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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 SOLAR SYSTEM, ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH 3-22
1.1 SOLAR SYSTEM
1.2 COMPONENTS OF SOLAR SYSTEM
1.3 LATITUDES & LONGITUDES
1.4 ROTATION, REVOLUTION & INCLINATION OF EARTH
1.5 INTERIOR OF EARTH
1.6 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
2 TECTONIC GEOGRAPHY 23-46
2.1 GEOMORPHIC MOVEMENT
2.2 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
2.3 MID-OCEANIC RIDGE (MOR)
2.4 SEA FLOOR SPREADING
2.5 PLATE TECTONICS
2.6 PLATE BOUNDARIES
2.7 VOLCANISM
2.8 TYPES OF ROCKS
2.9 EARTHQUAKE
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
3 CLIMATOLOGY: ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION 47-66
3.1 ATMOSPHERE
3.2 HEAT BUDGET
3.3 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
3.4 THERMALLY & DYNAMICALLY INDUCED CELL
3.5 PRESSURE SYSTEM & CIRCULATION
3.6 TYPES OF RAINFALL
3.7 TROPICAL CYCLONES
3.8 GEOSTROPHIC WINDS
3.9 AIRMASS & FRONTS
3.10 EL- NIÑO & LA-NINA
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
4 OCEANOGRAPHY 67-85
4.1 OCEAN RELIEF
4.2 OCEAN MOVEMENT
4.3 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS
4.4 SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS
4.5 CORAL REEFS
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
5 INDIAN GEOGRAPHY (PART 1) 86-105
5.1 INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
5.2 HIMALAYAN RANGES
5.3 INDO-GANGETIC PLAINS
5.4 PENINSULAR PLATEAU AND HILLS
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)
6 INDIAN GEOGRAPHY (PART 2) 106-134
6.1 DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA
6.2 INDIAN MONSOON

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6.3 KOPPENS CLASSIFICATION

6.4 NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA
6.5 MAJOR SOIL GROUPS OF INDIA
UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

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1 SOLAR SYSTEM, ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF THE EARTH

MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS
• Big Bang theory, Cosmic microwave background
• Asteroids, comets, meteors, Dwarf Planet.
• Earth's revolution, rotation & it's axis, Solstices, Equinox, Variation in length of day & night, seasons &
solar system.
• Geomagnetism and Geomagnetic reversal,
• CHON (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen)

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Terms in News: Green Comet
• Big Bang Theory and Evidences: Red shift, Blue shift, Solar Flares,
• Geomagnetic Storms
• Sunspots and ‘splitting dent’
• Iceland’s earthquakes.

1.1 SOLAR SYSTEM

• There are many planetary systems like the Earth’s in the universe, with planets orbiting a host star.
• The Earth’s planetary system is named the "solar" system because the Earth’s Sun is named Sol, after
the Latin word for Sun, "solis," and anything related to the Sun is called as "solar."
• Earth’s solar system consists of star, the Sun and everything bound to it by gravity — the planets, dwarf
planets such as Pluto, dozens of moons and millions of asteroids, comets and meteoroids.

1.1.1 SIZE OF SOLAR SYSTEM

• Earth’s solar system extends much farther than the eight planets that orbit the Sun. The solar system
also includes the Kuiper Belt that lies past Neptune's orbit.
• Kuiper Belt is a sparsely occupied ring of icy bodies, almost all smaller than the most popular Kuiper Belt
Object, dwarf planet Pluto. Beyond the fringes of the Kuiper belt is the Oort cloud.

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• Oort Cloud is a giant spherical shell surrounds our solar system. The Oort cloud is made of icy pieces of
space debris the sizes of mountains and sometimes larger, orbiting our Sun as far as 1.6 light years away.
The Oort cloud is the boundary of the Sun's gravitational influence, where orbiting objects can turn
around and return closer to our Sun.
1.1.2 ORIGIN OF SOLAR SYSTEM
• Our solar system formed about 4.5 billion years ago from a dense cloud of interstellar gas and dust.
• The cloud collapsed, possibly due to the shockwave of a nearby exploding star, called a supernova.
When this dust cloud collapsed, it formed a solar nebula—a spinning, swirling disk of material.
• At the center, gravity pulled more and more material in. Eventually the pressure in the core was so great
that hydrogen atoms began to combine and form helium, releasing a tremendous amount of energy.
With that, our Sun was born, and it eventually amassed more than 99 percent of the available matter.
• Matter farther out in the disk was also clumping together. These clumps smashed into one another,
forming larger and larger objects.
• Some of them grew big enough for their gravity to shape them into spheres, becoming planets, dwarf
planets and large moons.
• In other cases, planets did not form: the asteroid belt is made of bits and pieces of the early solar system
that could never quite come together into a planet. Other smaller leftover pieces became asteroids,
comets, meteoroids, and small, irregular moons.
1.1.3 STRUCTURE OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
• The order and arrangement of the planets and other bodies in our solar system is due to the way the
solar system formed.
• Nearest the Sun, only rocky material could withstand the heat when the solar system was young. For
this reason, the first four planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars—are terrestrial planets. They're
small with solid, rocky surfaces.
• Meanwhile, materials we are used to seeing as ice, liquid or gas settled in the outer regions of the young
solar system. Gravity pulled these materials together, and that is where we find gas giants Jupiter and
Saturn and ice giants Uranus and Neptune.
1.2 COMPONENTS OF SOLAR SYSTEM
1.2.1 SUN
• The Sun is the Earth’s closest star. The diameter of the Sun is
1,392,000 kilometers.
• It is believed to be over 4 billion years old.
• The Sun spins slowly on its axis as it revolves around the
galaxy. It takes 25 days to turn once on its axis.
• The Sun is a large ball of gas consisting mostly of hydrogen
and helium.
• The Sun is about 109 times larger than Earth.
• The center, or core, of the Sun is very hot.
• The temperature in its core is estimated to be over
15,000,000 degrees Celsius.
• The Sun is mostly made up of hydrogen (about 92% of the
number of atoms, 75% of the mass).
• Helium can also be found in the Sun (7.8% of the number of
atoms and 25% of the mass).
• The other 0.1% is made up of heavier elements, mainly carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, neon, magnesium,
silicon and iron.

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• The Sun is neither a solid nor a gas but is actually plasma. This plasma is tenuous and gaseous near the
surface, but gets denser down towards the Sun's fusion core.
• The Sun can be divided into 6 layers: Core, Radiative zone, Convective zone, Photosphere,
Chromosphere and Corona.
• The sun’s energy comes from within the sun itself (core of the sun). Like most stars, the sun is made up
mostly of hydrogen and helium atoms in a plasma state. The sun generates energy from a process
called nuclear fusion.

1.2.2 PLANETS
• Definition according to International Astronomical Union (IAU): A planet is a celestial body that with
the following three conditions: Inner Planets Outer Planets
(a) It is in orbit around the Sun.
Small and Rocky Large and Gaseous
(b) It has sufficient mass for its self-
gravity to overcome rigid body Solid Surface No solid Surface
forces so that it assumes a Low Mass High Mass
hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly High Density Low Density
round) shape.
(c) It has cleared the neighbourhood Close to sun Far from Sun
around its orbit. Closely spaced Orbits Separated Orbits
• Until 2006, there were nine planets Few Moons (if any) Many Moons
(including Pluto), but in 2006, the 9th No Rings Many Rings
Pluto was categorized as the dwarf
planet by the International Astronomical Terrestrial Planets Gas Giants
Union (IAU). Mercury, Venus, Eartha and Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus
Mars and Neptune
1.2.3 COMETS, METEORS, METEORITES & METEOROID
A. Comets
• Comets are frozen leftovers from the formation of the solar system composed of dust, rock and ices.
• They range from a few miles to tens of miles wide, but as they orbit closer to the sun, they heat up and
spew gases and dust into a glowing head that can be larger than a planet. This material forms a tail that
stretches millions of miles.
• There are likely billions of comets orbiting our Sun in the Kuiper Belt and even more distant Oort cloud.
• The current number of known comets is 3,690.

What is the ‘green comet’?

• It approached the sun in the middle of January 2023, it is now moving away from it, along its own orbit.
• The orbit indicates it comes from the edge of our solar system, a distant reservoir of comets we call the
Oort cloud. It is the most distant region of our solar system and ‘Home of the Comets’.

Why the colour Green?

• Comets are frozen rocky or gas-filled objects that are remnants of the formation of the solar system.
• Due to their composition, characteristics and the path they move in, they tend to leave a light behind
them. Here, the comet itself is green (called the head of the comet) and emits a whitish light behind it (often
called the tail of the comet).
• The green glow is thought to arise from the presence of diatomic carbon – pairs of carbon atoms that are
bound together – in the head of the comet. The molecule emits green light when excited by the ultraviolet
rays in solar radiation
Distance from Earth: The green comet could be at a distance of 2.5 light minutes from Earth, meaning a “mere” 27
million miles.

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B. Meteors, Meteorites & Meteoroid

• They’re all related to the flashes of light
called “shooting stars” sometimes seen
streaking across the sky.
• Meteoroids are objects in space that range
in size from dust grains to small asteroids.
• When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere
(or that of another planet, like Mars) at high
speed and burn up, they are called meteors.
• When a meteoroid survives a trip through
the atmosphere and hits the ground, it’s
called a meteorite.

1.2.4 DWARF PLANETS, MOONS & ASTEROIDS

A. Dwarf Planets
• Definition according to IAU – A dwarf planet
is a celestial body that must fulfil following
four conditions:
(a) It is in orbit around the Sun.
(b) It has sufficient mass for its self-gravity
to overcome rigid body forces so that it
assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape.
(c) It has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
(d) It is not a satellite.
• The first five recognized dwarf planets are Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Makemake and Haumea.
Ceres Pluto
• Scientists describe Ceres as an ‘embryonic planet’. • Pluto was long considered our solar system’s ninth
Gravitational perturbations from Jupiter billions of planet.
years ago prevented it from becoming a full-fledged • After the discovery of similar bodies deeper in the
planet. distant Kuiper Belt, icy Pluto was reclassified as a
• Ceres is in the main asteroid belt between Mars and dwarf planet.
Jupiter. • Pluto is named for the Roman god of the
• Ceres is named for the ancient Roman goddess of underworld.
corn and harvests.
Eris Makemake
• Located in the Kuiper belt, Eris is often so far from • Makemake, along with Eris, was one of the objects
the sun that its atmosphere collapses and freezes on whose discovery prompted the IAU to reconsider
the surface in an icy glaze. The coating gleams the definition of a planet and to create the new
brightly, reflecting as much sunlight as freshly fallen group of dwarf planets.
snow. • It is also located in the Kuiper Belt.
• Eris is named for the ancient Greek goddess of • Makemake is named after the god of fertility in
discord and strife. Rapanui mythology.
Haumea
• Oddly shaped Haumea is one of the fastest rotating large objects in our solar system. The quick spin elongated
the dwarf planet into the unique shape.
• It is roughly the same size as Pluto and is too located in the Kuiper Belt.
• Haumea is named for the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth and fertility.

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B. Moons
• Moons – also known as natural satellites – orbit planets and asteroids in our solar system.
• Earth has one moon, and there are more than 200 moons in our solar system.
• Most of the major planets – all except Mercury and Venus – have moons.
• Pluto and some other dwarf planets, as well as many asteroids, also have small moons.
• Saturn and Jupiter have the most moons, with dozens orbiting each of the two giant planets.
• Moons come in many shapes, sizes and types. A few have atmospheres and even hidden oceans
beneath their surfaces.
• Most planetary moons probably formed from the discs of gas and dust circulating around planets in the
early solar system, though some are ‘captured’ objects that formed elsewhere and fell into orbit around
larger worlds.
C. Asteroid
• Asteroids, sometimes called minor planets, are rocky remnants
left over from the early formation of the solar system.
• Most of this ancient space rubble can be found orbiting the sun
between Mars and Jupiter within the main asteroid belt.
• Asteroids range in size from Vesta—the largest at about 329
miles (530 kms) in diameter - to bodies that are less than 33 feet
(10 meters) across.
• The total mass of all the asteroids combined is less than that of
Earth's Moon.
• Most asteroids are irregularly shaped, though a few are nearly
spherical, and they are often pitted or cratered.
• As they revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits, the asteroids
also rotate; varies from 3 to 10 years.
• More than 150 asteroids are known to have a small companion
moon (some have two moons). There are also binary (double) asteroids, in which two rocky bodies of
roughly equal size orbit each other, as well as triple asteroid systems.
• Asteroids are too small to have their own atmosphere and they revolve around the Sun.

ASTEROIDS ARE DIVIDED INTO THREE CATEGORIES

1. Asteroids in main asteroid belt, between Mars and POTENTIALLY HAZARDOUS ASTEROIDS (PHAS)
Jupiter. • PHAs are currently defined based on parameters
- Largest asteroid between Mars and Jupiter that measure the asteroid’s potential to make
asteroid belt: Vesta. threatening close approaches to the Earth.
2. Trojans (name comes from Greek mythology), which • All asteroids with a Minimum Orbit Intersection
are asteroids that share an orbit with a larger planet. Distance (MOID) of 0.05 au or less and an absolute
- Jupiter, Neptune, Mars and Earth Trojans were magnitude (H) of 22.0 or less are considered PHAs.
reported by NASA. • Asteroid Apophis, first detected in 2004 was
- Jupiter asteroids can be found in what are recently officially taken off from the NASA’s
referred to as “swarms” Potentially Hazardous Asteroids list.
3. Near-Earth Asteroids (NEA), which has orbits that - Named after ancient Egyptian god of ‘chaos
pass close to the Earth. and darkness’.

Those that cross the Earth’s orbit are called Earth-crossers. More than 10,000 such asteroids are known, of which
over 1,400 are classified as potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs).

1.3 LATITUDES & LONGITUDES

• Latitudes and Longitudes are imaginary lines used to determine the location of a place on earth.

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• The shape of the earth is Geoid and the location of a place on the earth can be mentioned in terms of
latitudes and longitudes. Example: The location of New Delhi is 28° N, 77° E.

1.3.1 LATITUDE
• Latitude is the measurement (angular distance) of distance north or south of the Equator. It is measured
with 180 imaginary lines that form circles around the Earth east-west, parallel to the Equator. These
lines are known as parallels.
• A circle of latitude is an imaginary ring linking all points sharing a parallel. All latitude are concentric
circle.
• The Equator is the line of 0 degrees latitude. Each parallel measures one degree north or south of the
Equator, with 90 degrees north of the Equator and 90 degrees south of the Equator. The latitude of the
North Pole is 90 degrees N, and the latitude of the South Pole is 90 degrees S.
• One degree of latitude, called an arcdegree, covers about 111 kilometers (69 miles). Because of the
Earth's curvature, the farther the circles are from the Equator, the smaller they are. At the North and
South Poles, arcdegrees are simply points.
• Degrees of latitude are divided into 60 minutes. One minute of latitude covers about 1.8 kilometers
(1.1 miles).
• As the earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is a
little longer than that at the equator. For example at the equator (0°) it is 68.704 miles, at 45° it is 69.054
miles and at the poles it is 69.407 miles. The average is taken as 69 miles (111km).
A. Important Parallels
• Besides the equator (0°), the North Pole (90°N) and the South Pole (90° S), there are four important
parallels of latitudes:
- Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the Northern Hemisphere: The Tropic of Cancer marks the location
where the sun reaches the zenith at this latitude. The summer solstice, which occurs on either June
20 or 21 of each year, marks the day on which the sun shines vertically over this parallel.
- Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Southern Hemisphere: Moving every year, the Tropic of
Capricorn is the parallel line of latitude. The winter solstice, which occurs on either December 21
or 22 of each year, marks the day on which the sun shines vertically over this line.
- Arctic Circle at 66½° north of the equator: The region above the Arctic Circle, which includes the
North Pole, is known as the Arctic.
- Antarctic Circle at 66½° south of the equator: The region south of the Antarctic Circle, which
includes the South Pole, is known as the Antarctic.

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B. Heat Zones of the Earth

• Torrid Zone: The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between the
Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. This area, therefore, receives the maximum heat and is
called the Torrid Zone.
• Temperate Zones: The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn.
- The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards the poles. As such, the areas bounded by
the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle in the Northern Hemisphere, and the Tropic of Capricorn
and the Antarctic Circle in the Southern Hemisphere, have moderate temperatures. These are,
therefore, called Temperate Zones.
• Frigid Zones: Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole in the Northern Hemisphere and
the Antarctic Circle and the South Pole in the Southern Hemisphere, are very cold.
- It is because here the sun does not rise much above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always
slanting and provide less heat. These are, therefore, called Frigid Zones (very cold).

