one
Auxins accumulating makes cells on the left side grow parent.
faster than cells on the right. Bacteria:
When the left side of the shoot starts growing faster Reproduced by binary fission, each bacterium divides
than the right side, the shoot will start to bend to the into two.
right side towards sunlight. The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
divide into 2.
15. Drugs | Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Fast: no need to
find a mate, fertilise, etc. | No genetic variation/biodiversity
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or | | Good characteristics are kept | Harmful genes
affects chemical reactions in the body. All drug metabolism transferred | | Do not need to carry offspring |
is done in the Liver. Overcrowding: fighting for food/competition | | No
pollinators | Prone to extinction, disease, environmental
change |

Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water

16.2. Sexual Reproduction and wind
Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a
Sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the nucleus in an ovule
nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
production of offspring that are genetically different from | Insect Pollinated | Wind Pollinated | |----|----| | Bright,
each other colourful petals – attract | Dull petals | | Sweetly scented |
No scent | | Contains nectar | No nectaries | | A moderate
Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei amount of pollen | Huge amount of pollen | | Pollen is
The nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a spiky/sticky, large in size | Pollen round and smooth, Small
zygote is diploid
and light |
Diploid: Full Set of Chromosomes
Haploid: Half Set of Chromosomes Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on the stigma and
creates a tunnel down the style, through the micropyle
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Produces to ovules.
genetically different offspring | It takes lots of time and Ovule: seed
energy | | Reduced risk of extinction | Mate required | | |
Ovary: fruit
Energy on improving appearances or pollen volume for
pollination (plants) | Self Pollination
16.3. Parts of a Flowering Plant Self Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a
Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant different flower on the same plant.
They usually contain both male and female reproductive | Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Genetically
parts identical | Lack of genetic variation | | High chance of
The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are successful pollination | Increases competition between
slightly different as each is adapted for their specific plants | | Fast and saves time | Susceptible to the same
function disease |

Insect Pollinated Flowers Cross-Pollination

Wind Pollinated Flowers Cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different
Functions plant of the same species.
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Increases
Sepal: protect the flower bud. variation | Reliance on pollinators | | Quick to adapt to
Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have surroundings | Wastage of pollen | | Less susceptible to
nectars, which are all used to attract insects. Petals in diseases | More energy required |
wind-pollinated flowers are tiny and used for pushing the
bracts (leaf-like structures) apart from exposing stamens
and stigma.
Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains that contain
the male nucleus (male gamete).
Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls.

16.4. Pollination 16.5. Fertilisation in Plants

Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of
the plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant
(stigma).

Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and

produces progesterone and oestrogen
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops.
Cervix: neck of the uterus: a robust and rigid muscle,
moist by mucus with a small opening
Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way
out for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and
Pollen tube growing from a pollen grain secretes mucus
Pollen (tube/grain) releases enzymes
The pollen tube then grows down the style/grows into
the ovary
16.8. Fertilisation and Early
Pollen nucleus travels down the pollen tube Development
Pollen tube grows and moves through the micropyle into
the ovule Fertilisation: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete
Fertilisation occurs (sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell).
The pollen nucleus fuses with the female nucleus
A zygote is formed Development of a Zygote:
One sperm penetrates
The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against
16.6. Germination sperm
The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches
Germination: A process controlled by enzymes and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
The zygote divides over and over to make a ball of
Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores
into soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that cells called an embryo.
the testa splits It implants itself in the uterus (implantation) wall,
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with followed by conception.
water), and is used in aerobic respiration. Development of fetus: The zygote is changed through
growth (mitosis) and development (organisation of cells
Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
optimum temperature). into tissues and organs)
Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from
16.7. Sexual Reproduction In Humans the fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which
carries oxygenated blood and soluble food from the
Male Reproductive System placenta to the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood)
Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such
Testes: have many coiled tubes that produce sperm, and as foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus;
the cells between tubes produce testosterone. physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains
Scrotum: holds testicles mother’s blood)
Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra. Amniotic Sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid broken at birth.
Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of Amniotic Fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical
the penis shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations
Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta
female. and affect the fetus.
Female Reproductive System

Primary sexual characteristics: present during

16.9. Adaptive Features of Gametes development in the uterus and are the differences in
reproductive organs etc., between males and females
Sperm (Male Gamete) Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes
that occur during puberty as children become
1. Small in size
adolescents
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes primary sex organs: the testes in males and the ovaries
in females.
They only affect the target organs, which have receptors
that can recognize them.
Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the
growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs.