1.3.2 LONGITUDE
• Unlike the parallels of latitude which are circles, the meridians of longitude are semi-circles that
converge at the poles.
• Longitude lines run north-south and mark the position east-west of a point. Lines of longitude are
known as meridians. These lines run from pole to pole, crossing the equator at right angles.
• There are 360 degrees of longitude and the longitude line of 0 degrees is known as the Prime Meridian
and it divides the world into the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere (-180 degrees of
longitude west and 180 degrees of longitude east).
• The distance between longitudes narrows the further away from the equator. The distance between
longitudes at the equator is the same as latitude, roughly 69 miles. At 45 degrees north or south, the
distance between is about 49 miles (79 km).
• The distance between longitudes reaches zero at the poles as the lines of meridian converge at that
point.
• Prime Meridian: The line of longitude where the degree is zero is known as the Prime Meridian. Passing
through the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, England, it is also known as the Greenwich Meridian and
divides the earth into two equal halves known as the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere.
1.3.3 INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE
• The line on earth where one calendar day becomes the next
is known as the International Date Line (IDL).
• The line is generally found 180 degrees from the Prime
Meridian but the line circumvents some regions and islands
to avoid dividing contiguous pieces of regions and countries
into two separate days.
• There are 23 one-hour slices and two 30 minutes slices that
divide the world up into different time zones.
• Traveling from east to west over the International Date Line
advances the calendar by one day.

1.4 ROTATION, REVOLUTION & INCLINATION OF EARTH

• Imagine a line passing through the center of Earth that goes through both the North Pole and the South
Pole. This imaginary line is called an axis. Earth’s rotational axis makes an angle of 23.5° with the normal
i.e. it makes an angle of 66.5° with the orbital plane. Orbital plane is the plane of earth’s orbit around
the Sun.

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1.4.1 EARTH’S ROTATION

• Earth spins around its axis, this spinning
movement is called Earth’s rotation.
• An observer in space will see that Earth
requires 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4 seconds
to make one complete rotation on its axis.
But because Earth moves around the Sun at
the same time that it is rotating, the planet
must turn just a little bit more to reach the
same place relative to the Sun. Hence the
length of a day on Earth is actually 24 hours.
• At the equator, the Earth rotates at a speed
of about 1,700 km per hour, but at the poles
the movement speed is nearly nothing.
• The change between day and night is
caused by the rotation of the Earth on its
axis. If the Earth did not rotate as it does, the
day/night cycle would be very different or
possibly even non-existent.
• The changing lengths of days and nights
depends on where the person is on Earth and
the time of year.
• Also, daylight hours are affected by the tilt of the Earth's axis and its path around the sun.
A. Longer and Shorter Days
• Although a solar day is 24 hours, not every
day has 12 hours of daylight and 12 hours of
night.
• Daytime is shorter in winter than in
summer. This is because the Earth’s
imaginary axis isn’t straight up and down, it
is tilted 23.5 degrees.
• As the Earth moves around the sun during a
year, the northern half of the Earth is tilted
towards the sun in the summer, making
daytime longer than night.
• In winter, this reverses; the earth tilts away
from the sun and night time becomes longer.
• In the spring and fall, the tilt is neither
toward or away from the sun but
somewhere between, so day and night are
more the same at these times of the year.

B. Why are days always longer than nights at the equator?

• If there was no atmosphere, there would be no refraction and the daytime and night time would be
near equal at the equator, at least during equinoxes.
• But due to atmosphere, the sun’s rays get refracted (bending of light).
- Refraction is particularly stronger during the morning and the evening time when the sun’s rays
are slant.

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• Even though the actual sun is below the horizon, its apparent image would appear above the horizon
due to refraction. This makes the days longer than nights at the equator.

C. Position on Earth
• The person’s place on the Earth relative to the equator also affects the number of daylight hours one
gets in a solar day.
• For example, during summer in the Northern Hemisphere, daylight hours increase the farther north you
go; at this time, the Arctic gets very little night-time darkness.
• In the winter, daytime is shorter the farther north you go. The seasonal changes in daylight hours are
small near the equator and more extreme close to the poles.

1.4.2 EARTH’S REVOLUTION

• At the same time that the Earth spins on its
axis, it also orbits, or revolves around the
Sun. This movement is called revolution.
• For Earth to make one complete revolution
around the Sun takes 365.24 days. This
amount of time is the definition of one year.
- Six hours saved every year are added to
make one day (24 hours) over a span of
four years. This surplus day is added to
the month of February. Thus every
fourth year, February is of 29 days
instead of 28 days. Such a year with 366
days is called a leap year.
• Earth’s orbital path is an ellipse so the
planet is sometimes farther away from the
Sun than at other times.
- The closest Earth gets to the Sun each
year is at perihelion (147 million km) on
about January 3rd and the furthest is at
aphelion (152 million km) on July 4th.
- Earth’s elliptical orbit has nothing to do
with Earth’s seasons.
• During one revolution around the Sun, Earth travels at an average distance of about 150 million km.
• Earth revolves around the Sun at an average speed of about 27 km per second, but the speed is not
constant. The planet moves slower when it is at aphelion and faster when it is at perihelion.
• Why different seasons on Earth?
- The reason the Earth has seasons is that it is tilted 23 ½ degree on its axis.

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1.5 INTERIOR OF EARTH

• Inside it the Earth has its distinct layers, the heaviest materials appear in the centre and lighter liquid
occupy the mantle and less dense liquids and gases are found at the top.
- These layers as the iron core, the rocky mantle and crust, the liquid ocean and the gaseous
atmosphere.
• More than 95% of the variations in composition and temperature within Earth are due to this seemingly
simple layered structure.
• In addition to Earth’s layers, small horizontal variations in composition and temperature at various
depths verify that the interior of the Earth is a dynamic place.
• The rocks of Earth’s mantle and crust are constantly moving because of plate tectonics. In addition,
material is continuously recycling between the surface and the deep interior.
• It is also from Earth’s deep interior that the water and air of our oceans and atmosphere are replenished,
allowing life to exist at the surface.
• The configuration of the surface of the earth is largely a product of the processes operating in the
interior of the earth.
• Exogenic as well as endogenic processes are constantly shaping the landscape.

Direct Source Indirect Source

•By Digging through the earth •Increase in pressure,temperature and
•Deep mining of land area and 'Deep density of the material increases with
Ocean Drilling Project' and depth.
'Integrated Ocean Drilling Project'. •Meteors that at times reach the earth.
•Volcanic eruption forms as and when the • seismic activity.
molten material (magma) is thrown onto •Magnetic field and Gravitation
the surface of the earth,

1.5.1 SEISMIC WAVES

• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth’s layers and are a result of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large human-made explosions.
The terms seismic waves and earthquake waves are often used interchangeably.
• The refraction or reflection of seismic waves is used for research into the structure of the Earth’s interior.
• A seismograph, or seismometer, is an instrument used to detect and record earthquakes. The records
obtained from seismographs, called seismograms, provide useful information about the nature of
seismic waves.
• Seismograms reveal that two main types of seismic waves (body waves and surface waves) are
generated by the slippage of a rock mass.

1.5.2 INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF EARTH

• The interior of the earth is made up of several concentric layers of which the crust, the mantle,
the outer core and the inner core are significant because of their unique physical and chemical
properties. The crust is a silicate solid, the mantle is a viscous molten rock, the outer core is a viscous
liquid, and the inner core is a dense solid.
• Mechanically, the earth’s layers can be divided into following categories:
1. Lithosphere
2. Asthenosphere
3. Mesospheric mantle (part of the Earth’s mantle below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere),
4. Outer core and Inner core
• Chemically, Earth can be divided into following categories:
1. Crust

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2. Upper mantle
3. Lower mantle
4. Outer core and Inner core

A. The Crust
• The crust is the outermost layer of the earth making up 0.5-1.0 per cent of the earth’s volume and less
than 1 per cent of Earth’s mass.
• Density increases with depth, and the average density is about 2.7 g/cm3 (average density of the earth
is 5.51 g/cm³).
• The thickness of the crust varies in the range of range of 5-30 km in case of the oceanic crust and as 50-
70 km in case of
the continental
crust.
• The continental
crust can be
thicker than 70 km
in the areas of
major mountain
systems. It is as
much as 70-100
km thick in the
Himalayan region.
• The temperature
of the crust
increases with
depth, reaching
values typically in the range from about 200 °C to 400 °C at the boundary with the underlying mantle.
• The temperature increases by as much as 30 °C for every kilometre in the upper part of the crust.
• The outer covering of the crust is of sedimentary material and below that lie crystalline, igneous and
metamorphic rocks which are acidic in nature.
• The lower layer of the crust consists of basaltic and ultra-basic rocks.
• The continents are composed of lighter silicates — silica + aluminium (also called sial) while the oceans
have the heavier silicates — silica + magnesium (also called sima).
• The continental crust is composed of lighter (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks,
like granite.

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• The oceanic crust, on the other hand, is composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous
rocks, like basalt.
Most Abundant Elements of the Earth’s Crust

B. Lithosphere
• The lithosphere is the rigid outer part of the earth with thickness varying from 10-200 km. It is includes
the crust and the upper part of the mantle.
• The lithosphere is broken into tectonic plates (lithospheric plates), and the movement of these tectonic
plates cause large-scale changes in the earth’s geological structure (folding, faulting).
• The source of heat that drives plate tectonics is the primordial heat left over from the planet’s formation
as well as the radioactive decay of uranium, thorium, and potassium in Earth’s crust and mantle.
C. The Mantle
• It forms about 83 per cent of the earth’s volume and holds 67% of the earth’s mass. It extends from
Moho’s discontinuity to a depth of 2,900 km.
• The density of the upper mantle varies between 2.9 g/cm3 and 3.3 g/cm3. The lower mantle extends
beyond the asthenosphere. It is in a solid state.
• The density ranges from 3.3 g/cm3 to 5.7 g/cm3 in the lower mantle.
• The mantle is composed of silicate rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying
crust.
• Regarding its constituent elements, the mantle is made up of 45% oxygen, 21% silicon, and 23%
magnesium.
• In the mantle, temperatures range from approximately 200 °C at the upper boundary with the crust to
approximately 4,000 °C at the core-mantle boundary.
• Because of the temperature difference, there is a convective material circulation in the mantle
(although solid, the high temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently
ductile).
• Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of tectonic plates.
• High-pressure conditions ought to inhibit seismicity in the mantle. However, in subduction zones,
earthquakes are observed down to 670 km (420 mi).
D. Asthenosphere
• The upper portion of the mantle is called as asthenosphere (astheno means weak). It lies just below the
lithosphere extending up to 80-200 km.
• It is highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile and its density is higher than that of the crust.

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• These properties of the asthenosphere aid in plate tectonic movement and isotactic adjustments (the
elevated part at one part of the crust area is counterbalanced by a depressed part at another).
• It is the main source of magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic eruptions.
E. The Outer Core
• The outer core, surrounding
the inner core, lies between
2900 km and 5100 km below
the earth’s surface.
• The outer core is composed
of iron mixed with nickel (Ni
Fe) and trace amounts of
lighter elements.
• The outer core is not under
enough pressure to be solid,
so it is liquid even though it
has a composition similar to
the inner core.
• The density of the outer core
ranges from 9.9
g/cm3 to 12.2 g/cm3.
• The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 °C in the outer regions to 6000 °C near the inner
core.
• Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis Effect, gives rise
to Earth’s magnetic field.
F. Inner Core
• The inner core is a hot, dense ball of (mostly) iron. It has a radius of about 1,220 km. Temperature in
the inner core is about 5,200° Celsius. The pressure is nearly 3.6 million atmosphere.
• The temperature of the inner core is far above the melting point of iron. However, unlike the outer core,
the inner core is not liquid or even molten. The inner core’s intense pressure - the entire rest of the
planet and its atmosphere - prevents the iron from melting.
- The pressure and density are simply too great for the iron atoms to move into a liquid state. Because
of this unusual set of circumstances, some geophysicists prefer to interpret the inner core not as a
solid, but as a plasma behaving as a solid.
• The liquid outer core separates the inner core from the rest of the Earth, and as a result, the inner core
rotates a little differently than the rest of the planet. It rotates eastward, like the surface, but it’s a
little faster, making an extra rotation about every 1,000 years.
• Geoscientists think that the iron crystals in the inner core are arranged in an ‘hcp’ (hexagonal close-
packed) pattern. The crystals align north-south, along with Earth’s axis of rotation and magnetic field.
• The orientation of the crystal structure means that seismic waves travel faster when going north-south
than when going east-west. Seismic waves travel four seconds faster pole-to-pole than through the
Equator.
• Growth in the Inner Core:
- As the entire Earth slowly cools, the inner core grows by about a millimeter every year. The inner
core grows as bits of the liquid outer core solidify or crystallize.
- The growth of the inner core is not uniform. It occurs in lumps and bunches and is influenced by
activity in the mantle.
- The core will never ‘freeze over’. The crystallization process is very slow, and the constant
radioactive decay of Earth’s interior slows it even further. Scientists estimate it would take about

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91 billion years for the core to completely solidify - but the sun will burn out in a fraction of that
time (about 5 billion years).
1.5.3 SEISMIC DISCONTINUITIES
• Seismic discontinuities are the regions in the Earth where seismic waves behave a lot different compared
to the surrounding regions due to a marked change in physical or chemical properties.
1. Conord Discontinuity: Lies between upper and lower rust.
2. Mohorovicc Discontinuity (Moho): Separates the crust from upper mantle.
3. Repiti Discontinuity: Lies between upper and lower mantle.
4. Gutenberg Discontinuity: Lies between the mantle and the outer core.
5. Lehmann Discontinuity: Separates outer core and inner core.

1.6 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

1.6.1 DYNAMO THEORY
• Walter M. Elsasser, considered a ‘father’ of the
presently accepted dynamo theory as an
explanation of the Earth's magnetism. Dynamo
theory describes the process through which a
rotating, convecting, and electrically conducting
fluid acts to maintain a magnetic field.
• In geophysics, dynamo theory proposes a
mechanism by which a celestial body such as the
Earth or a star generates a magnetic field. It
explains the origin of Earth’s main magnetic field in
terms of a self-exciting (or self-sustaining)
dynamo.
• Earth’s magnetic field is generated by electric
currents due to the motion of convection
currents of a mixture of molten iron and nickel in
the Earth's outer core - these convection currents
are caused by heat escaping from the core, a
natural process called a geodynamic.

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1.6.2 MAGNETIC POLES

• The Earth is associated with the geomagnetic field that has an S (N) – pole of a magnet near the North
(South) Pole.
• A magnetic compass, therefore, approximately points toward the north. However, the pointing direction
is slightly different from the true north by an angle called declination.
• The declination measures the direction to the magnetic north pole with respect to the direction to the
geographic North Pole (Earth’s axis of rotation).
• Also, two pairs of poles can be defined for the
geomagnetic field: the geomagnetic poles and
the magnetic poles.
• The magnetic north corresponds to neither
pole, since the geomagnetic field actually has
a more complicated shape than a magnetic
field generated by a bar magnet. Moreover, a
magnetic needle suspended at a center of
balance does not keep horizontal. As a rule,
the N-pole dips downward by an angle called
inclination in the northern hemisphere. The
inclination measures the downward tilt of the
magnetic lines of force at any location - what
a compass would show if tilted on its side.
• The field is not completely dipolar and
it changes (its rate of change changes as well)
with both location and time. Therefore the
magnetic poles are not located in the same place as the north and south geographic poles of the earth.
• The Geomagnetic poles (dipole poles) are the intersections of the Earth's surface and the axis of a bar
magnet hypothetically placed at the center the Earth by which we approximate the geomagnetic field.
There is such a pole in each hemisphere, and the poles are called as ‘the geomagnetic north pole’ and
‘the geomagnetic south pole’, respectively.
• On the other hand, the magnetic poles are the points at which magnetic needles become vertical. There
also are ‘the magnetic north pole’ and ‘the magnetic south pole’.
• The geomagnetic or magnetic south (north) poles correspond to the N (S) -pole of a magnet. These poles
are drifting according to slow and smooth change in the geomagnetic field called the geomagnetic
secular variation.

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• Earth’s magnetic field is similar to a dipole field generated by a bar magnet with a north and a south
pole. The field lines converge (point vertically downward) at the north magnetic pole and emanate
(point vertically upward) from the south magnetic pole.
• The imaginary bar magnet has an axis with a tilt of about 11 degrees compared to earth's axis of rotation
and is offset from Earth's centre by about 550 kilometers.

1.6.3 GEOMAGNETIC REVERSAL

• A geomagnetic reversal or a reversal in earth’s magnetic field is a change in earth’s magnetic field such
that the positions of magnetic north and magnetic south are interchanged. Reversals are the rule, not
the exception.
• A reversal happens over hundreds or thousands of years, and it is not exactly a clean back flip. Magnetic
fields morph and push and pull at one another, with multiple poles emerging at odd latitudes throughout
the process.
• Scientists estimate reversals have happened at least hundreds of times over the past three billion years.
• Based on palaeomagnetism it is observed that over the last 20 million years, magnetic north and south
have flipped roughly every 200,000 to 300,000 years.
• Earth's polarity is not a constant. Unlike a classic bar magnet, the matter (Earth’s core) governing Earth's
magnetic field moves around.
• The reversal is not literally periodic as it is on the sun, whose magnetic field reverses every 11 years. The
time between magnetic reversals on the Earth is sometimes as short as 10,000 years and sometimes as
long as 25 million years.
• The magnetic poles emerge at odd latitudes throughout the process of the reversal.