16.11. The Menstrual Cycle

Day 1 to 5:
| Features | Functions | |----|----| | Flagellum | Propels the
sperm to swim | | Mitochondria | Respiration to release
energy for swimming | | Enzymes in the acrosome | Release
digestive enzymes to digest the jelly coat |

Egg Cell (Female Gamete)

1. Larger in size
2. Spherical protein/fat in the cytoplasm
3. Moved with the help of Cillia
4. Released once per month containing 23
chromosomes

| Features | Functions | |----|----| | Energy storage |

Development of zygote | | Jelly coat | Changes at
fertilisation |

16.10. Sexual Hormones in Humans

The roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development
and regulation of secondary sexual characteristics during
puberty

17.1. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins

Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
information in the form of genes
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
Allele: an alternative form of a gene
Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y
chromosomes.
Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of
unpaired chromosomes (e.g., sperm and egg)
Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
chromosomes (e.g., in body cells)
The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
16.12. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle sequence of amino acids used to make a specific
protein.
Oestrogen: secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from
Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes
being produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle,
to protein molecules.
and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the
hormone LH.
Progesterone: secreted by the placenta during 17.2. DNA and Protein Synthesis
pregnancy, while during the menstrual cycle is by the
ovaries. Its primary function is maintaining the uterus DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of
lining during the middle of the menstrual cycle and proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers, and
pregnancy. receptors for neurotransmitters
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): secreted by the
pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary
and stimulates ovaries to release oestrogen hormone.
Luteinizing hormone (LH): secreted by the pituitary
gland and causes mature eggs to be released from the
ovary.

16.13. Sexually Transmitted Infections

Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a
sexually transmitted infection.

Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ

transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person
How it affects the immune system:
Infects and destroys lymphocytes
Decreases the efficiency of the immune system
The body becomes liable to infection by other
pathogens
This may lead to AIDS and death from infection

17. Inheritance

DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG Mitosis is needed for:
mRNA has AU and CG bases Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new
Overall, protein synthesis occurs outside of the nucleus cells when needed.
in the cytoplasm Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut
Protein synthesis has two stages: your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cuts.
Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into Replacement of worn-out cells
bases of mRNA) Asexual reproduction: in plants
Translation (using mRNA base sequence to build The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before
amino acids into a sequence in a protein) mitosis
How proteins are made: During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate,
the gene coding for the protein remains in the maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter
nucleus cell
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move Stem Cells: unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to
to the cytoplasm produce daughter cells that can become specialised for
the mRNA passes through ribosomes specific functions
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
molecules 17.4. Cell Division: Meiosis
the sequence determines the specific order of amino
acids of bases in the mRNA Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but number is halved from diploid to haploid
many genes in a particular cell are not expressed
because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs

17.3. Cell Division: Mitosis

Mitosis: The nuclear division gives rise to genetically
identical cells

Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.

Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced
are not all genetically identical.
Gametes such as sperm and ovum are produced via
meiosis.

17.5. Monohybrid Inheritance

Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from
generation to generation.

Here are some common terminologies you should know

to understand monohybrid inheritance.

Terminologies

Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms Monohybrid Inheritance can be determined using a
of the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG) genetic diagram known as a Punnett square.
Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g. A Punnett square diagram shows the possible
tall plant or green seed) combinations of alleles that could be produced in the
genotype + environment + offspring.
random variation → phenotype The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter, and
Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular the recessive allele uses the same letter but lowercase.
gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the
individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding alleles in a Punnett square, try to choose a letter that is
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a obviously different as a capital than the lowercase so the
particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding examiner is not left doubt as to which is dominant and
Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g. which is recessive.
T or G)
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is 1:1 Monohybrid Crosses
no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g) In this cross, there is a 1:1 ratio of boy to girl, meaning
a 50% chance of the offspring being a boy and a 50%
Pedigree Diagram chance of the offspring being a girl.
Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a
specific characteristic (usually a disease) through
generations of a family.
Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that
characteristic
This can determine the probability that someone in the
family will inherit the genetic disorder.

3:1 Monohybrid Crosses

Genetic Diagrams

There is more variation in this cross, with a 3:1 ratio of Generally, in the IGCSE syllabus, the most common is X-
brown eyes: blue eyes, meaning each offspring has a linked recessive trait.
75% chance of having brown eyes and a 25% chance of X-linked recessive disorders are more common in males
having blue eyes than in females.