PALAEOMAGNETISM
• Palaeomagnetism is the study of the Earth's magnetic field preserved in rocks.
• The discovery that some minerals, at the time of their
formation, can become magnetized parallel to the
Earth's magnetic field was made in the 19th century.
• Early in the 20th century, Bernard Brunhes made the
startling discovery that some rocks are magnetized in
the opposite orientation to the Earth's present-day
magnetic field. This led him to propose that the
Earth's magnetic field had reversed its polarity in the
past.
• Sediment cores taken from deep ocean floors can tell
scientists about magnetic polarity shifts, providing a
direct link between magnetic field activity and the
fossil record.
• The Earth's magnetic field determines the magnetization of lava as it is laid down on the ocean floor on either
side of the Mid-Atlantic Rift where the North American and European continental plates are spreading apart.
• As the lava solidifies, it creates a record of the orientation of past magnetic fields much like a tape recorder
records sound. The last time that Earth's poles flipped in a major reversal was about 780,000 years ago, in
what scientists call the Brunhes-Matuyama reversal.
• The fossil record shows no drastic changes in plant or animal life. Deep ocean sediment cores from this period
also indicate no changes in glacial activity, based on the amount of oxygen isotopes in the cores.
• This is also proof that a polarity reversal would not affect the rotation axis of Earth, as the planet's rotation
axis tilt has a significant effect on climate and glaciation and any change would be evident in the glacial record.

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1.6.4 NORMAL AND REVERSED FIELD

• The Earth’s field has alternated
between periods of normal
polarity, in which the predominant
direction of the field was the same
as the present direction, and
reverse polarity, in which it was
the opposite.
• In Normal Polarity, Earth’s North
Magnetic Pole is the South Pole of
its Magnetic Field.
• In Reverse Polarity, Earth’s North
Magnetic Pole is the North Pole of
its Magnetic Field.
• Recent studies have shown that the
locations of the magnetic poles change
significantly over time.
- Earth’s magnetic north pole was
previously located in Canada but
moved northward into the Arctic
Ocean during the past decade.
- Currently, it is moving north-
westward between 50 and 65
kilometers (34 and 37 miles) per year.
- While the magnetic north pole has
been moving toward the geographic
North Pole, the magnetic South Pole
has been moving away from the
geographic South Pole, passing from
Antarctica to the Pacific Ocean.
1.6.5 DIFFERENT TERMS WITH RESPECT TO EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD
A. Magnetosphere
• The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of the Earth’s
magnetic field in space.
• It extends several tens of thousands of kilometers into space, protecting the Earth from the charged
particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper
atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
• The shape of the Earth's magnetosphere is the direct result of being blasted by solar wind. The solar
wind compresses its sunward side to a distance of only 6 to 10 times the radius of the Earth.
B. Magnetopause
• Earth’s magnetic field, predominantly dipolar at its surface, is distorted further out by the solar wind.
The solar wind exerts a pressure. However, it is kept away by the pressure of the Earth’s magnetic field.
• The magnetopause, the area where the pressures balance, is the boundary of the magnetosphere.
• Despite its name, the magnetosphere is asymmetric, with the sunward side being about 10 Earth radii
out but the other side stretching out in a magneto tail that extends beyond 200 Earth radii.
C. Magneto sheath
• The turbulent magnetic region just outside the magnetopause is known as the magneto sheath. It is
the region of space between the magnetopause and the bow shock of a planet's magnetosphere.

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• The regularly organized magnetic field generated by the planet becomes weak and irregular in the
magneto sheath due to interaction with the incoming solar wind, and is incapable of fully deflecting the
highly charged particles.
D. Bow Shock
• Sunward of the magnetopause is the bow shock, the area where the solar wind slows abruptly.
• It occurs when the magnetosphere of an Earth interacts with the nearby flowing ambient plasma such
as the solar wind.
E. Plasma sphere
• Inside the magnetosphere is the plasma sphere, a region containing low-energy charged particles. The
plasma sphere, or inner magnetosphere, is a region of the Earth's magnetosphere consisting of low
energy (cool) plasma.
• This region begins at the height of 60 km, extends up to 3 or 4 Earth radii, and includes ionosphere.
• This region rotates with the Earth.
F. Magneto tail
• In contrast to the dayside magnetosphere, compressed and confined by the solar wind, the night side is
stretched out into a long "magneto tail". This part of the magnetosphere is quite dynamic, large changes
can take place there and ions and electrons are often energized.
• The magneto tail is also the main source of the polar aurora.

=========================================================================================

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. Consider the following statements Select the correct answer using the code given
Statement-I: below: (2024)
Giant Stars live much longer than dwarf stars. (a) 1 only
Statement-II: (b) 2 only
Compared to dwarf stars, giant stars have a greater (c) 3 and 4
rate of nuclear reactions. (d) 2 and 4
Which one of the following is correct in respect of
3. Consider the following:
the above statements? (2024)
1. Pyroclastic debris
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
2. Ash and dust
and Statement-II explains Statement-I
3. Nitrogen compounds
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
4. Sulphur compounds
but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I
How many of the above are products of volcanic
(c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is
eruptions? (2024)
incorrect
(a) Only one
(d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is
(b) Only two
correct
(c) Only three
(d) All four
2. On June 21 every year, which of the following
latitude(s) experience(s) a sunlight of more than 12 4. In the northern hemisphere, the longest day of
hours? the year normally occurs in the: (2022)
1. Equator (a) First half of the month of June
2. Tropic of Cancer (b) Second half of the month of June
3. Tropic of Capricorn (c) First half of the month of July
4. Arctic Circle (d) Second half of the month of July

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(d) revolution of the earth on a tilted axis

5. On 21st June, the Sun: (2019)
(a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic
10. Which of the following is/are correct
Circle
inference/inferences from isothermal maps in the
(b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic
month of January?
Circle
1. The isotherms deviate the north over the
(c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the
ocean and to the south over the continent.
Equator
2. The presence of cold ocean currents, Gulf
(d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of
Stream and North Atlantic Drift make the
Capricorn
North Atlantic Ocean colder and the
6. Consider the following statements: isotherms bend towards the north.
1. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed Select the answer using the code given below:
every few hundred thousand years. (2024)
2. When the Earth was created more than (a) 1 only
4000 million years ago, there was 54% (b) 2 only
oxygen and no carbon dioxide. (c) Both 1 and 2
3. When living organisms originated, they (d) Neither 1 nor 2
modified the early atmosphere of the Earth.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 11. With reference to “water vapour”, which of the
(2018) following statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 only 1. It is a gas, the amount of which decreases
(b) 2 and 3 only with altitude.
(c) 1 and 3 only 2. Its percentage is maximum at the poles.
(d) 1, 2 and 3 Select the answer using the code given below:
(2024)
7. The term 'Goldilocks Zone' is often seen in
(a) 1 only
the news in the context of (2015)
(b) 2 only
(a) the limits of habitable zone above the surface
(c) Both 1 and 2
of the Earth
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
(b) regions inside the Earth where shale gas is
available
12. Consider the following statements:
(c) search for the Earth-like planets in outer space
Statement-I:
(d) search for meteorites containing precious
Rainfall is one of the reasons for weathering of
metals
rocks.
8. Which of the following phenomena might Statement-II:
have influenced the evolution of organisms? Rain water contains carbon dioxide in solution.
1. Continental drift Statement-IIII:
2. Glacial cycles Rain water contains atmospheric oxygen.
Select the correct answer using the code given Which one of the following is correct in respect of
below. (2014) the above statements? (2024)
(a) 1 only (a) Both Statement-II and Statement-III are correct
(b) 2 only and both of them explain Statement-I
(c) Both 1 and 2 (b) Both Statement-II and Statement-Ill are correct,
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 but only one of them explains Statement-I
9. Variations in the length of daytime and (c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct
nighttime from season to season are due to (2013) and that explains Statement-I
(a) the earth’s rotation on its axis (d) Neither Statement-II nor Statement-III is correct
(b) the earth’s revolution round the sun in 13. Consider the following statements:
an elliptical manner Statement-I:
(c) latitudinal position of the place

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The temperature contrast between continents and Which of the statements given above is/are
oceans is greater during summer than in winter. correct? (2022)
Statement-II: (a) 1 only
The specific heat of water is more than that of land (b) 2 only
surface.Which one of the following is correct in (c) Both 1 and 2
respect of the above statements? (2023) (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
15. The annual range of temperature in the
and Statement-II is the correct explanation for
interior of the continents is high as compared to
Statement-I
coastal areas. What is/are the reason/reasons?
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
1. Thermal difference between land and water
and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for
2. Variation in altitude between continents
Statement-I
and oceans
(c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is
3. Presence of strong winds in the interior
incorrect
4. Heavy rains in the interior as compared to
(d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is
coasts
correct
Select the correct answer using the codes given
14. Consider the following statements: below. (2013)
1. High clouds primarily reflect solar radiation (a) 1 only
and cool the surface of the Earth. (b) 1 and 2 only
2. Low clouds have a high absorption of (c) 2 and 3 only
infrared radiation emanating from the (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Earth’s surface and thus cause warming
effect.

ANSWERS
1. (d) 2.(d) 3.(d) 4.(b) 5.(a)
6.(c) 7.(c) 8.(c) 9.(d) 10.(a)
11.(a) 12.(a) 13.(a) 14.(d) 15.(a)

=========================================================================================

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2 TECTONIC GEOGRAPHY
MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS
• Volcano Characteristics
• Plate tectonics
• Pacific Ring of Fire
• Earthquake Measurements
• P waves and S waves and their Propagation

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Volcanic Landforms (Intrusive/Extrusive)
• Types of Rocks (Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic)
• Types of Interaction and the associated Landforms

2.1 GEOMORPHIC MOVEMENT

• The word geomorphology comes from the Greek roots; geo – earth, morph – form and logos – study.
Therefore, geomorphology is literally the study of earth forms - landforms, their processes, form and
sediments at the surface of the Earth.
• The physical and chemical interactions between the Earth's surface and the natural forces act upon it to
produce landforms.
• The endogenic and exogenic forces causing physical stresses and chemical actions on earth materials
and bringing about changes in the configuration of the surface of the earth are known as geomorphic
processes.
• These processes continually shape the Earth's surface and generate the sediments that circulate in the
Rock Cycle.
Geomorphic
Forces

Endogenic Exogenic Forces

Forces

Weathering Erosion
Daistrophic Forces Sudden Movement
Physical Ice
Epeirogenic Orogenic Eartquake Volcanoes
Chemical River

Upward Tension Compression Wind

Downward
Biologcial
Underground
Water

2.1.1 ENDOGENIC FORCES

• Endogenic (or endogenetic) factors are agents supplying energy for actions that are located within the
earth.

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• The endogenetic forces change the Earth's topography through the process of creation, destruction,
recreation, and maintenance of geomaterials (materials in the Earth crust).
• These forces produce various types of vertical irregularities in the form of mountains, ridges, plateaus,
valleys, and plains, etc.
• In addition, volcanic activity and Earthquake events are also the expressions of endogenetic forces called
sudden forces.
• This energy emanating from within the earth is mostly generated by radioactivity, rotational and tidal
friction, and primordial heat from the origin of the earth.
• Due to variations in geothermal gradients and heat flow from within, crustal thickness and strength, the
action of endogenic forces are not uniform and hence the tectonically controlled original crustal surface
is uneven.

Endogenic Forces

Diastrophic Forces Sudden Forces

Epeirogenic Movement Orgenic Movement Volcanism

Uplift Folding Earthquakes

Depression Faulting

Thrusting

A. DIASTROPHIC FORCES
• Diastrophic forces include both vertical and horizontal movements.
• These are constructive forces, operate very slowly and are responsible for the formation of primary
landforms such as mountain peaks, plateaus, valleys, plains, etc.
• Diastrophic forces can be classified into - epeirogenic & orogenic movements.

1. Epeirogenic Movements
• These movements cause upliftment and subsidence of continental crust through upward and downward
vertical movements, respectively; caused by a set of forces acting along the Earth's radius.
• Epeirogenic movements are also known as continent building movements as these movements affect
the large scale land masses.
• The upliftment of a coastal land of the continents is called emergence. Examples - Deccan Plateau,
upliftment of submerged coastal Florida and West Coast Islands.
• Downward movement causes the subsidence of continental land area, and the land area near the coast
submerged under the sea is called submergence. Due to the subsidence, Andaman and Nicobar islands
are separated from Arakan Coast.

2. Orogenic Movements
• Orogenic movements occur mainly along the plate boundaries or plate margins that produce intense
folding and faulting.

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• The force is working on Earth's mantle in a horizontal manner cause to the orogenic movements. These
horizontal forces act in three ways: towards each other, opposite one another and parallel to each other.
• The two forces operate face to face or towards each other are called compressional forces or convergent
forces. Compressional forces act at convergent plate boundaries that result in squeezing and crushing
of the rocks.
• On the other hand, the forces act on the rock in opposite direction leading to rupturing of the rock.
These forces are called tensional forces or divergent forces.
• Under shearing forces, the stresses act parallel to each other but in opposite directions like the motion
of scissors. These forces can produce transform faults.
• Tensional and shearing forces create faults or fractures.
• If there is compression on one end, there may be tension on the other end. Hence, it is understood that
folding and faulting often act together.

i. Folding
• Earth's crust comprises of different lithospheric plates and is constantly in motion. When two continents
collide, the intervening sedimentary rocks of continental margins come under strong forces of
compression.
• The horizontal bedrock is bent or curved as a result of permanent deformation due to compression. The
wavelike undulations imposed on the horizontal strata comprise of alternating arch like upfolds, called
anticlines and trough like downfolds, called synclines.
• A monocline is a single bend in or otherwise horizontal formation.
• An anticlinorium is a large anticline on which minor folds are superimposed, and a synclinorium is a
large syncline on which minor folds are superimposed.
• The initial landform associated with an anticline is a rounded mountain ridge, and the landform
associated with syncline is an elongated open valley.
• Most of the mountain systems exhibit some degree of folding like mountains of Appalachian and
Himalaya.

ii. Faulting and Thrusting

• Fault is a fracture in the crustal rock, which forms mainly due to tensional forces caused by the
endogenetic forces.
• The plane along which the rock blocks are displaced is called fault plane.
• Faults are formed when rocks on both sides of the plane have moved relative to each other, or parallel
to the plane.
• Due to tensional forces, rock layers can be dislocated.

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• During the formation of fault, the vertical displacement of rock blocks may take place upto several
hundred meters and horizontal displacement may extend upto several kilometers.

Graben and Horst

• A graben or rift forms where a block is displaced downward
between two normal faults.
• A narrow fault block elevated between two normal faults is called
a horst.
• Topographically, horsts form block like plateaus or mountains
with flat top, steep and straight sides.
• A graben is a valley or trench like structure bordered by steep and
parallel walls.
• Best examples of the horst are Shillong Plateau in India, and the Rhine graben (East African Rift Valley System)
which stretches for 600 kms in length and 70 kms in width.

B. SUDDEN FORCES/SUDDEN MOVEMENTS

The sudden forces occur due to sudden and rapid movements that results a massive destruction in the interior
of the Earth.
1. Volcanism
• Volcanism is one of the endogenetic processes capable of rendering sudden and massive changes in the
surface features of the Earth.
• It represents processes and features related to the movement and solidification of magma both within
the crust and on the surface.
• Volcanism can be observed mainly in the interiors of oceanic plates. At present more than 1500 active
volcanoes are distributed over the globe.
2. Earthquakes
• Simply, the Earthquake is the passage of vibrations that occur in the Earth's interior due to the sudden
disturbance or movement of rocks through the Earth's crust.
• It is a form of energy of wave motion transmitted through the surface layer of the Earth in widening
circles from a particular point. This point is called focus which is the source for releasing the sudden
energy.
• Such movements may result in uplift or subsidence in coastal areas for eg. an earthquake in Chile (1822)
caused a one-meter uplift in coastal areas.

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2.1.2 EXOGENETIC FORCES

• The epeirogenic and orogenic forces elevate the land, while opposing exogenetic processes continually
wear it down.
• Exogenetic/exogenic/epirogene forces are also called as denudational or destructional processes
originated within Earth’s atmosphere. Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion and
transportation are included in denudation.
• The exogenic processes derive their energy from atmosphere determined by the ultimate energy from
the sun and also the gradients created by tectonic factors.
• These are operated largely by the force of gravity. Various geomorphic agents such as running water,
groundwater, glaciers, wind and waves remove the disintegrated rock materials from one part of the
Earth’s crust, and transport as well as deposit them elsewhere.
• These processes are continuously engaged in the rock wastage, land destruction or land sculpture that
may collectively be defined as denudation or degradation.
A. WEATHERING
• Weathering is a static process.
• It continuously engages in the process of disintegration or decomposition of rock in-situ, that means, it
does not involve in the process of removing rock materials by a transporting agency.
• The products of weathering, e.g. sand, clay, and rock fragments etc., tend to accumulate on the spot as
soft surface layer called regolith, which covers the bed rock.
• Scientific definition of weathering involves mechanical fracturing or chemical decomposition of rocks by
natural agents at surface of the Earth.
• Weathering process is of mainly two types- Physical or Mechanical weathering and Chemical
weathering.
1. Physical or Mechanical Weathering
• Physical or mechanical weathering is the breakdown of massive bedrock into smaller fragments ranging
in size from large blocks or boulders to fine sand and silt by various physical stresses.
• Physical or mechanical weathering processes depend on some applied forces:
- Gravitational forces such as overburden pressure, load and shearing stress.
- Expansion forces due to temperature changes, crystal growth or animal activity.
- Water pressures controlled by wetting and drying cycles.
- Mechanical action of plants and animals.
- It involves mechanical disintegration of rocks without any change in its chemical composition
through several ways, namely frost action, salt-crystal growth, thermal expansion and contraction
and the mechanical action of plants and animals.
2. Chemical Weathering
• Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks by the alteration of rock-forming minerals.
• Chemical alteration of minerals involves many types of reactions between the atmospheric and biotic
agents. Some minerals (e.g. olivine and augite occur in basalt) are far more alterable than others like
quartz. Quartz is extremely resistant to chemical change and slightly soluble in water and more in saline
water.
• It is known that many minerals soluble in rainwater are usually acidic in nature and leach rocks quite
actively.
• Chemical weathering is most effective in warm and humid climates compared to cold and dry regions,
where heat and moisture are in abundance.
• Chemical weathering involves a number of processes, all associated with moisture, disintegrate the
minerals in rock. Most significant among the processes of chemical weathering are carbonation,
hydrolysis, and oxidation.

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3. Biological Activity and Weathering

• Biological weathering is contribution to or removal of minerals and ions from the weathering
environment and physical changes due to growth or movement of organisms.
• Burrowing and wedging by organisms like earthworms, termites, rodents etc., help in exposing the new
surfaces to chemical attack and assists in the penetration of moisture and air.
• Human beings by disturbing vegetation, ploughing and cultivating soils, also help in mixing and creating
new contacts between air, water and minerals in the earth materials.
• Decaying plant and animal matter help in the production of humic, carbonic and other acids which
enhance decay and solubility of some elements.
• Plant roots exert a tremendous pressure on the earth materials mechanically breaking them apart.
B. MASS WASTING
• The weathered material is moved relatively for a short distance down the slopes under the influence of
gravity with or without the assistance of running water called mass wasting or mass movement.
• There are several factors favoring mass wasting such as structure (closely spaced joints, faults, etc.),
composition and permeability of rocks, topography (steep slopes and cliffs), climatic factors (large
variations in temperature, heavy rainfall, etc.), vegetation cover, and slope gradient.
2.2 CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
• The continental drift theory states that continents move around on Earth’s surface and that they were
once joined together as a single supercontinent.
• This concept was an important precursor to the development of the theory of plate tectonics.
• The continental drift also explained why look-alike animal and plant fossils, and similar rock formations,
are found on different continents.
• The first truly detailed and comprehensive theory of continental drift was proposed in 1912 by Alfred
Wegener, a German meteorologist.
• According to Wegener, all the continents formed a single continental mass and mega-ocean surrounded
the same.
- The super continent
was named Pangaea,
which meant all earth
and the mega-ocean
was called
Panthalassa, meaning
all water.
- Around 200 million
years ago, the super
continent, Pangaea,
began to split.
- In 1937, Alexander Du
Toit, one of
Wegener’s staunchest
supporters, proposed
that Pangaea first
broke into two large
continental landmasses, Laurasia (comprising of North America, Greenland, Europe and parts of
Asia) in the northern hemisphere and Gondwanaland (consisting of South America, Antarctica,
Africa, Madagascar, India and Australia) in the southern hemisphere.
- Laurasia and Gondwanaland then continued to break apart into continents that exist today.
- The term ‘Laurasia’ was developed from a combination of Laurentia (a region of Canada) and Asia,
while Gondwanaland (meaning land of Gonds) after an ancient tribe in Madhya Pradesh.

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- The two supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwanaland were separated by an ocean named Palaeo-
Tethys after the Greek goddess of the sea ‘Tethys’.
• Wegener suggested that the continental drift occurred in response to the centripetal force experienced
by the high standing continents because of the Earth’s rotation.
- The movement responsible for the drifting of the continents was caused by pole-fleeing force and
tidal force.
• Evidences:
1. Geometrical reconstruction - Matching of Continents (Jig-Saw-Fit): The shorelines of Africa and
South America facing each other have a remarkable and unmistakable match.
2. Geological evidences (Rocks of Same Age across the Oceans): Geologically, the coastlines of the
landmass on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean are found to be identical in terms of lithology and
stratigraphy, fossil content, geologic structures and style of tectonic deformation.
3. Palaeoclimatic evidences (Tillite): Tillite is is the sedimentary rock formed out of deposits of
glaciers. The evidences of glaciations of Carboniferous times (200 million years ago) are found
equally on the South America, southern Africa, Madagascar, Falkland, peninsular India, Australia and
Antarctica, suggesting they were once locked up landmasses, during Carboniferous period.
4. Palaeontological evidences (Distribution of Fossils): Fossils of land plants like Glossopteris and
Gangamopteris were found in rocks 225 million years ago, widespread in places over Africa,
Australia, India, which are now widely separated.
5. Sea floor spreading: The studies of sea floor spreading phenomenon have confirmed that the
continents were once united as a supercontinent Pangaea which later got fragmented and drifted.
6. Placer Deposits Placer Deposits: The gold deposits of the Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau
when the two continents lay side by side.
7. Palaeomagnetic Evidences: The records of the polar wandering and polar reversals when analysed
over different continents, suggested that the landmasses were once together and latter drifted to
present positions.
2.3 MID-OCEANIC RIDGE (MOR)
• The mid-oceanic ridge (MOR) is the most extensive chain of mountains on Earth, stretching nearly 65,000
kms and with more than 90 percent of the mountain range lying in the deep ocean.
• MOR occur along divergent plate boundaries, where new ocean floor is created as the Earth’s tectonic
plates spread apart.
• It is characterised by a central rift system at the
crest, a fractionated plateau and flank zone all along
its length. The rift system at the crest is the zone of
intense volcanic activity.
• As the plates separate, molten rock rises to the
seafloor, producing enormous volcanic eruptions of
basalt.
• Two well-studied mid-ocean ridges within the global
system are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East
Pacific Rise.
• Due to the fast-spreading rates, there is no rift valley in the Pacific, just a smooth volcanic summit with
a crack along the crest that is much smaller than the Atlantic rift valley.

2.4 SEA FLOOR SPREADING

• Seafloor spreading is a geologic process in which tectonic plates - large slabs of Earth's lithosphere - split
apart from each other.
• The term sea floor spreading was proposed in 1961 by Robert S. Dietz and Harry H. Hess in 1962 in their
endeavor to explain the phenomenon of continental drift.

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• Hess explained the principle of ocean floor spreading with the example of Atlantic Ocean. According to
him, the drift between the North America and Europe continents would have been accomplished by the
gradual growth of Atlantic Ocean. As the ocean gradually grows wider the continental margins move
apart; or in other words, continents drift.
• The growth of the ocean floor requires formation of new crustal material for which it is believed that
volcanic activity was continuously going on undersea along a ridge in middle portion of the ocean. These
are called MORs, where lava is continuously pouring out from deeper portion of the Earth adding up
new crustal material on both flanks.

• Evidences:
- Age of rocks: Samples obtained from the direct drilling of the ocean floor were dated isotopically
and it was found that the youngest rocks are observed along MOR while the older rocks occur in the
marginal part of the ocean, towards the continent. It indicates that age of the rocks gradually
increases towards continent in a symmetrical pattern on both flanks of the MOR.
- Anomalous high values of heat: Frequent occurrence of earthquakes and lack of sediments at ridge
crests explain sea floor spreading. The anomalous high values of heat reflect the emplacement of
hot mantle-derived material in the vicinity of the crest of Mid Oceanic Ridge.
• Drilling and dredging: No material more than about 180 million years in age had ever been recorded
from deep ocean floor.
• Magnetic anomalies: Palaeomagnetic survey and magnetic anomalies recorded in the rocks of ocean
floor provide evidence for sea floor spreading.

2.5 PLATE TECTONICS

• According to Plate Tectonics theory, Earth has a rigid outer layer, known as the lithosphere, which is
typically about 100 km thick and overlies a plastic (partially molten) layer called the asthenosphere.
• The lithosphere is broken up into seven very large continental- and ocean-sized plates, six or seven
medium-sized regional plates, and several small ones.
• These plates move relative to each other, typically at rates of 5 to 10 cm per year, and interact along
their boundaries, where they converge, diverge, or slip past one another.
• Plate motions cause mountains to rise where plates push together, or converge, and continents to
fracture and oceans to form where plates pull apart, or diverge.
• The continents are embedded in the plates and drift passively with them, which over millions of years
results in significant changes in Earth’s geography.
• The lithospheric plates are of following three types:
1. Oceanic Plate: Oceanic plate is entirely made up of the oceanic part of the crust. The oceanic crust
is constituted of SiMa (comprising of silicon (Si) and magnesium (Mg)). The Pacific Plate is an
example of oceanic plate.

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2. Continental plate: Continental plate is made up of the continental part of the crust. The continental
crust is constituted of SiAl (comprising of silicon (Si) and aluminum (Al)) at upper and SiMa at the
lower part.
3. Continent - Oceanic plate: Continent - Oceanic plate consists of the plate containing both
continental as well as oceanic parts of the crust. The continental part contains both SiAl and SiMa
while the oceanic part is only constituted of SiMa. Most of the major plates of the world (few
exceptions like Pacific plate) are continent-oceanic plates.
• Evidence:
- Magnetic Anomalies: Same as Sea floor spreading theory.
- Age of Rocks: Same as Sea floor spreading theory.
- Gravitational Anomalies: In trenches, where subduction has taken place (convergent edge), the
value of gravitational constant ‘g’ is less, indicating a loss of material. For instance, gravity
measurements around the Indonesian islands have indicated that large gravity anomalies are
associated with the oceanic trench bordering Indonesia.
- Anomalous high values of heat: Same as Sea floor spreading theory.
- Earthquakes and Volcanoes: All plate boundary regions are areas of earthquake and volcanic
disturbances goes to prove this theory.

Major Tectonic Plates Minor Tectonic Plates

1. Antarctica and the surrounding Oceanic Plate 1. Cocos Plate (between Central America and Pacific
2. North American Plate (with western Atlantic Plate)
floor separated from the South American plate 2. Nazca Plate (between South America and Pacific
along the Caribbean islands) plate plate)
3. South American Plate (with western Atlantic 3. Arabian Plate (mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass)
floor separated from the North American plate 4. Philippine Plate (between the Asiatic and Pacific
along the Caribbean islands) plate)
4. Pacific Plate 5. Caroline Plate (between the Philippine and Indian
5. India-Australia-New Zealand Plate plate (North of New Guinea))
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor Plate 6. Fuji Plate (North-east of Australia)
7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic Plate

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2.5.1 INTERACTION OF PLATES

• There are various forces that act upon the plates to make them move.
- Convection Current: Convection current involves the mantle having large amount of radio activity
causing huge heat concentration in the mantle. Convection current causes the lithosphere to split
and the plate may move laterally along the direction of the convection current. The high heat flow
along the mid-oceanic ridges provides evidence to this process.
- Slab Pull: In the convergent boundary, the denser plate slides down the lighter plate causing
subduction. The sub-ducted portion of the plate causes slab pull. This force accounts for most of
the overall forces acting on plate tectonics.
- Ridge Push: The magma coming out of the mid-oceanic ridges causes the 'Ridge Push'. New sea floor
or oceanic plate is created along the mid-oceanic ridges, it is very hot and thin as well as much higher
in elevation than the abyssal plains and trenches. The newly created plate will effectively slide down
the slope and try to move towards the subduction zone causing sea floor spreading. The oceanic
plate gets thicker and denser as it progresses away from the spreading centre, the ridge push force
increases towards the subduction zone.
2.5.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF PLATE TECTONICS
• Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building: All the great mountain ranges of the world can be explained
with the plate tectonic theory. Two plates result in huge compression along their convergent plate
boundary, which finally leads to formation of folded mountains.
• Plate Tectonics and Volcanism: The worldwide distribution of volcanoes and their occurrence at specific
place is related to different types of plate boundaries and their movements. Volcanic activity will take
place when two plates converge as evident with the Pacific and the Eurasian plate; and the Nazca and
the South American plates. The subduction of the plate is also resulted from the activity of melting and
volcanism.
• Plate Tectonics and Earthquake: Nature and movements of plate boundaries are responsible for the
major Earthquakes.
• Plate Tectonics and Tsunami: Tsunami occurs when there is rapid vertical movement in the oceanic
crust that results in a displacement (rise or drop) in the overlying water. Tsunamis are the result of an
Earthquake event which displaces sea water.
2.5.3 MOVEMENT OF THE INDIAN PLATE
• The Indian tectonic plate is located in the north east hemisphere.
• It is bounded by 4 major tectonic plates: North of the Indian plate is the Eurasian plate, to the south
east, the Australian plate, to the south west, the African plate and to the west the Arabian plate.
• About 140 million years ago the main landmass on Earth was concentrated together in a super continent
called Gondwana which started to break up in four tectonic plates; African, Antarctic, Australian and
Indian plates.
• As the Indian plate moved northward relative to the Eurasian plate and collided with it, a convergent
boundary got created. On the opposite side, the Indo-African boundary is divergent. The western Indo-
Arabian boundary is lateral relative to each other giving rise to a transform boundary.
• The collision of the Indian plate into the Eurasian plate about 50 million years ago resulted in the
erection of the Himalayan mountain chain which contains the highest peaks on the Earth today.
• As the Indian plate is still active today and drifts at a velocity of about 5 cm per year, earthquakes occur
in the northern part of the plate.
• Because of the low grade metamorphism that resulted in the collision of the Indian plate with the
Eurasian plate, many micaceous minerals are mined in the north part of the country; in fact India is the
greatest producer of mica blocks and splitting.
2.6 PLATE BOUNDARIES
• Plate boundary is the surface trace of the zone of motion between two plates.

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• The two plate margins meet at a common plate

boundary. Plate margin is marginal part of a particular
plate.
• There are three basic types of plate margins or plate
boundaries, based on types of their mutual interactions:
1. Divergent or constructive plate boundaries: Two
plates moving in opposite direction is called
divergence. The zone of divergence is characterized
by continuous upwelling of mountain material
resulting into the formation of new oceanic crust.
2. Convergent or destructive plate boundaries:
Where two plates move towards each other or
converge is called as convergent plate boundary.
Here the plates are dragged down through trenches
along subduction zones into the mantle. The denser
crustal plate goes down the lighter one and melts or
gets destroyed into the mantle. The convergent
plate boundaries can further be divided into three
types:
a) Ocean - Ocean convergent plate boundary: It is
marked by the formation of island arcs. Example
of this type of plate boundary is seen along the
Japan in the Pacific Ocean.
b) Ocean - Continent convergent plate boundary:
It is seen all along the Pacific Ocean boundary. This is marked by the generation of volcanic arcs
on the continents. Due to this volcanic activity, the Pacific Ocean boundary is named as 'Ring of
Fire'.
c) Continent - Continent convergent plate boundary: It is seen between the Indian Plate (forming
Indian sub-continent) and Eurasia Plate (forming Europe and Asia). The zone is marked by the
development of huge mountain ranges, e.g. Himalaya.
3. Transform or lateral plate boundaries: These are formed where two crustal plates slide past one
another. In this case plates are neither created nor destroyed, but severe Earthquake is
experienced. This type of plate boundary is also known as ‘conservative’ plate boundary.
2.7 VOLCANISM
• Volcanism is one of the endogenetic processes, capable of rendering sudden and massive changes in the
surface features of the Earth. It represents processes and features related to the movement and
solidification of magma both within the crust and on the surface. Surface processes include the
formation of volcanoes. Volcanism can be observed mainly in the interiors of oceanic plates.
• A volcano has a deep vent, or opening, usually circular, through which heated materials consisting of
gases, ash, water, liquid lava and molten rock are ejected from the Earth's interior to the surface of the
Earth.
• Magma extruded onto the Earth's surface is referred to as lava.
• The magma commonly consists of molten rock, hot liquids, gases, water vapour and other materials that
force towards the Earth's surface with high pressure.
• The erupted lava and other materials accumulate close to the vent leading to formation of a conical hill.
The crater is created at the top of the cone as funnel-shaped depression.
• The base of the crater is connected with the interior part of the Earth by volcanic pipe through which
the lava rises to the top.