Syllabus 17.4.18: You must be able to use

17.6. Modification of Mendelian genetic diagrams to predict the results of
Genetics monohybrid crosses involving codominance
or sex linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios.
Codominance
Codominance: a condition where two alleles of a gene are 18. Variation and Selection
equally dominant (50%)
Both alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype of 18.1. Variation
the heterozygote.
For example, if the parent phenotype is red and white, a Variation: differences between individuals of the same
co-dominant will have both red and white colour in the species
offspring. Both genetic and environmental factors cause
phenotypic variation
ABO Blood Group (Codominance and Multiple Continuous Variation: results in a range of phenotypes
between two extremes; examples include body length
Allele)
and body mass
Inheritance of blood group is an example of Discontinuous Variation: results in a limited number of
codominance phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. ABO blood
There are three alleles for the blood group given by the groups, seed shape in peas and seed colour in peas)
symbols IA, IB and It is usually caused by genes only, and genes and the
IO. environment cause continuous variation.
IA and IB are co-dominant
giving blood group AB or IAIB,
and both dominant to IO.

Sex-Linked Characteristics
Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the
gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome, making it
more common in one sex than in the other.

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Syllabus 18.1.5: You must be able to investigate and
describe examples of continuous and discontinuous Xerophytes live in deserts where water is scarce, and
variation evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features
are:
Deep roots reach the water far underground
Leaves have reduced spines with minimum surface
area for transpiration
Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain
Rolled leaves, leaf hairs, and stomata sunk in pits to
trap moist air
Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable to water
Stomata open at night and close at midday when
evaporation is highest
Mutation E.g. cactus and marram grass

Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.

Mutation: A genetic change.
Their features are:
Gene Mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface
Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed area for absorption and photosynthesis
Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random Minimal cuticle formation
fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves
populations Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata
of mutation open and clear
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often
absent

18.3. Selection
Natural Selection
In any environment, the individuals that have the best
adaptive features are the ones most likely to survive and
reproduce.

The greater chance of the best-adapted organisms

passing on genes.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant
18.2. Adaptive Features bacteria is an example of natural selection.
The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get
Adaptive Feature: an inherited (structural) feature that eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve.
helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its
environment Process of Natural Selection:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Food Web: showing a network of interconnected food
1. genetic variation within populations chains.
2. production of many offspring
3. struggle for survival, including competition for
resources
4. Individuals better adapted to the environment have a
greater chance of reproduction than others; these
individuals pass on their alleles to the next
generation.

Adaptation: the process of natural selection by which

populations become more suited to their environment over
many generations.

Artificial Selection Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain

by ingestion
Artificial Selection: breeds organisms with valued Producer: an organism that makes its organic nutrients,
characteristics together to produce offspring that share usually using energy from sunlight through
those valuable characteristics. photosynthesis
Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding
It can be used to produce organisms that are more
on other organisms.
economically valued
Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary,
For example, cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
tertiary and quaternary according to their position
easier to separate from grain, dogs that have a better in a food chain
appearance Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating
Process of Selective Breeding: plants
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
Selecting by individuals with desirable features animals
Crossing these individuals to produce the next Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from
generation dead or waste organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph)
Selection of offspring showing the desirable features Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food
chain, food web or ecological pyramid.

19. Organisms and their Primary consumer: eat vegetables

Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk

Environment Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon

Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels

because energy transfer is inefficient:
19.1. Energy Flow
The sun is the principal source of energy input to
biological systems.
Energy flow is NOT a cycle; it starts from the sun, and
then that energy is harnessed by plants, which are eaten
by animals, which other animals eat.
At each step, energy is lost to the environment.

19.2. Food Chains and Food Webs

Food Chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from
one organism to the next, beginning with a producer, for
example:

WWW.ZNOTES.ORG Copyright © 2025 ZNotes Education & Foundation. All Rights Reserved. This document is
authorised for personal use only by Daanya at (TGISB) The Grandeur International on 19/02/25.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
The pyramids of biomass are always pyramid-shaped or
Sun produces light, and less than 1% of the energy falls upright.
onto leaves.
Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy because of
transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength. 19.3. Nutrient Cycles
Primary consumers only get between 5-10% because
some parts are indigestible (e.g., cellulose) and do not Carbon Cycle
eat the whole plant.
The secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
the animal matter is more digestible & has a higher (plants)
energy value. It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding.
It is returned by respiration in plants and animals and
At each level, heat is lost by respiration.
decomposed by microorganisms.
Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans
eating animals because: Fossilisation is NOT needed anymore - from
2023 onwards
We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal
but to have the meat, we must feed the animal a lot of Nitrogen Cycle
plant material to get far less meat.
When raising an animal, plants lose energy to the
environment. Then, the animal loses energy to the
environment and does not use up all the plant material,
so it is inefficient.

Ecological Pyramids
| Pyramid of Numbers | Pyramid of Biomass | |----|----| |

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for

plants; these may exist in the root nodules where they
| live in symbiosis with the plants (nitrogen fixation), or
this can happen because of lightning or microorganisms
providing them through decomposition.
Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing
substances into nitrates for the plants (nitrification).
Plants absorb these substances and convert them into
proteins
Death and decay happen at each trophic level, leading to
stage one
Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they
| | Shows the number of each organism in a food chain | convert nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric
Pyramid, which shows the biomass | | When moving up the nitrogen
pyramid, the number of individuals decreases | (number of
individuals × their individual mass) |
19.4. Population

Population: a group of organisms of one species living in Agricultural Machinery to use larger areas of land and
the same area at the same time. improve efficiency
Community: all of the populations of different species in Chemical Fertilisers help crops grow better
an ecosystem. Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects
Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds
organisms and their environment interacting together. Selective Breeding to improve production by crop
plants and livestock
Factors Affecting the Rate of Population Growth
Large-scale Monoculture: the continuous production of
Food Supply: quantity and quality; snails need calcium one type of genetically identical crop.
to reproduce to make a shell.
Predation: if the predator population falls, the prey Positive Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture
population will rise. Increasing yield due to single crop specialisation
Disease: causes organisms to die, so a high death rate Lower food prices
partly cancels out the birth rate, meaning less population Reduce labour costs
growth, especially if the organism dies before giving Negative Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture
birth, or even population decline. If a natural disaster occurs, the whole crop could be
wiped out.
If pests & diseases attack crops, they could harm
19.5. Sigmoid Curve of Population them easily
Growth Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety
of species. This hinders biodiversity.
Lag phase: The number of mature, reproducing When insecticides are used persistently, the pests
individuals is low and they may be widely dispersed may eventually become resistant to them, reducing
Exponential (Log) phase: exponential growth occurs, their effectiveness
the conditions are ideal, and the maximum growth rate
Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production
is reached. Limiting factors do not limit growth much.
Welfare issues for the livestock
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as the
Diseases can spread easily among them
population has reached the “carrying capacity” of its
Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby
environment; when mortality rate = birth rate, the curve
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum
population size. 20.2. Habitat Destruction
Death phase: death rate > birth rate due to lack of food,
competition, etc. Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an
area.

20. Human Influences on

Ecosystems
20.1. Food Supply
Humans have increased food production because:

Reason for habitat destruction Fertilisers are put in soil by farmers.

Increased area for food crop growth, livestock Fertilisers with nitrates/detergents with phosphates
production, and housing leach into rivers and lakes after rain.
Extraction of natural resources Water plants grow more than usual
Freshwater and Marine pollution They block sunlight and kill plants underneath
By altering food webs and food chains, humans can They die and sink to the bottom
harm habitats. Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the
Effects of deforestation O2 and decreasing the O2
Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction concentration
Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation
CO2, thus global warming
Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil and go into 20.4. Conservation
rivers, making the water dirty & causing blockages,
and the soil becomes less fertile Sustainable Resource: one which is produced as rapidly as
Flooding: 75% of water is usually absorbed by it is removed from the environment so that it does not run
foliage, root systems or evaporates. After out
deforestation, water accumulates in valleys.
Some resources can be conserved and managed
20.3. Pollution sustainably but are limited to forests and fish stocks.

1. Forests can be conserved using education, protected

Pollution due to pesticides: areas, quotas and replanting.
Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat 2. Fish stocks can be conserved using education,
crops, but can kill other useful insects such as bees, closed seasons, protected areas, controlled net types
which are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the and mesh size, quotas and monitoring.
increase in the dose of toxin from one level of the food
Natural Resources:
chain to the next)
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals Water: used to grow food, keep it clean, provide power,
which eat the plants control fires, and drink. We get water constantly through
rainfall, but we use the planet’s freshwater faster than it
Non-biodegradable plastics: can be replenished.
Choke birds, fish and other animals Fossil fuels must be conserved as they will soon run out;
Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food therefore, they should be replaced with green energy.
Collect in rivers and get in the way of fish Recycling:
Global Warming: Water: water from sewage can be returned to the
Increase in the average temperature of the Earth environment for human use by sanitation and sewage
Methane from the burping of cows treatment
It started at the same time as humans began burning Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
fossil fuels raw materials for industry
Scientists believe fossil fuels are causing this – not Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles $\rightarrow$ fleece clothing
proven yet Metal: mining takes a lot of energy, so recycling saves
It increased carbon dioxide and methane concentrations energy
in the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect that Species and habitats need to be conserved because:
leads to climate change.

Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many

nutrients.

Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value) The sperm/gamete is collected from the male.
Maintaining biodiversity to reduce extinction Males can be chosen from different breeding
Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants = programmes to maximise genetic variation.
new drugs) The sperm is screened for quality checks.
Genetic resources are helpful to humans as well and are After checking, the sperm/semen is frozen, and the
lost when species disappear (DNA for genetic female is given drugs to induce ovulation.
engineering) The sperm/semen is then placed in the
Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed, vagina/uterus/oviduct, where the sperm/semen is
then the whole ecosystem could collapse inserted at the appropriate time for ovulation.

Endangered species:

How they become endangered: climate change, habitat

21. Biotechnology and
destruction, hunting, pollution and introduced species
If the population size drops, variation decreases
Genetic Modification
Endangered species can be conserved by monitoring and
protecting species and habitats, education, captive 21.1. Introduction
breeding programmes, and seed banks
Reasons for Conservation Programmes include: Bacteria are useful due to their rapid reproduction rate and
reducing extinction ability to make complex molecules.
protecting vulnerable environments
maintaining ecosystem functions by nutrient cycling
and resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and
genes
increase biodiversity

20.5. Artificial Insemination in Captive

Breeding Programmes

Why are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic

modification?

1. There are a few ethical concerns over their

manipulation and growth
2. The presence of plasmids
3. Producing complex molecules
4. Replicates rapidly

21.2. Biotechnology
Biofuel
Use plants to make sugars, which yeast then breaks
down to make ethanol.
This process also uses anaerobic respiration.

Bread-Making

Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in
the dough. milk), people can stop making lactase naturally and,
Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and therefore, can’t digest lactose.
glucose. This is used by yeast in respiration.
The dough is kept warm and moist (28°C). Yeast
ferments sugar, making carbon dioxide, which creates
bubbles, so bread rises.
Cooking (at 180°C) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and
hardens the outer surface.

Use of Enzymes in Biotechnology

Pectinase:

Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down

pectin)
Pectin helps plant walls stick together
If pectin is broke down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from Lactose-free milk production
the fruit Lactase made from yeast
Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear, not Lactase bound to the surface of alginate beads
cloudy Milk passed down beads
Biological Washing powders: Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose
Immobilized enzymes are reused
Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzymes
that help remove the stain 21.3. Fermenters
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in
the wash, releasing the enzyme Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier Penicillium.
for detergents to remove They require proper temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient
Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass, supply and waste products.
blood The stainless steel fermentation vessel contains a
Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil medium containing sugars and ammonium salts.
Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
as starch for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres nucleic acids
The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’
Lactase:
Probes monitor temperature and pH
Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus
A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a
temperature of 24°C.
Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended
(allowing access to nutrients and oxygen) while
maintaining an even temperature.
It is filtered to remove fungus and then can be
crystallized to make capsules.

Mycoprotein Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using

restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends.
The fungus Fusarium is cultured (grown) on an industrial Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same
scale in fermenters. restriction enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends.
These fermenters are large vats that can be kept at the Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA
optimum pH and temperature to grow. using DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid –
The fungus is grown in aerobic conditions and provided insertion of the plasmid into bacteria.
with glucose syrup as a food source. Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids,
The fungus grows and multiplies within the fermenter which make human protein as they express the gene
It is then harvested and purified to produce mycoprotein
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich food suitable for 21.5. Genetically Modified Crops
vegetarians, eg. It is used in QuornTM products.
| Advantages | Disadvantages | |----|----| | Uniform in
21.4. Genetic Modification shape – easy to transport/appeal to consumers | Natural
species may die | | Growing season shorter | Decrease
Genetic Modification: changing the genetic material of an biodiversity/genetic diversity | | Drought resistant – less
organism by removing, altering, or inserting individual genes water | Led to the development of superweeds – stronger
than GM | | Higher yields | No one knows the long-term
Examples of genetic modification: effects on humans | | Solve global hunger | Expensive
the insertion of human genes into bacteria to seeds |
produce human insulin
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
resistance to herbicides
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
resistance to insect pests
the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide
additional vitamins