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2.7.1 VOLCANIC Types

A. Hawaiian type of volcanoes
• This type of volcanoes has less explosive activity and erupts quietly due to less viscosity of lava and non-
violent nature of gases.
• Hawaiian eruptions are effusive eruptions that express the very simplest volcanic eruptions. They can
also feed much larger lava flows through time.
• There is little or no tephra.
• Sometimes fountains of highly fluid basaltic spray rise up with the gases and when caught by strong
wind, these lava pieces are stretched into long glassy threads known as "Pele's Hair'"(Pele is the goddess
of fire in Hawaiian Islands).
• These eruptions commonly occur in Hawaii islands and hence, named as Hawaiian type.
• Examples of these eruptions are Klauea Iki (1959) in Hawaii Island and Krafla (1975-83) in Iceland.
B. Strombolian type of volcanoes
• These are the most picturesque volcanic styles named after volcano formed the island of Stromboli, one
of Lipri group of islands in the Mediterranean Sea.
• Strombolian is characterised by relatively mild explosion. It ejects liquid lava fragment materials like
pumice, scoria, and bombs of hot materials as the bubble bursts.
• These eruptions are regular, rhythmic in intervals varying from few minutes to about an hour.
• Such volcanoes eject hundreds of meters to kilometres in height characterized by unusual lava flows.
• Strombolian eruption in the Mediterranean looks somewhat like an energetic Roman candle firework
when viewed at night known to be the "Lighthouse of the Mediterranean".
C. Vulcanian type of volcanoes (Eruption Basis)
• Vulcanian eruptions, named after eruptions on Volcano Island of the Aeolian Islands in the
Mediterranean, are more explosive.
• These eruptions are having more viscous magma where the resultant lava quickly solidifies and seals the
mouth of the crater in between two eruptions.
• A much larger amount of ash and dust are emitted than their Strambolian counterparts. These can fill
the atmosphere for many hundreds of square kilometres.

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D. Vesuvian type of volcanoes

• This type of volcanic eruption occurs with a very violent explosion considered as similar to Vulcanian and
Strombolian.
• The lava mainly comes out with great forces from the lateral cracks, and intense gases keep on
accumulating in the main vent. When build-up the high pressure, the explosion occurs rapidly and these
ashes and gases form thick mushroom-like shaped clouds. These clouds can rise to greater heights in the
sky.
• The Vesuvian eruption, also called Plinian type, was recorded by Pliny at Vesuvius in 79 A.D. These are
the most spectacular eruption styles which can be seen on the Earth.
E. Pelean type of volcanoes
• These eruptions are named after the explosive eruption of Mt. Pelee (1902) in Martinique Island in the
Caribbean Sea. There was a terrific explosion of Mt. Pelee which engulfed the town of St. Pierre,
destroying the city and killing all of its 30,000 inhabitants.
• It is considered as one of the worst volcanic events in the twentieth century.
• These are highly explosive and eject highly viscous lava.
• These volcanoes are characterised by hot glowing clouds (termed nuee ardente, means glowing cloud).
• The emitted viscous lava forms a dome in the volcano's crater.
• The intensely hot glowing cloud travels rapidly down the flank of the volcanic cone searing everything
in its path.

2.7.2 DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

• Volcanoes are most likely to occur along the margins of tectonic plates, especially in subduction zones
where oceanic plates dive under continental plates.
A. RING OF FIRE
• The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific Ocean
characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
• Its length is approximately 40,000 kilometers. It traces boundaries between several tectonic plates -
including the Pacific, Juan de Fuca, Cocos, Indian-Australian, Nazca, North American, and Philippine
Plates.

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• 75% of Earth’s volcanoes (more than 450 volcanoes) are located along the Ring of Fire. 90 percent of
Earth’s earthquakes occur along its path, including the planet’s most violent and dramatic seismic
events.
• The abundance of volcanoes and earthquakes along the Ring of Fire is caused by the amount of
movement of tectonic plates in the area.
• Along much of the Ring of Fire, plates overlap at convergent boundaries called subduction zones.
• A significant exception is the border between the Pacific and North American Plates. This stretch of the
Ring of Fire is a transform boundary, where plates move sideways past one another. This type of
boundary generates a large number of earthquakes as tension in Earth’s crust builds up and is released.

B. MEDITERRANEAN VOLCANOES
• Many volcanoes are in and around the Mediterranean Sea. This type of volcanism is mainly due to
breaking up of the Mediterranean plate into multiple plates due to the interaction of African and
Eurasian plate.
• Mount Etna in Sicily is the largest and hiqhest of these mountains. Italy's Vesuvius is the only active
volcano on the European mainland.
• Near the island of Vulcano, the volcano Stromboli has been in a state of nearly continuous, mild eruption
since early Roman times.

C. VOLCANOES IN INDIA
• There is very limited volcanic activity in India and it is confined to the Andaman Islands.

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• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are located near the boundary of the Indian plate and the Burmese
Microplate.
• The Andaman Trench marks this boundary and lies in the Bay of Bengal to the west of the archipelago.
• Another prominent feature is the North-South West Andaman Fault, which is strike-slip in nature and
lies in the Andaman Sea, to the east of this island chain.
• The Andaman Sea, just like the Atlantic Ocean, is presently being widened by a tectonic process called
‘Sea Floor Spreading’. This is taking place along the undersea ridges on the seafloor.
• The Indian plate is diving beneath the Burmese Microplate along the Andaman Trench in a process
known as ‘subduction’. Shallow and occasional intermediate-depth earthquakes delineate the
subducted slab under the Andaman-Nicobar Islands joining the seismicity trend of the Indo-Burma
ranges.
• In historic times, high magnitude earthquakes have occurred in this region and formed a chain of
volcanic islands.
• Barren Island in the Andamans is the only active volcanic place in India. After remaining dormant for
188 years, the Barren Island volcano turned active briefly in1991 and again in 1995-96 and recently in
2017 (spewed lava and ash).

2.7.3 VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

• Based on weather magma cools within the crust or above the crust volcanic landforms are divided into
two categories - extrusive landforms and intrusive landforms.

A. EXTRUSIVE VOLCANIC LANDFORMS: These are

formed from material thrown out during volcanic
activity.

1. Conical Vent and Fissure Vent

• A conical vent is a narrow cylindrical vent
through which magma flows out violently.
• Conical vents are common in andesitic
(composite or strato volcano) volcanism.
• A fissure vent, also known as a volcanic fissure
or eruption fissure, is a narrow, linear volcanic
vent through which lava erupts, usually
without any explosive activity. The vent is
often a few meters wide and may be many
kilometres long.
• Fissure vents are common in basaltic
volcanism.

2. Composite Cones or Strato volcanoes

• They are conical or central type volcanic landforms.
• Stratovolcanoes show inter-layering of lava flows and pyroclastic material, which is why they are
sometimes called composite volcanoes. Pyroclastic material can make up over 50% of the volume of a
stratovolcano.
• Lavas and pyroclastics are usually andesitic to rhyolitic in composition.
• Due to the higher viscosity of magmas erupted from these volcanoes, they are usually more explosive
than shield volcanoes.
• The highest and most common volcanoes have composite cones.
• Example: Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji, Stromboli (Lighthouse of the Mediterranean) etc.

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3. Shield Volcanoes
• Shield volcanoes are composed almost entirely of relatively thin lava flows built up over a central vent.
• Most shields were formed by low viscosity basaltic magma that flows easily down slope away from the
summit vent.
• The low viscosity of the magma allows the lava to travel down slope on a gentle slope, but as it cools
and its viscosity increases, its thickness builds up on the lower slopes giving a somewhat steeper lower
slope.
• Most shield volcanoes have a roughly circular or oval shape in map view.
• Very little pyroclastic material is found within a shield volcano, except near the eruptive vents, where
small amounts of pyroclastic material accumulate as a result of fire fountaining events.
• Shield volcanoes thus form by relatively non-explosive eruptions of low viscosity basaltic magma.
• Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii).

4. Lava Plains and Basalt Plateaus

(Plateau Basalts or Flood Basalts)
• Plateau or Flood basalts are
extremely large volume
outpourings of low viscosity
basaltic magma from fissure
vents.
• The basalts spread huge areas of
relatively low slope and build up
plateaus.
• Example: Deccan traps
(peninsular India), Snake Basin,
U.S.A, Icelandic Shield,
Canadian Shield etc.
5. Cinder cone (Tephra cones)
• Cinder cones are small volume cones consisting
predominantly of tephra that result from
strombolian eruptions.
• They usually consist of basaltic to andesitic
material.
• They are actually fall deposits that are built
surrounding the eruptive vent.
• They show an internal layered structure due to
varying intensities of the explosions that deposit
different sizes of pyroclastic.
• On young cones, a depression at the top of the
cone, called a crater, is evident, and represents
the area above the vent from which material was explosively ejected. Craters are usually eroded away
on older cones.
• Cinder and tephra cones usually occur around summit vents and flank vents of stratovolcanoes.
• Cinder cones often occur in groups, where tens to hundreds of cones are found in one area.
• Example: Paricutin Volcano in Mexico.
6. Craters and Calderas
• Craters are circular depressions, usually less than 1 km in diameter, that form as a result of explosions
that emit gases and tephra.

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• Calderas are much larger depressions, circular to elliptical in shape, with diameters ranging from 1 km
to 50 km.
• Calderas form as a result of collapse of a volcanic
structure. The collapse results from evacuation of
the underlying magma chamber.
• Calderas are often enclosed depressions that
collect rain water and snow melt, and thus lakes
often form within a caldera.
• Example: Yellowstone Caldera, USA.

7. Mid-Ocean Ridges: Described earlier in the chapter.

8. Volcanic Domes (Lava Domes)

• Volcanic Domes result from the extrusion of highly
viscous, gas poor andesitic and rhyolitic lava. Since
the viscosity is so high, the lava does not flow away
from the vent, but instead piles up over the vent.
• Blocks of nearly solid lava break off the outer
surface of the dome and roll down its flanks to form
a breccia (sedimentary rocks) around the margins
of domes.
• The surface of volcanic domes are generally very
rough, with numerous spines that have been
pushed up by the magma from below.
• Most dome eruptions are preceded by explosive
eruptions of more gas rich magma, producing a
tephra cone into which the dome is extruded.
• Volcanic domes can be extremely dangerous as they form unstable slopes that may collapse to expose
gas-rich viscous magma to atmospheric pressure.
B. INTRUSIVE VOLCANIC LANDFORMS: Depending on the location of the cooling of the lava, igneous rocks
are classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the crust). The lava that
cools within the crustal portions assumes different forms. These forms are called intrusive forms.

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1. Batholiths
• A large body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust develops in the form of
large domes.
• They appear on the surface only after the denudational processes remove the overlying materials.
• They cover large areas, and at times, assume depth that may be several km.
• These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the cooled portion of magma chambers.
2. Lacoliths
• These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and connected by a pipe-like conduit
from below.
• It resembles the surface volcanic domes of composite volcano, only these are located at deeper depths.
• It can be regarded as the localised source of lava that finds its way to the surface.
• The Karnataka plateau is spotted with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of these, now exfoliated, are
examples of lacoliths or batholiths.
3. Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills
• As and when the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may tend to move in a horizontal direction
wherever it finds a weak plane. It may get rested in different forms. In case it develops into a saucer
shape, concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.
• A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the base of synclines or at the top of anticline in
folded igneous country. Such wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form of
magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths). These are called the phacoliths.
• The near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet, depending on the
thickness of the material. The thinner ones are called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are
called sills.
4. Dykes
• When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures developed in the land, it solidifies almost
perpendicular to the ground.
• It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such structures are called dykes.
• These are the most commonly found intrusive forms in the western Maharashtra area.
• These are considered the feeders for the eruptions that led to the development of the Deccan traps.
2.8 TYPES OF ROCKS
• Rocks are naturally occurring organic or inorganic substances having an orderly atomic structure and
definite chemical composition and physical properties. Petrology is science of rocks.
• Rocks are made up of individual substances, which are called minerals found mostly in a solid state.
• Each mineral contains two or more simple substances called elements of which the whole Earth is made.

Intrusive Rocks
Igneous / Primary Rocks
Extrusive Rocks
Types of Rocks
Organically Formed
Sedimentary Rocks
Inorganically Formed
Metamorphic Rocks

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• Rock may be hard or soft and in varied colours. For example, granite is hard, soapstone is soft. Gabbro
is black and quartzite can be milky white.
• Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.
2.8.1 IGNEOUS ROCKS OR PRIMARY ROCKS
• These rocks are formed due to cooling, solidification and crystallization of magma (below the Earth's
surface) and lava (on the earth's surface), eg. Basalt, granites etc.
• When magma in its upward movement cools and turns into solid form it is called igneous (Ignis - in Latin
means ‘Fire’) rock.
• Thus, all the subsequent rocks were formed, whether directly or indirectly, from the igneous rocks in one
way or the other. This is why igneous rocks are also called as parent rocks or primary rocks.
• These are granular and crystalline rocks.
• The igneous rocks are commonly classified on the basis of the mode of occurrence and chemical
composition.
Classification of Igneous Rocks

A. MODE OF OCCURRENCE
1. Intrusive Igneous Rocks
• The rising magmas during a volcano activity do not reach the earth surface rather they are cold and
solidified below the surface of the earth igneous rocks are called intrusive igneous rocks.
• When the magmas are cooled and solidified very deep within the earth, the resultant rocks become
plutonic (eg. granite) but when the magmas are cooled just below the Earth's surface the rocks are
called as hypabyssal igneous rocks.
• The Magmas are solidified in different forms depending upon the hollow places such as batholiths,
laccoliths, phacoliths, lopoliths, sills, dikes etc.

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2. Extrusive igneous Rocks

• The igneous rocks formed due to cooling and solidification of hot and molten lava at the Earth's
surface are called extrusive igneous rocks (e.g. basalt).
• The igneous rocks formed due to mixture of volcanic materials ejected during explosive type of violent
volcanic eruptions are called explosive type of extrusive igneous rocks.
B. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Acidic Basic Intermediate
• Silica content- 65 to 85%. • Silica content - 45 to 60% • Silica content is less than
• Lack in iron and magnesium. • Dominated by ferro-magnesian the amount present in
• Acidic magma cools fast, and it minerals. the acid igneous rocks
does not flow and spread far • Cools slowly and spreads far but more than the basic
away. away. Give rise to plateaus. igneous rocks.
• Examples - Granite, quartz and • Examples - Basalt, gabbro and • Examples - Diorite and
feldspar. dolerite. andesite.

2.8.2 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• Sedimentary rocks as the word implies are formed due to aggregation and compaction of sediments.
• The word sedimentary has been derived from Latin word sedimentum which means settling down.
• Sedimentary rocks are also called as a stratified or layered rocks because these rocks have different layers
of different types of sediments. Example: sandstone, shale etc.
• Shale, limestone and sandstone make up over 99% of all sedimentary rocks.
• These also contain fossils which are absent in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
• Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic) of the earth’s surface are exposed to denudational
agents, and are broken up into various sizes of fragments.
• Such fragments are transported by different exogenous agencies and deposited.
• These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called lithification.
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
A. Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
• These materials are obtained, transported and deposited at suitable places by different geological
agents like running water (river), wind, glaciers and sea waves.

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• These materials after being deposited and

consolidated in different water bodies
(sedimentation basins, lakes, seas, rivers etc.) form
sedimentary rocks known as clastic sedimentary
rocks.
• Examples - sandstones, conglomerates, clay rock,
shale, loess etc.
B. Chemically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
• Chemical sedimentary rocks form by chemical and
organic reprecipitation of the dissolved products of
chemical weathering that are removed from the
weathering site.
• Allochemical sedimentary rocks, such as many
limestones and cherts, consist of solid precipitated
non-detrital fragments (allochems) that undergo a brief history of transport and abrasion prior to
deposition as non-terrigenous clasts.
• Examples - chert, limestone, halite, potash, chalk, gypsum, salt rocks etc.

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C. Organically/Biologically Formed Sedimentary Rocks

• The sediments derived from the disintegration of decomposition of plants and animals are called organic
sediments.
• These sediments after being deposited and consolidated form organic sedimentary rocks. Coal and
limestone are well-known examples.
• Depending on the predominance of calcium content or the carbon content, sedimentary rocks may be
calcareous (limestone, chalk, dolomite) or carbonaceous (coal).
2.8.3 METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• The word metamorphic means ‘change of form’. These rocks form under the action of pressure, volume
and temperature (PVT) changes.
• Metamorphic rocks are generally formed due to changes in form of sedimentary and igneous rocks.
• Metamorphism is a process by which already consolidated rocks undergo recrystallisation and
reorganisation of materials within original rocks.
• In the process of metamorphism, grains or minerals get arranged in layers or lines. Such an arrangement
is called foliation or lineation.
• Sometimes minerals or materials of different groups are arranged into alternating thin to thick layers.
Such a structure in is called banding.
• Gneissoid, slate, schist, marble, quartzite etc. are some examples of metamorphic rocks.
Types of Metamorphism
• Thermal Metamorphism: The materials of rocks chemically alter and recrystallise due to heat is called
thermal metamorphism.
• Dynamic Metamorphism: When the rocks are metamorphosed due to compressive forces and resultant
pressure is called dynamic metamorphism.
• Hydro Metamorphism: When the rocks are metamorphosed due to hydro-static pressure (pressure of the
fluid).
• Hydro - thermal Metamorphism: When the rocks are metamorphosed due to water and heat.