Human Insulin in Bacteria

© ZNotes Education Ltd. & ZNotes Foundation 2024. All rights reserved.
This version was created by Daanya on Wed Feb 19 2025 for strictly personal use only.
These notes have been created by Zhan Xuan Chong for the 2023-2025 & 2026-2028 syllabus.
The document contains images and excerpts of text from educational resources available on the internet and printed books.
If you are the owner of such media, test or visual, utilized in this document and do not accept its usage then we urge you to contact us
and we would immediately replace said media. No part of this document may be copied or re-uploaded to another website.
Under no conditions may this document be distributed under the name of false author(s) or sold for financial gain.
"ZNotes" and the ZNotes logo are trademarks of ZNotes Education Limited (registration UK00003478331).

Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory 657f0a55853c5c4872101175 934
No ratings yet
Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory 657f0a55853c5c4872101175 934
35 pages
Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory v23
No ratings yet
Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory v23
34 pages
Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory 65074fd1d1320b07fdaed644 287
No ratings yet
Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory 65074fd1d1320b07fdaed644 287
35 pages
R - IGCSE Resources - Biology 0610 Revision, Techniques and Tools by Ayesha
No ratings yet
R - IGCSE Resources - Biology 0610 Revision, Techniques and Tools by Ayesha
76 pages
IGCSE Coordinated Sciences Practical Tests
0% (1)
IGCSE Coordinated Sciences Practical Tests
6 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Alternative To Practical
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Physics - Alternative To Practical
6 pages
Igcse Biology
No ratings yet
Igcse Biology
39 pages
Biology Learner's Guide 1
No ratings yet
Biology Learner's Guide 1
77 pages
2024 Updated Paper 6 Short Questions
0% (1)
2024 Updated Paper 6 Short Questions
8 pages
Coordinated Sciences
No ratings yet
Coordinated Sciences
166 pages
Znotes 2024 Updated
No ratings yet
Znotes 2024 Updated
24 pages
Edexcel IGCSE Triple Award Biology Experimental Method Notes
No ratings yet
Edexcel IGCSE Triple Award Biology Experimental Method Notes
17 pages
IGCSE Biology Revision Guide
No ratings yet
IGCSE Biology Revision Guide
33 pages
Chemistry Past Paper Common Qestions
No ratings yet
Chemistry Past Paper Common Qestions
19 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Biology - Alternative To Practical
100% (1)
CAIE-IGCSE-Biology - Alternative To Practical
9 pages
Chapter 18 Variation and Selection
No ratings yet
Chapter 18 Variation and Selection
28 pages
Cambridge IGCSE Biology Study Guide 3rd Edition Sample Pages
No ratings yet
Cambridge IGCSE Biology Study Guide 3rd Edition Sample Pages
23 pages
1: Experimental Techniques - Topic Questions Paper 6: Year Series Paper Number
No ratings yet
1: Experimental Techniques - Topic Questions Paper 6: Year Series Paper Number
8 pages
Igcse Paper 6 Notes.: 1.measurements and Observations. 1.1 Variables
No ratings yet
Igcse Paper 6 Notes.: 1.measurements and Observations. 1.1 Variables
5 pages
Cambridge Igcse Biology (0610) Biology p1 2017-2023
100% (2)
Cambridge Igcse Biology (0610) Biology p1 2017-2023
662 pages
Answers To Workbook
100% (1)
Answers To Workbook
25 pages
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Past and 1
No ratings yet
Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 Past and 1
130 pages
Paper 6 Notes
No ratings yet
Paper 6 Notes
28 pages
Biology Chapters 2,3,4 MCQ
No ratings yet
Biology Chapters 2,3,4 MCQ
46 pages
Biology Paper 6
No ratings yet
Biology Paper 6
7 pages
Year 9 Chemistry Revision 2023-24
50% (2)
Year 9 Chemistry Revision 2023-24
11 pages
Caie Checkpoint Science Chemistry v4
No ratings yet
Caie Checkpoint Science Chemistry v4
19 pages
IGCSE Chemistry 0620 42 MS FM25
No ratings yet
IGCSE Chemistry 0620 42 MS FM25
3 pages
Combined Science 0653 2025 2027
No ratings yet
Combined Science 0653 2025 2027
14 pages
DR Sally Saad Igcse Biology Notes 2024
No ratings yet
DR Sally Saad Igcse Biology Notes 2024
313 pages
Igcse Biology Definition
No ratings yet
Igcse Biology Definition
7 pages
EDEXCEL IGCSE Chemistry Practice Unit Test 1
100% (2)
EDEXCEL IGCSE Chemistry Practice Unit Test 1
7 pages
Bryan Earl, Doug Wilford - Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry Practical Skills Workbook - Hodder Education Group-Hodder Education
No ratings yet
Bryan Earl, Doug Wilford - Cambridge IGCSE™ Chemistry Practical Skills Workbook - Hodder Education Group-Hodder Education
146 pages
IGCSE Biology Notes
No ratings yet
IGCSE Biology Notes
50 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Biology - Alternative To Practical
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Biology - Alternative To Practical
9 pages
IGCSE Periodic Table
No ratings yet
IGCSE Periodic Table
1 page
Igcse Biology 2016 PDF
100% (1)
Igcse Biology 2016 PDF
92 pages
0610 2023 2025 Syllabus (Remarks Compare To Older Syllabus)
No ratings yet
0610 2023 2025 Syllabus (Remarks Compare To Older Syllabus)
61 pages
0610 BIOLOGY: MARK SCHEME For The October/November 2009 Question Paper For The Guidance of Teachers
No ratings yet
0610 BIOLOGY: MARK SCHEME For The October/November 2009 Question Paper For The Guidance of Teachers
10 pages
IGCSE Biology Practice Quiz
No ratings yet
IGCSE Biology Practice Quiz
7 pages
Chemistry ATP Notes - Aymaan Sayed
100% (5)
Chemistry ATP Notes - Aymaan Sayed
20 pages
CIE IGCSE Biology 2019 Specifcation/Syllabus (0610)
67% (12)
CIE IGCSE Biology 2019 Specifcation/Syllabus (0610)
63 pages
IGCSE Chemistry Workbook Topical
No ratings yet
IGCSE Chemistry Workbook Topical
652 pages
Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory v4
No ratings yet
Caie Igcse Biology 0610 Theory v4
33 pages
IGCSE Biology Paper 6 Practical Guide
50% (2)
IGCSE Biology Paper 6 Practical Guide
5 pages
Biology Tips and Tricks
No ratings yet
Biology Tips and Tricks
1 page
IGCSE-Biology Paper 1
100% (1)
IGCSE-Biology Paper 1
91 pages
Topical - Worksheets - For - Cambridge - IGCSE - Mathematics Mark Scheme
No ratings yet
Topical - Worksheets - For - Cambridge - IGCSE - Mathematics Mark Scheme
129 pages
Igcse Coordinated Sciences 0654 Combined Science 0 - 59cc8a591723ddab3bbdfff3 PDF
No ratings yet
Igcse Coordinated Sciences 0654 Combined Science 0 - 59cc8a591723ddab3bbdfff3 PDF
50 pages
0620 Chem Paper 6 Notes
100% (1)
0620 Chem Paper 6 Notes
6 pages
Caie Igcse Physics 0625 Alternative To Practical 6630fa988f927f7af2eee2a3 868
No ratings yet
Caie Igcse Physics 0625 Alternative To Practical 6630fa988f927f7af2eee2a3 868
5 pages
Biology (0610) s03 QP 6 Model Answer Final
67% (3)
Biology (0610) s03 QP 6 Model Answer Final
15 pages
Plant Nutrition 1 QP
No ratings yet
Plant Nutrition 1 QP
11 pages
Equations For Chemistry IGCSE 0620
100% (1)
Equations For Chemistry IGCSE 0620
4 pages
NOTES
No ratings yet
NOTES
21 pages
Chapter 1
No ratings yet
Chapter 1
48 pages
CAIE IGCSE Biology Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Biology Theory
49 pages
CAIE IGCSE Biology Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Biology Theory
48 pages
CAIE-IGCSE-Biology - Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE-IGCSE-Biology - Theory
46 pages
CAIE IGCSE Biology Theory
No ratings yet
CAIE IGCSE Biology Theory
45 pages
Memorandum of Understanding
No ratings yet
Memorandum of Understanding
2 pages
Revision - Circle Theorem
No ratings yet
Revision - Circle Theorem
20 pages
Studies After IGCSE A-Levels
No ratings yet
Studies After IGCSE A-Levels
21 pages
Unit 16 - Biology
No ratings yet
Unit 16 - Biology
5 pages
Trainer Brands Preferred by Students
No ratings yet