2.9 EARTHQUAKE
• An earthquake in simple words is shaking of the earth. An earthquake is a motion or vibration or
oscillation of the surface of the earth
caused by a transient disturbance of the
elastic or gravitational equilibrium of the
rocks at or beneath the earth's surface.
• The place of the origin of an earthquake is
called focus which is always hidden inside
the earth but its depth varies from place to
place.
• The place on the ground surface, which is
perpendicular to the buried ‘focus’ or
‘hypocentre’ recording the seismic waves
for the first time is called epicentre.
• The Waves generated by an earthquake are
called seismic waves which are recorded by
an instrument called seismograph or
seismometer at the epicentre.
• The science that deals with the seismic waves, is called seismology.

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2.9.1 CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE

• Volcanic Activities
• Faulting: The horizontal and vertical movements caused by endogenic forces result in the formation of
faults which in turn cause isostatic disequilibrium in the crustal rocks ultimately causing earthquakes.
• Hydrostatic pressure and anthropogenic causes: The earthquakes caused by hydrostatic pressure of
reservoirs are called ‘Reservoir- induced earthquakes’.
- Though the earthquakes are mainly caused by the endogenic forces but certain human activities such
as pumping of groundwater and oil, deep underground mining, blasting of rocks by dynamites for
constructional purposes(e.g. for the construction of dams and reservoirs, roads etc.), nuclear
explosion, storage of huge volume of water in big reservoirs etc. also cause tremors of serious
consequences.
• Plate Tectonics: All sorts of disequilibrium are caused due to different types of plate motions and
consequently earthquakes of varying magnitudes are caused.

2.9.2 CLASSIFICATION OF EARTHQUAKES ON THE BASIS OF FOCUS

1. Shallow/Moderate Earthquakes: The focus of these earthquakes are located at the depths of 0 km to
70 km from the ground surface
- The majority of earthquakes have shallow or moderate-focus. Therefore, they are also known as
crustal earthquakes.
- Majority of the shallow or moderate focus earthquakes are of smaller magnitudes (range from 1 to
5 Richter scale).
2. Intermediate Earthquakes: The focus of these earthquakes are at depths between 70 km to 300 km. Of
the total energy released in earthquakes, about 12-15 per cent comes from intermediate earthquakes.
3. Deep Focus Earthquakes: The focus of these earthquakes are at depths between 300 km to 700km.
- The Deep-focus earthquakes commonly occur in patterns called Benioff zones that dip into the Earth,
indicating the presence of a zone of subduction. Therefore, they are also are known as intraplate
earthquakes (due to the collision between plates).
- They happen as huge earthquakes with larger magnitudes (range from 6 to 8 Richter scale).
2.9.3 EARTHQUAKE DISTRIBUTION
• Most of the World Earthquakes occur in the zones of young, folded mountains, the zones of faulting
and fracturing, the zones representing the junction of continental and oceanic margins, the zones of
active volcanoes and along different plate boundaries.
• Circum - Pacific belt includes the epicentres of the coastal margins of North and South America and East
Asia representing the eastern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean respectively. This belt accounts
for about 65% of the total earthquakes of the world.
• Mid-Continental belt is also known as Mediterranean belt or Alpine Himalayan belt which represents
the collision of subduction zones of Continental plates. This belt accounts for about 21% of the total
earthquakes of the world.
• The Himalayan region is a zone of maximum intensity in terms of magnitude of seismic tremors because
this zone is located in the subduction zones of Asiatic and Indian plates.
2.9.4 MEASURING EARTHQUAKE
1. Richter Magnitude Scale: The magnitude relates to the energy released during the earthquake. A Richter
scale is normally numbered 1-10, though there is no upper limit.
- It is logarithmic which means, for example, that an earthquake measuring magnitude 5 is ten times
more powerful than an earthquake measuring 4.
2. Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale: Another way to measure the strength of an earthquake is to use the
Mercalli scale. This scale uses the observations of the people who experienced the earthquake to
estimate its intensity.

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- This scale, composed of 12 increasing levels of intensity that range from imperceptible shaking to
catastrophic destruction, is designated by Roman numerals.
3. Moment Magnitude Scale: The moment magnitude scale is based on the total moment release of the
earthquake. Moment is a product of the distance a fault moved and the force required to move it.
- It is derived from modelling recordings of the earthquake at multiple stations.
- The Moment Magnitude can measure the local Richter magnitude (ML), body wave magnitude (Mb),
surface wave magnitude (Ms).

=========================================================================================

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. Consider the following statements: a) 1 only

1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier b) 2 and 3
than S waves. c) 3 only
2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and d) 1 and 3
fro in the direction of wave propagation whereas in
3. With reference to two non-conventional energy
S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right
sources called 'coalbed methane' and 'shale gas',
angles to the direction of wave propagation.
consider the following statements:
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. Coalbed methane is the pure methane gas
(2023)
extracted from coal seams, while shale gas is a
(a) 1 only
mixture of propane and butane only that can be
(b) 2 only
extracted from fine-grained sedimentary rocks.
(c) Both 1 and 2
2. In India, abundant coalbed methane sources
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
exist, but so far, no shale gas sources have been
2. Consider the following statements: found.
1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano
located in Indian territory. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great (2014)
Nicobar. a) 1 only
3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted b) 2 only
was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then. c) Both 1 and 2
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? d) Neither 1 nor 2
(2018)

ANSWERS
1.(c) 2.(a) 3.(d)

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3 CLIMATOLOGY: ATMOSPHERE AND ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION

MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS
• Atmosphere and Atmospheric Circulation:
-
Layers of the atmosphere and Composition, Coriolis force, ITCZ, Horse latitudes, sub-tropical high
pressure belt, cyclones, North west monsoon (winter rains), Jet streams.
- Temperature inversion (Ground and Valley Inversion), temperature distribution-over land & sea,
- Satellites and other space junk polluting the stratosphere.
• Water in Atmosphere and Oceans:
- Clouds, Humidity concepts, dew, mist Fog.
- Freshwater (ice caps, glaciers, etc.) on earth's surface, Ocean mean temperature, Isotherms
• Climatic Regions: Tropical/temperate/Equatorial forests (rain & deciduous & dry forests), Grasslands
(Savannah, steppe, prairie), Ecological succession
• Climate: Monsoon, El Nino, La Nina, MJO, Temperature zones

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Ozone hole and Antarctica linkage.
• Western disturbances and SW Monsoon trough merge in NW India- Himachal Floods
• Jet streams
• Water Vapour sent into Stratosphere during Tonga Eruption.
• Clouds-lower clouds & higher clouds properties
• water presence in various forms
• Characteristics of Various forests in relation to national parks
• Triple dip La Nina,
• Indian Ocean Dipole

3.1 ATMOSPHERE
• The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. It also
Constituent % by volume
contains a large number of solids and liquid particles,
collectively called aerosols. Nitrogen (N2) 78.008
• Some of the gases, which may be regarded as Oxygen (O2) 20.94
permanent components of the atmosphere, are
Argon (Ar) 0.93
present in a fixed proportion to the total gas volume.
Other constituents vary in quantity from place to place Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.03
and from time to time. Neon (Ne) 0.0018
• The two gases nitrogen and oxygen make up about 99 Helium (He) 0.0015
percent of the clean dry air.
Ozone (O3) 0.0006
• The remaining gases are mostly inert and constitute
about 1 percent of the atmosphere. Hydrogen (H2) 0.00005
• About 21 percent of it consists of oxygen which helps in Krypton (Kr) Trace
burning and heating. Xenon (X2) Trace
• The bulk of the atmosphere is made up of an inert gas,
Methane (Me) Trace
nitrogen which dilutes the oxygen and slows down the
process of oxidation.
3.1.1 STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
• The vertical structure of the atmosphere encompasses different layers with different atmospheric
characteristics particularly with respect to the climate variables like temperature and density.
• Density of the air is highest near the surface of the earth and it gradually decreases with increasing
height. In other words, the air is rarefied in higher altitudes.

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• Further, the atmospheric column can be studied by dividing it into different layers based on the
temperature characteristics.
• The vertical structure of the atmosphere is divided into layers namely troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.

A. Troposphere
• The lowermost layer of the atmosphere with average height of about 13 km, varying from 18 km at the
equator and 8 km at the poles.
• Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great heights by
strong convectional currents. This layer contains about 75% of the mass of the atmosphere.
• Further, the phenomena of weather and climate occur in this layer (fog, cloud, Dew, Frost, rainfall,
hailstorm, Storms, Cloud-thunder, lightning etc.).
• The atmospheric temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 10C for every 165m of height, called
as normal lapse rate. This decrease in air temperature with altitude is because air is compressible and
the density of the air decreases with altitude.
• This layer contains dust particles and over 90% of the earth's water vapour.
• Troposphere is important from the perspective of biological life and activity.
• The zone between the troposphere and the stratosphere is called as the tropopause, wherein the air
temperature is about minus 450C over the poles and minus 8000C over the equator.
• The air temperature in the tropopause is nearly constant. The tropopause is essentially an inversion
level.
B. Stratosphere
• The stratosphere extends upward from the tropopause. It extends up to a height of 50 km.
• It accounts for about 10 percent of the total molecular mass of the atmosphere.
• The stratosphere contains approximately 19% of the earth's total atmospheric gases.
• It contains most of the total atmospheric ozone and has the maximum temperature, however, occurs at
the stratopause, which lies between the stratosphere and the mesosphere.
• Stratosphere contains the ozone layer. Ozone layer absorbs harmful ultra-violet radiation from the Sun
and shields life on the earth from intense and harmful forms of energy from the Sun.

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• In the stratosphere, the density of the air is lower as compared to the air density in the troposphere
layer. Because of the lower air density, even limited absorption leads to high temperature rise.
• The occurrence of the polar stratospheric clouds in the circumpolar low-pressure vortex at the poles
are significant from the perspective of stratospheric ozone depletion.
• There are no storms or turbulence here to mix up the air, so cold, heavy air is at the bottom and warm,
light air is at the top. Thus, aeroplanes fly in lower stratosphere, sometimes in upper troposphere where
weather is calm.
• Sometimes, cirrus clouds are present at lower levels in this layer.
C. Mesosphere
• The mesosphere layer extends above the stratosphere and the average temperature in this layer
decreases with height.
• Lowest temperature of minus 1300C is observed at a height of 90 km above the earth surface.
• The pressure of the air in the mesosphere layer is low and it is about 0.01mb at 90 km.
• Just above 80 km, average air temperature start decreasing due to the presence of molecular oxygen
and ozone, which absorbs heat. This zone is called mesopause.
• In this region, during the summer nights over high latitudes, noctilucent clouds are observed.
• At the upper boundary of the mesosphere, there exists a layer of ions extending in the other layer.
• This layer of ions or charged particles is helpful in reflecting the radio waves and helps in
telecommunication.
• Meteorites burn up in this layer on entering from the space.
D. Thermosphere
• The thermosphere layer extends above the mesopause and the density of the air in this layer is
extremely low.
• The lower portion of this layer is predominantly composed of nitrogen, molecular oxygen and atomic
oxygen. Above 200 km, the atomic oxygen is more prevalent than the molecular and atomic nitrogen.
• The average air temperature rise with height in this layer, mainly due to the absorption of ultra-violet
radiation by the molecular oxygen and atomic oxygen.
• Above 100 km from the earth’s surface, the short-wave radiation from the sun causes ionization. For
this reason, the ionosphere is the term normally applied to the layer above 80 km. This layer is known
for the Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis.
E. Exosphere
• It represents the uppermost layer of the atmosphere.
• The layer called exosphere lies between 500 km and 750 km.
• This layer is known for the presence of oxygen, hydrogen and helium atoms.
• The neutral helium and hydrogen atoms due to their low atomic weight escapes into the outer space.
• The frequency of the ionized particles indeed increases in the exosphere and in fact beyond 200 km, in
the layer called magnetosphere, the occurrence of electrons and protons are more common.
• This part is extremely rarefied and gradually merges with the outer space.

3.2 HEAT BUDGET

• The average temperature of the earth remains rather constant. It has been possible because of the
balance between the amount of incoming solar radiation and the amount of terrestrial radiation
returned to space.
• There is a state of balance between the incoming solar radiation and the outgoing terrestrial radiation.
• This equilibrium, in which the temperature of the earth as a whole remains constant, is known as the
heat budget or heat balance.

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• The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose

heat. It maintains its temperature. This can happen
only if the amount of heat received in the form of
insolation equals the amount lost by the earth
through terrestrial radiation.
3.3 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
• The most characteristic feature of the vertical
distribution of temperature is that it decreases with
increasing height.
• Since the atmosphere is heated mainly by the
terrestrial radiation, the atmospheric layer
immediately overlying the earth’s surface receives
the maximum heat.
• It is therefore the warmest, but, higher and higher the
temperature gradually decreases and the air
becomes cooler because increasingly higher layers receive a lesser amount of heat.

3.3.1 LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION

• Latent heat is the energy absorbed by or released from a substance during a phase change from a gas
to a liquid or a solid or vice versa.
• If a substance is changing from a solid to a liquid, for example, the substance needs to absorb energy
from the surrounding environment in order to spread out the molecules into a larger, more fluid volume.
• When the water vapour condenses to form clouds, it releases latent heat into the atmosphere.
• The latent heat then warms the surrounding air around the new cloud droplet causing instability. The
warm air around the cloud droplet will now want to rise and condense.

3.3.2 LAPSE RATE

• Normally, temperature decreases with increasing height from the earth’s surface at an average rate of
6.50 Celsius per kilometre. This rate of decrease of temperature with increasing height is called normal
lapse rate.

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• The lapse rate is considered positive when the temperature decreases with elevation, zero when the
temperature is constant with elevation, and negative when the temperature increases with elevation
(temperature inversion).
• Temperature inversion, also called thermal inversion, a reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature
in the troposphere (the region of the atmosphere nearest earth’s surface), in which a layer of cool air at
the surface is overlain by a layer of warmer air.

3.3.3 ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE

• When the air rises, its volume increases
due to expansion. Thus, heat available per Adiabatic Lapse rate
unit volume is reduced and therefore the
temperature also reduces.
• Such a temperature change which does not
involve any subtraction of heat and cooling
of air, takes place only by ascent and
expansion is termed as adiabatic change.
• And the rate of fall in temperature of a
rising or a falling air parcel adiabatically
(Heat doesn’t enter or leave the system. All Dry Adiabatic Lapse Moist Adiabatic
temperature changes are internal) is Rate Lapse rate
termed as adiabatic lapse rate.
A. Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
• In the atmosphere, rising or sinking air will only cool
or warm at one of two rates - the dry adiabatic lapse
rate or the moist adiabatic lapse rate.
• The first, the dry adiabatic lapse rate, is the rate an
unsaturated parcel of air warms or cools when
moving vertically through the atmosphere.
• The dry adiabatic lapse rate for air depends only on
the specific heat capacity of air at constant pressure
and the acceleration due to gravity.
• The dry adiabatic lapse rate for the Earth’s
atmosphere equals 9.8 °C per kilometre.
• When the normal lapse rate is higher than dry
adiabatic rate the air being warmer rises and
becomes unstable. On the other hand, when the
normal lapse rate of temperature is lower than dry
adiabatic rate, the air being cold descends and
becomes stable.
B. Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate
• The moist adiabatic lapse rate, on the other hand,
is the rate at which a saturated parcel of air warms or cools when it moves vertically.
• The moist adiabatic lapse rate varies considerably because the amount of water vapour in the air is
highly variable.
• The greater the amount of vapour, the smaller the adiabatic lapse rate. As an air parcel rises and cools,
it may eventually lose its moisture through condensation; its lapse rate then increases and approaches
the dry adiabatic value.

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3.4 THERMALLY & DYNAMICALLY INDUCED CELL

• The horizontal distribution of air pressure
across the latitudes is characterized by high- or
low-pressure belts. There are distinctly
identifiable zones of similar horizontal pressure
regimes or ‘pressure belts.
• There are two important basis on which the
pressure belts are formed. They are:
(a) Temperature: The equatorial low pressure
and polar high-pressure belts are formed
due to high and low temperature
respectively. So, they are called as
‘thermally formed pressure belts’ (Hadley
cell).
(b) Dynamism: The sub-tropical high and sub
polar low-pressure belts are formed due to
movement and collision of wind system. So
they are called as ‘dynamically formed
pressure belt system’ (Ferrel cell).
• On the earth’s surface, there are in all seven
pressure belts.
- The Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt
- The Sub tropic High-Pressure Belts (2 Belts – one each in Northern and Southern Hemisphere)
- The Sub-polar Low-Pressure Betts (2 Belts – one each in Northern and Southern Hemisphere)
- The Polar High-Pressure Belts (2 Belts – one each in Northern and Southern Hemisphere)

3.4.1 TYPES OF PRESSURE BELTS

A. The Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt
• The sun shines almost vertically on the equator throughout the year. As a result, the air gets warm and
rises over the equatorial region and produce equatorial low pressure.
• This belt extends from equator to 10° N and 10° S latitudes.
• Due to excessive heating horizontal movement of air is absent here and only conventional currents are
there. Therefore, this belt is called doldrums (the zone of calm) due to virtual absence of surface winds.
• These are the regions of convergence because the winds flowing from sub-tropical high-pressure belts
converge here. This belt is also known as inter tropical convergence zone (ITCZ).
B. The Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts
• The sub-tropical high-pressure belts extend from the tropics to about 350 latitudes in both the
Hemispheres.
• In the northern hemisphere it is called as the North sub-tropical high-pressure belt and in the southern
hemisphere it is known as the South sub-tropical high-pressure belt.
• The existence of these pressure belts is due to the fact that the up - rising air of the equatorial region
is deflected towards poles due to the earth’s rotation.
• After becoming cold and heavy, it descends in these regions and get piled up. This results in high
pressure.
• Calm conditions with feeble and variable winds are found here.
• In olden days vessels with cargo of horses passing through these belts found difficulty in sailing under
these calm conditions.
• They used to throw the horses in the sea in order to make the vessels lighter. Henceforth these belts or
latitudes are also called ‘horse latitudes’.

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• These are the regions of divergence because winds from these areas blow towards equatorial and
subpolar low-pressure belts.
C. The Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belts
• The sub-polar low-pressure belts extend between 450N and the Arctic Circle in the northern hemisphere
and between 45°S and the Antarctic Circle in the southern hemisphere. They are known as the North
sub-polar low and the South sub-polar low-pressure belts respectively.
• Winds coming from the sub-tropical and the polar high belts converge here to produce cyclonic storms
or low-pressure conditions.
• This zone of convergence is also known as polar front.
D. The Polar High-Pressure Belts
• In polar regions, sun never shines vertically. Sun rays are always slanting here resulting in low
temperatures. Because of low temperature, air compresses and its density increases. Hence, high
pressure is found here.
• In northern hemisphere the belt is called the North polar high-pressure belt while it is known as the
South polar high-pressure belt in the southern hemisphere.
• Winds from these belts blow towards sub-polar low-pressure belts.
3.5 PRESSURE SYSTEM & CIRCULATION

3.5.1 HADLEY CELL

• At the equator, the ground is intensely heated by the sun. This causes the air to rise which creates a low-
pressure zone on the Earth's surface.
• As the air rises, it cools and forms thick cumulonimbus (storm) clouds. The air continues to rise up to the
upper atmosphere, and the following then happens:
- The air separates and starts to move both north and south towards the poles.
- When it reaches about 30° north and south, the air cools and sinks towards the ground forming the
subtropical high-pressure zone.
• As the air sinks, it becomes warmer and drier. This creates an area of little cloud and low rainfall, where
deserts are found. The Hadley cell is then complete. The air completes the cycle and flows back towards
the equator as the trade winds.
• In the northern hemisphere, the winds flow to the right and are called northeast trade winds. In the
southern hemisphere the winds flow to the left and are called the southeast trade winds. This is down

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to the Coriolis force and friction.

3.5.2 FERREL CELL
• The Ferrel cell occurs at higher latitudes (between 300 and 600 degrees north and 300 and 600 south):
- Air on the surface is pulled towards the poles, forming the warm south-westerly winds in the
northern hemisphere and north-westerly winds in the southern hemisphere.
- These winds pick up moisture as they travel over the oceans. At around 60 degrees N and 60 degrees
S, they meet cold air, which has drifted from the poles.
• The warmer air from the tropics is lighter than the dense, cold polar air and so it rises as the two air
masses meet.
• This uplift of air causes low pressure at the surface and the unstable weather conditions that are
associated with the mid-latitude depressions.
3.5.3 POLAR CELL
• At the poles, air is cooled and sinks towards the ground forming high pressure, this known as the Polar
high. It then flows towards the lower latitudes.
• At about 600 N and S, the cold polar air mixes with warmer tropical air and rises upwards, creating a
zone of low pressure called the subpolar low.
• The boundary between the warm and cold air is called the polar front. It accounts for a great deal of the
unstable weather experienced in these latitudes.
3.6 TYPES OF RAINFALL
On the basis of its origin, rainfall may be classified into three main types – Convectional, Orographic or Relief
and Cyclonic or Frontal.

3.6.1 CONVECTIONAL RAINFALL

• Excessive heating of the earth’s surface in tropical
region results in the vertical air currents. These
currents, lift the warm moist air to higher strata of
atmosphere.
• When-the temperature of such a humid air starts
falling below dew point continuously, clouds are
formed. These clouds cause heavy rainfall which is
associated with lightning and thunder. This type of
rainfall is called conventional rainfall.
• It is very common in equatorial region where it is a
daily phenomenon in the afternoon.

3.6.2 OROGRAPHIC OR RELIEF RAINFALL

• Orographic rainfall is formed where air rises and
cools because of a topographic barrier.
• When their temperature fall below dew point,
clouds are formed. These clouds cause widespread
rain on the windward slopes of the mountain range.
This type of rain is called orographic rainfall.
• However when these winds cross over the mountain
range and descend along the leeward slopes, they
get warm and cause little rain. Region lying on the
leeward side of the mountain receiving little rain is
called rain-shadow area.

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• A famous example of orographic rainfall is Cherrapunji on the southern margin of the Khasi Hills in
Meghalaya, India.
3.6.3 CYCLONIC OR FRONTAL RAINFALL
• When precipitation is associated with a
cyclonic circulation, it is called cyclonic
rainfall.
• Convergence rainfall, produced where air
currents converge and rise.
• In tropical regions where opposing air
currents have comparable temperatures,
the lifting is more or less vertical and is
usually accompanied by convention.
• Convection activity frequently occurs along
fronts where the temperature of the air
masses concerned are quite different.
• Mixing of air along the front also probably
contributes to condensation and therefore
to the frontal rainfall.
• When two large air masses of different
densities and temperature meet, the warmer moist air mass is lifted above the colder one.
• When this happens, the rising warm air mass condenses to form clouds which cause extensive down
pour. This type of rainfall is also called frontal rainfall. This type of rainfall is associated with both warm
and cold fronts.
• This rainfall is associated with thunder and lightning.
• It is generally steady and may persist for a whole day or even longer.
3.6.4 MONSOONAL RAINFALL
• The seasonal reversal of winds which carry oceanic moisture (especially the south-west monsoon) with
them and cause extensive rainfall in south and south-east Asia is termed as monsoonal rainfall.
• It is characterized by maximum rainfall in July and August (Northern hemisphere). Thus, there is summer
maximum and winter minimum.
• Most of the rains are orographic and cyclonic in origin.
• There seem to be two rain-bearing systems in India. First originate in the Bay of Bengal causing rainfall
over the plains of north India. Second is the Arabian Sea current of the southwest monsoon which brings
rain to the west coast of India.
• Much of the rainfall along the Western Ghats is orographic as the moist air is obstructed and forced to
rise along the Ghats.
• The frequency of the tropical depressions originating from the Bay of Bengal varies from year to year.
Their paths over India are mainly determined by the position of ITCZ which is generally termed as the
monsoon trough.
• As the axis of the monsoon trough oscillates, there are fluctuations in the track and direction of these
depressions, and the intensity and the amount of rainfall vary from year to year.
3.6.5 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL
• Rainfall is highly correlated with air temperature and atmospheric humidity.
• The regions having high temperature and abundance of surface water for evaporation receive higher
amount of annual rainfall. Thus, different places on the earth’s surface receive different amounts of
rainfall in a year and that too in different seasons.
• In general, as from the equator towards the poles, rainfall goes on decreasing steadily.
• The coastal areas of the world receive greater amounts of rainfall than the interior of the continents.

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• The rainfall is more over the oceans than on the landmasses of the world because of being great sources
of water.
• Between the latitudes 350 and 400 N and S of the equator, the rain is heavier on the eastern coasts and
goes on decreasing towards the west.
• But, between 450 and 650 N and S of equator, due to the westerlies, the rainfall is first received on the
western margins of the continents and it goes on decreasing towards the east.
• The equatorial belt, the windward slopes of the mountains (A famous example of orographic rainfall is
Cherrapunji on the southern margin of the Khasi Hills in Meghalaya) along the western coasts in the cool
temperate zone and the coastal areas of the monsoon land receive heavy rainfall of over 200 cm per
annum.
• Interior continental areas receive moderate rainfall varying from 100 - 200 cm per annum.
• The coastal areas of the continents receive moderate amount of rainfall.
• The central parts of the tropical land and the eastern and interior parts of the temperate lands receive
rainfall varying between 50 - 100 cm per annum.
• Areas lying in the rain shadow zone of the interior of the continents and high latitudes receive very low
rainfall less than 50 cm per annum.
• Seasonal distribution of rainfall provides an important aspect to judge its effectiveness.
• In some regions rainfall is distributed evenly throughout the year such as in the equatorial belt and in
the western parts of cool temperate regions.

3.7 TROPICAL CYCLONES

• A tropical cyclone is a rapid rotating storm originating over tropical oceans from where it draws the
energy to develop.
• It has a low-pressure centre and clouds spiralling towards the eyewall surrounding the "eye".
- The eye is the central part of the cyclone.
• The winds are driven by the low-pressure core and by the rotation of Earth, which deflects the path of
the wind through a phenomenon known as the Coriolis force.
• Accompanying these strong winds are torrential rains and a devastating phenomenon known as the
storm surge, an elevation of the sea surface that can reach 6 metres.
• Such a combination of high winds and water makes cyclones a serious hazard for coastal areas in tropical
and subtropical areas of the world.
• Every year during the late summer months (July–September in the Northern Hemisphere and January–
March in the Southern Hemisphere), cyclones strike regions as far apart as the Gulf Coast of North
America, north-western Australia, and eastern India and Bangladesh.

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3.7.1 NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR A TROPICAL CYCLONE FORMATION

1. Latitude: One of the important conditions for a tropical cyclone formation is suitable latitude. Almost
all tropical cyclones form over regions more than 5 degrees of latitude away from the Equator and very
few occur near the Equator.
2. Temperature of the Sea Surface: The temperature of the surface layer of ocean water must be 27 °C or
warmer, and this warm layer must be at least 50 metres (150 feet) deep.
3. A pre-existing weak low-pressure area: A pre-existing atmospheric circulation (low pressure area) must
be located near the surface warm layer.
4. Upper divergence above the sea level system: The middle atmosphere must be relatively humid at a
height of about 5,000 metres (16,000 feet) above the surface.
5. Presence of Coriolis Force: The developing system must be at least 500 km away from the Equator. At
the equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the isobars.
- The low pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical cyclones
are not formed near the equator.
6. Small Variation in the Vertical Wind Speed: The wind speed must change slowly with height through
the troposphere.
7. Colling of atmosphere and Convective Clouds: The atmosphere must cool quickly enough with height
to support the formation of deep convective clouds.

3.7.2 FORMATION
• The genesis process involves the transformation from a sequence of events that lead to the
development of a warm-cored tropical vortex of sufficient strength to allow it to continue to intensify
solely due to its own interactions with the warm underlying sea.
• Tropical cyclones are like giant engines that use warm, moist air as fuel. That is why they form only over
warm ocean waters near the equator.
• The warm, moist air over the ocean rises upward from near the surface. Because this air moves up and
away from the surface, there is less air left near the surface (the warm air rises, causing an area of lower
air pressure below).
• Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure pushes in to the low-pressure area. Then that "new"
air becomes warm and moist and rises, too.
• As the warm air continues to rise, the surrounding air swirls in to take its place. As the warmed, moist
air rises and cools off, the water in the air forms clouds.
• The whole system of clouds and wind spins and grows, fed by the ocean's heat and water evaporating
from the surface.

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3.7.3 STRUCTURE OF TROPICAL CYCLONE

A. The Eye
• A characteristic feature of tropical cyclones is the eye,
a central region of clear skies, warm temperatures,
and low atmospheric pressure.
• In addition to low pressure at the centre, there is also
a rapid variation of pressure across the storm, with
most of the variation occurring near the centre.
• This rapid variation results in a large pressure
gradient force, which is responsible for the strong
winds present in the eyewall.
• As the air subsides, it compresses slightly and warms,
so that temperatures at the centre of a tropical
cyclone are some 5.5 °C (10 °F) higher than in other
regions of the storm.
• Because warmer air can hold more moisture
before condensation occurs, the eye of the cyclone is
generally free of clouds.

B. The Eyewall
• The most dangerous and destructive part of a tropical cyclone is the eyewall. Here winds are strongest,
rainfall is heaviest, and deep convective clouds rise from close to Earth’s surface to a height 15,000
metres.
• There is a strong spiralling ascent of air to greater height reaching the tropopause.
• The wind reaches maximum velocity in this region, reaching as high as 250 km per hour.
• The eyewall consists of a ring of tall thunderstorms that produce heavy rains and usually the strongest
winds.
• Changes in the structure of the eye and eyewall can cause changes in the wind speed, which is an
indicator of the storm's intensity. The eye can grow or shrink in size, and double (concentric) eyewalls
can form.
C. Rainbands
• Rainbands are curved bands of clouds and thunderstorms that trail away from the eye wall in a spiral
fashion.
• These bands are capable of
producing heavy bursts of rain
and wind, as well as tornadoes.
• There are sometimes gaps in
between spiral rain bands where
no rain or wind is found.
• In fact, if one were to travel
between the outer edge of a
hurricane to its centre, one
would normally progress from
light rain and wind, to dry and
weak breeze, then back to increasingly heavier rainfall and stronger wind, over and over again with each
period of rainfall and wind being more intense and lasting longer.

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3.8 GEOSTROPHIC WINDS

• The wind blowing parallel to the isobars generally at the height of
600 metre is called ‘geostrophic wind’
• The velocity and direction of the wind are the net result of the wind
generating forces.
• The winds in the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are
free from frictional effect of the surface and are controlled mainly by
the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force.
• When isobars are straight and when there is no friction, the
pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis force and the
resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar, known as the
‘geostrophic wind’.
• Geostrophic winds come about because pressure gradient force and Coriolis force come into balance
after the air begins to move.
• ‘Jet streams’ are geostrophic winds that form near the
boundaries of air masses with different temperatures
and humidity. Jet streams follow the boundaries between
hot and cold air.
• Jet streams generally blow from west to east all across the
globe.
• In other words, the strong and rapidly moving circumpolar
westerly air circulation in a narrow belt of a few hundred
kilometers width in the upper limit of troposphere is called
jet stream.
• The circulation of westerly jet stream is confined between poles and 20° latitudes in both the
hemispheres at the height of 7.5-14 km.
• Their speeds usually range from 129 to 225 kilometers per hour, but they can reach more than 443
kilometers per hour.
• They are faster in winter when the temperature differences between tropical, temperate, and polar air
currents are greater.
• There is seasonal change in the wind velocity in jet streams wherein these become strong during
winter season and the wind velocity becomes twice the velocity during summer season.

3.9 AIRMASS & FRONTS

3.9.1 AIRMASS
• An air mass is a large volume of air in the atmosphere that is mostly uniform in temperature and
moisture.
• Air masses can extend thousands of kilometers across the surface of the Earth and can reach from
ground level to the stratosphere—16 kilometers into the atmosphere.
• An air mass forms whenever the atmosphere remains in contact with a large, relatively uniform land
or sea surface for a time sufficiently long to acquire the temperature and moisture properties of that
surface.
• The Earth’s major air masses originate in polar or subtropical latitudes. There are no major source
regions in the mid-latitudes as these regions are dominated by cyclonic and other disturbances.
• Low wind speeds let air remain stationary long enough to take on the features of the source region,
such as heat or cold. When winds move air masses, they carry their weather conditions (heat or cold,
dry or moist) from the source region to a new region.
• When the air mass reaches a new region, it might clash with another air mass that has a different
temperature and humidity. This can create a severe storm.