Trainer Brands Preferred by Students
6 pages
629-Article Text-2984-1-10-20210901
No ratings yet
629-Article Text-2984-1-10-20210901
6 pages
Criteria For Success
No ratings yet
Criteria For Success
3 pages
Maintaining The Atmosphere in A Description - Checklist
No ratings yet
Maintaining The Atmosphere in A Description - Checklist
2 pages
ISO 13959 Water For Haemodialysis and Related
No ratings yet
ISO 13959 Water For Haemodialysis and Related
20 pages
CHAPTER 4 Soil A Three Phase System
No ratings yet
CHAPTER 4 Soil A Three Phase System
5 pages
Thermodynamics of Polymer Blends PDF
No ratings yet
Thermodynamics of Polymer Blends PDF
5 pages
Common Chemical Compounds List
No ratings yet
Common Chemical Compounds List
2 pages
Chryso Delta D811: New Generation Plasticizing Admixture
No ratings yet
Chryso Delta D811: New Generation Plasticizing Admixture
1 page
Development of Portland Limestone Cement (PLC) in India Using Different Composition of Cement and Marginal Grade Limestone: A Sustainable Approach
No ratings yet
Development of Portland Limestone Cement (PLC) in India Using Different Composition of Cement and Marginal Grade Limestone: A Sustainable Approach
10 pages
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya MYSURU 2021-22: Chemistry Investigatory Project
No ratings yet
Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya MYSURU 2021-22: Chemistry Investigatory Project
14 pages
X Science QuestionPaper Set 2
No ratings yet
X Science QuestionPaper Set 2
8 pages
Enzymes Mind Map
No ratings yet
Enzymes Mind Map
1 page
Water Quality Parameters
No ratings yet
Water Quality Parameters
30 pages
1A03 2024 06 Eq Skeleton Notes
No ratings yet
1A03 2024 06 Eq Skeleton Notes
61 pages
Baypure CX 100 Solid G
No ratings yet
Baypure CX 100 Solid G
2 pages
Organic Chemistry - CHM 102 - 2018-19
100% (1)
Organic Chemistry - CHM 102 - 2018-19
231 pages
Common-Ion Effect in Chemistry
No ratings yet
Common-Ion Effect in Chemistry
11 pages
Xii STD Cbse Chemistry Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
No ratings yet
Xii STD Cbse Chemistry Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
4 pages
Groundwater Contamination Thesis
100% (3)
Groundwater Contamination Thesis
5 pages
Ascorbic Acid in Skin Health: Review
No ratings yet
Ascorbic Acid in Skin Health: Review
8 pages
OrganicChemistry10e SSM Ch03
No ratings yet
OrganicChemistry10e SSM Ch03
22 pages
Pierre R Ndong, Martin Signé, Patrice T Kenfack, Yves A Mbiangué, Gouet Bebga, Emmanuel Wenger
No ratings yet
Pierre R Ndong, Martin Signé, Patrice T Kenfack, Yves A Mbiangué, Gouet Bebga, Emmanuel Wenger
14 pages
Ductile Iron: Metallurgy
No ratings yet
Ductile Iron: Metallurgy
3 pages
Diethyl Ether
100% (1)
Diethyl Ether
10 pages
Chapter 2 - The Chemicals Components of The Cells
No ratings yet
Chapter 2 - The Chemicals Components of The Cells
4 pages
Module: 3 Food Lipids Lesson M-III.8: Edible Fats and Oils - Classification and Chemical Composition
No ratings yet
Module: 3 Food Lipids Lesson M-III.8: Edible Fats and Oils - Classification and Chemical Composition
7 pages
Solid Lipid Nanocarriers Review
No ratings yet
Solid Lipid Nanocarriers Review
25 pages
MFE-770 Novolac Vinyl Ester Resin: Technical Data Sheet
No ratings yet
MFE-770 Novolac Vinyl Ester Resin: Technical Data Sheet
2 pages
Geoffrey Michael Gadd - Fungi in Biogeochemical Cycles (British Mycological Society Symposia) (2006) PDF
100% (3)
Geoffrey Michael Gadd - Fungi in Biogeochemical Cycles (British Mycological Society Symposia) (2006) PDF
490 pages
Chemical Engineering Syllabus
No ratings yet
Chemical Engineering Syllabus
7 pages
WF Press Felts Cleaning
No ratings yet
WF Press Felts Cleaning
11 pages
Engg. Chemistry (4300006) - Question Bank
No ratings yet
Engg. Chemistry (4300006) - Question Bank
4 pages
bccvs06 Rev 2021 Spintrol H P Nou Lot 6577
No ratings yet
bccvs06 Rev 2021 Spintrol H P Nou Lot 6577
4 pages