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A. Condition for Formation of Air Masses

1. Atmospheric stability: Regions of disturbance and turbulence or dominated by cyclones inhibit the
formation of the air mass.
2. Homogeneity - Entire volume should have more or less homogeneous conditions.
3. Time of contact - The air mass should remain over the source area for sufficient time to obtain its
characteristics.
4. Extensive Uniform Area having divergence air pattern -- causes air to spread over the larger area.
B. Air Masses Based on Source Regions
The air masses are classified according to the source regions. There are five major source regions. These are:
1. Warm tropical and subtropical oceans
2. The subtropical hot deserts
3. The relatively cold high latitude oceans
4. The very cold snow-covered continents in high latitudes
5. Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica.
Accordingly, following types of airmasses are recognised:
(a) Maritime Tropical (mT): Maritime Tropical (mT) air mass develops over tropical and subtropical seas
and oceans. E.g. warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico and Gulf Stream. This air mass is characterized by
hot, humid conditions.
- The weather during winter has mild temperatures, overcast skies with fog.
- During summer, the weather is characterized by high temperatures, high humidity, cumulous
clouds and convectional rainfall.
(b) Continental Tropical (cT): The continental Tropical (cT) air mass originates in arid or desert regions in
the middle or lower latitudes, principally during the summer season.
- It is strongly heated in general, but its moisture content is so low that the intense dry convection
normally fails to reach the condensation level.
- Of all the air masses, the cT is the most arid, and it sustains the belt of subtropical deserts
worldwide.
(c) Maritime Polar (mP): Maritime Polar (mP) air masses develop over the polar areas of both the Northern
and the Southern hemispheres - cold ocean currents or high latitude ocean waters.
- This air mass can produce widespread rain or snow, fog, drizzle, cloudy weather, and long-lasting
light to moderate rain.
- They generally contain considerably more moisture than the cP air masses.
- As they move inland in middle and high latitudes, heavy precipitation may occur when the air is
forced to ascend mountain slopes or is caught up in cyclonic activity.
(d) Continental Polar (cP): Continental Polar (cP) air usually forms during the cold period of the year over
extensive land areas such as central Asia and northern Canada.
- It is likely to be stable and is characteristically free of condensation forms.
- When heated or moistened from the ground with strong turbulence, this type of air mass develops
limited convective stratocumulus cloud forms with scattered light rain or snow showers.
- In summer strong continental heating rapidly modifies the coolness and dryness of the cP air
mass as it moves to lower latitudes.
- Daytime generation of cumulus clouds is the rule, but the upper-level stability of the air mass is
usually such as to prevent rain showers.
(e) Continental Arctic (cA): This air mass is considered very cold.
- Their source of origin is the Arctic Ocean, Siberia, Northern Canada, and Southern Ocean.
C. Influence of Air Masses on World Weather
• When cold and hot air mass meet, that could cause rain due to the formation of occluded front. E.g.
formation of extratropical cyclones in mid-high latitude.

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• Passage of maritime air mass generally contains moisture and causes rain. E.g. rain in the
Mediterranean region.
• Tropical air masses are warm and doesn’t contain much moisture and could create a condition for
heatwaves. E.g. heatwave in North India and Britain etc.
• Polar air mass influences climate ozone formation and topography movement of such air mass is the
primary reason for the topographical difference in Arctic and Antarctic regions
• Due to the movement of polar air mass in winters, vegetation growth is hindered in the high and mid-
latitude regions.

3.9.2 FRONTS
• When two different air masses meet, the boundary zone between them is called a front. The process
of formation of the fronts is known as frontogenesis.
• Often there is turbulence at a front and it can cause clouds and storms.
• Instead of causing clouds and storms, some fronts just cause a temperature change. However, some
storm fronts start Earth's largest storms. Tropical waves are fronts that develop in the tropical Atlantic
Ocean off the coast of Africa. These fronts can develop into tropical storms or hurricanes if conditions
allow.
• Fronts move across the Earth's surface over multiple days. The direction of movement is often guided
by high winds, such as Jet Streams. Landforms like mountains can also change the path of a front.
• There are four types of fronts: Cold, Warm, Stationary and Occluded.

A. Cold Front
• A cold front forms when a cold air mass pushes into a warmer air mass.
• Cold fronts can produce dramatic changes in the weather. They move fast, up to twice as fast as a warm
front.
• As a cold front moves into an area, the heavier (denser) cool air pushes under the lighter (less dense)
warm air, causing it to rise into the troposphere. Lifted warm air ahead of the front produces cumulus
or cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms.
• As the cold front passes, winds become gusty. There is a sudden drop in temperature, and also heavy
rain, sometimes with hail, thunder, and lightning.
• Atmospheric pressure changes from falling to rising at the front.
• After a cold front moves through an area, one may notice cooler temperature is cooler, the rain has
stopped, and the cumulus clouds are replaced by stratus and stratocumulus clouds or clear skies.

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B. Warm Fronts
• A warm front forms when a warm air mass pushes into a cooler air mass.
• Warm fronts often bring stormy weather as the warm air mass at the surface rises above the cool air
mass, making clouds and storms.
• Warm fronts move more slowly than cold fronts because it is more difficult for the warm air to push
the cold, dense air across the Earth's surface.
• Warm fronts often form on the east side of low-pressure systems where warmer air from the south is
pushed north.
• One can often see high clouds like cirrus, cirrostratus, and middle clouds like altostratus ahead of a warm
front. These clouds form in the warm air that is high above the cool air.
• As the front passes over an area, the clouds become lower, and rain is likely. There can be thunderstorms
around the warm front if the air is unstable.

C. Stationary Front
• A stationary front forms when a cold front or warm
front stops moving. This happens when two masses
of air are pushing against each other, but neither is
powerful enough to move the other. Winds blowing
parallel to the front instead of perpendicular can help
it stay in place.
• A stationary front may stay put for days. If the wind
direction changes, the front will start moving again,
becoming either a cold or warm front. Or the front
may break apart.
• Because a stationary front marks the boundary
between two air masses, there are often differences in air temperature and wind on opposite sides of

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it. The weather is often cloudy along a stationary front, and rain or snow often falls, especially if the
front is in an area of low atmospheric pressure.
D. Occluded Front
• If an air mass is fully lifted above the land surface, it is
called the occluded front.
• Sometimes a cold front follows right behind a warm front.
A warm air mass pushes into a colder air mass (the warm
front), and then another cold air mass pushes into the
warm air mass (the cold front). Because cold fronts move
faster, the cold front is likely to overtake the warm front.
This is known as an occluded front.
• At an occluded front, the cold air mass from the cold front
meets the cool air that was ahead of the warm front. The
warm air rises as these air masses come together.
• Occluded fronts usually form around areas of low
atmospheric pressure.
• There is often precipitation along an occluded front from
cumulonimbus or nimbostratus clouds.
• Wind changes direction as the front passes and the temperature either warms or cools. After the front
passes, the sky is usually clearer, and the air is drier.

3.10 EL- NIÑO & LA-NINA

• Normally, the tropical western Pacific (region of Australia, Indonesia etc.) is warm and wet with a low-
pressure system, and the cool and dry eastern Pacific (region of Southern America) lie under a high-
pressure system.
- This creates a pressure gradient from east to west
and causes surface air to move east to west, from
high pressure in the eastern Pacific to low pressure
in the western Pacific. (During normal conditions in
the Pacific Ocean, trade winds blow west along the
equator, taking warm water from South America
towards Asia.)
- Higher up in the atmosphere, west-to-east winds
complete the circulation.
- The warm waters of the western Pacific Ocean in
East Asia heat the air above it and supply it with
moisture. On average, the air rises, forms clouds, and
then flows to the east across the Pacific, losing
moisture to rainfall.
- The air then sinks off the west coast of South America and returns to the west along the surface of
the ocean, back to the western Pacific Ocean.
• The Walker circulation contributes to normal weather conditions in the tropical Pacific Ocean: warm,
wet weather in the western Pacific and cool, dry weather in the eastern Pacific.
• The Walker circulation reverses every few years, as part of a phenomenon called the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO).
- When the Walker circulation weakens, the winds also weaken and the warm water of the western
Pacific spreads to the east. These conditions are called El Niño.
- During times when the Walker circulation is particularly strong, called La Niña, the winds are
stronger across the Pacific. These strong winds cause cooler ocean temperatures because of
upwelling in the eastern Pacific.

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- El Niño and La Niña impact the weather in North and South America, Australia, and Southeast Africa,
and can cause flooding, droughts, and increases or decreases in hurricane activity.
3.10.1 EL NIÑO
• El Niño means Little Boy, or Christ Child in Spanish.
• During El Nino, trade winds weaken. Warm water is pushed back east, toward the west coast of the
Americas.
• A warming of the ocean surface, or above-average sea surface temperatures (SST), in the central and
eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
• Over western pacific region like Indonesia, rainfall tends to become reduced while rainfall increases
over the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean.
• The low-level surface winds, which normally blow from east to west along the equator (“easterly
winds”), instead weaken or, in some cases, start blowing the other direction (from west to east or
“westerly winds”).
• In general, the warmer the ocean temperature anomalies, the stronger the El Niño (and vice-versa).

3.10.2 LA NIÑA
• La Nina means Little Girl in Spanish. La Nina has the opposite effect of El Nino.
• During La Nina events,
trade winds are even
stronger than usual,
pushing more warm
water toward Asia. Off
the west coast of the
Americas, upwelling
increases, bringing cold,
nutrient-rich water to
the surface.
• A cooling of the ocean
surface, or below-
average sea surface
temperatures (SST), in
the central and eastern
tropical Pacific Ocean.
• Over western pacific region like Indonesia, rainfall tends to increase while rainfall decreases over the
central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. The normal easterly winds along the equator become even
stronger.
• In general, the cooler the ocean temperature anomalies, the stronger the La Niña (and vice-versa).

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UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. Consider the following statements: 2. In the temperate zone, westerlies make the
Statement-I: eastern sections of oceans warmer than the
Thickness of the troposphere at the equator is western sections.
much greater as compared to poles. Which of the statements given above is/are
Statement-II: correct? (2021)
At the equator, heat is transported to great (a) 1 only
heights by strong convectional currents. (b) 2 only
Which one of the following is correct in respect of (c) Both 1 and 2
the above statements? (2024) (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
and Statement-II explains Statement-I 5. Consider the following statements:
(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct 1. Jet streams occur in the Northern
but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I Hemisphere only.
(c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is 2. Only some cyclones develop an eye.
incorrect 3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone
(d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is is nearly 10 °C lesser than that of the
correct surroundings.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct:
2. With reference to “Coriolis force”, which of the (2020)
following statements is/are correct? (a) 1 only
1. It increases with increase in wind velocity. (b) 2 and 3 only
2. It is maximum at the poles and is absent at (c) 2 only
the equator. (d) 1 and 3 only
Select the answer using the code given below: 6. In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern
(2024) Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not
(a) 1 only originate. What is the reason? (2015)
(b) 2 only (a) Sea surface temperatures are low
(c) Both 1 and 2 (b) Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (c) Coriolis force is too weak
3. With reference to the Earth's atmosphere, which (d) Absence of land in those regions
one of the following statements is correct? (2023) 7. The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical
(a) The total amount of insolation received at the characteristic of (2014)
equator is roughly about 10 times of that received (a) Equatorial climate
at the poles. (b) Mediterranean climate
(b) Infrared rays constitute roughly two-thirds of (c) Monsoon climate
insolation. (d) All of the above climates
(c) Infrared waves are largely absorbed by water
vapor that is concentrated in the lower atmosphere. 8. With reference to the water on the planet Earth,
(d) Infrared waves are a part of the visible consider the following statements:
spectrum of electromagnetic waves of solar 1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is
radiation. more than the amount of groundwater.
2. The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers
4. Consider the following statements: is more than the amount of groundwater.
1. In the tropical zone, the western sections of the Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
oceans are warmer than the eastern sections (2021)
owing to the influence of trade winds. (a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2

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(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) continental shelf is undulating

13. On the planet earth, most of the freshwater
9. With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature
exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining
(OMT), which of the following statements is/are
freshwater, the largest proportion (2013)
correct?
(a) is found in atmosphere as moisture and clouds
1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26 °C isotherm
(b) is found in freshwater lakes and rivers
which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian
(c) exists as groundwater
Ocean during January - March.
(d) exists as soil moisture
2. OMT collected during January March can be used
in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in 14. What explains the eastward flow of the
monsoon will be less or more than a certain long- equatorial counter-current? (2015)
term mean. (a) The Earth's rotation on its axis
Select the correct answer using the code given (b) Convergence of the two equatorial currents
below (2020) (c) Difference in salinity of water
(a) 1 only (d) Occurrence of the belt of calm near the equator
(b) 2 only
15. Tides occur in the oceans and seas due to which
(c) Both 1 and 2
among the following?
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Gravitational force of the Sun
2. Gravitational force of the Moon
10. Why are dewdrops not formed on a cloudy
3. Centrifugal force of the Earth
night? (2019)
Select the correct answer using the code given
(a) Clouds absorb the radiation released from the
below. (2015)
Earth's surface.
(a) 1 only
(b) Clouds reflect back the Earth's radiation.
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) The Earth's surface would have low temperature
(c) 1 and 3 only
on cloudy nights.
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(d) Clouds deflect the blowing wind to ground level.
16. "Each day is more or less the same, the morning
11. During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is clear and bright with a sea breeze; as the Sun
is produced by the climbs high in the sky, heat mounts up, dark clouds
1. meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky form, then rain comes with thunder and lightning.
2. lightning that separates the nimbus clouds But rain is soon over." Which of the following
3. violent upward movement of air and water regions is described in the above passage? (2015)
particles (a) Savannah
Select the correct answer using the codes given (b) Equatorial
below: (2013) (c) Monsoon
(a) 1 only (d) Mediterranean
(b) 2 and 3 only
17. “Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the
(c) 1 and 3 only
people used to be nomadic herders.” The above
(d) None of the above produces the thunder
statement best describes which of the following
12. The most important fishing grounds of the world regions? (2013)
are found in the regions where (2013) (a) African Savannah
(a) warm and cold atmospheric currents meet (b) Central Asian Steppe
(b) rivers drain out large amounts of freshwater into (c) North American Prairie
the sea (d) Siberian Tundra
(c) warm and cold oceanic currents meet
ANSWERS
1.(d) 2.(c) 3.(c) 4.(c) 5.(c) 6.(b)
7.(c) 8.(b) 9.(b) 10.(b) 11.(d) 12.(c)
13.(c) 14.(b) 15.(d) 16.(b) 17.(b)

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4 OCEANOGRAPHY

MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Water in Oceans
- Freshwater (ice caps, glaciers, etc.) on earth's surface, Ocean mean temperature, Isotherms
• Movement in Oceans
- Ocean currents-Cold/Warm.
- Equatorial counter current, convergence of equatorial currents.
- Upwelling and downwelling zones in ocean.
- Impacts (fishing grounds, desertification etc.)
• Types of Coral reefs

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Factors influencing the movement of ocean currents
• Surface currents and Deep-water currents.
• Thermohaline Circulations (IPCC report Findings)
• Tides
• Oceanic Land forms
• Ocean Acidification and Coral Bleaching

4.1 OCEAN RELIEF

• Oceans are the largest water bodies in the hydrosphere forming a single, large, continuous body of
water encircling all the landmass of the earth.
• Earth is the only planet in the solar system which has water in abundance, hence, it is often called a
‘watery Planet’ or ‘Blue Planet’.
• About 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water.
• Oceans contain 97% of the world’s total water.
• Oceans account for 4/5th of the Southern Hemisphere and 3/5th of the Northern Hemisphere.
• 4 principal oceans: the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean and the Arctic Ocean.
- All the other seas, inland seas or the arms of the oceans, are counted within these four main oceans.
• Oceanic relief features: For eg. mountains, basins, plateaus, ridges, canyons and trenches
• Causes of relief features: interaction of tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes.
- At greater depths, tectonic and volcanic phenomena are the most significant processes.

4.1.1 MAJOR OCEAN RELIEFS

• In general, the ocean floor can be divided into four major relief features.
Continental
Shelf
Continental
Major Ocean Slope
Relief
Features Continental Rise

Abyssal Plain

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A. Continental Shelf
• There is no clear or well-defined line separating oceans from continents. In fact, continents do not end
abruptly at shoreline.
• They slope seaward from the coast to a point where the slope becomes very steep. The shallow
submerged extension of continent is called ‘the continental shelf’. It is the shallowest part of ocean.
• The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the ‘shelf break’.
• Average width: 80 km; Average Depth – 200 m; Average Gradient (Mean slope) - 1° or even less.
• The depth of this shallow sea water over the continental shelf ranges between 120 to 370 metres.
• The width of continental shelf varies greatly ranging between a few kilometres to more than 100 km
• Continental Shelf width variation in the context of Indian peninsula.
- The continental shelf off the eastern coast of India is much wider than that of the western coast.
• Continental Shelf width variation in the context of World
- Well developed in: Arctic Siberia, North Sea, Baltic Sea (there are lowland areas).
✓ Off the coast of West Europe, it extends to 320 kilometres from the Cape of Land’s End. Off
the coast of Florida the shelf is 240 kilometres wide.
- Narrow or Absent in: Eastern Pacific Ocean, esp. S. America (due to extreme mountainous coasts)
✓ Note: In the regions of active subduction, for eg. Circumpacific ring, the continental shelf is
absent due to formation of young fold mountains.
• The continental shelves are mostly covered by sediments derived from rocks on land. Some of them
are underlaid by sedimentary strata while others by the igneous and metamorphic strata.
• Formation: formed due to
- Erosion of land at sea shore (wave action).
- Submergence of land due to rise in sea level.
- Deposits at the shore of river borne material. Off the coast regions, which were once covered by ice
sheets, they may have developed due to glacial deposits.
• Importance:
- 20% of world’s petroleum & natural gas is obtained from these shelves.
✓ The Bombay High and the recent discovery of petroleum in the Godavari basin are examples
of on shore drilling on the continental shelf.
- Richest fishing grounds: The shallow water enables sunlight to penetrate through to the bottom
and encourages growth of microscopic plants & animals called planktons that are the food for fishes.
- Source of minerals including sand and gravel.
- Coral reefs and lipoclastic materials are also common on continental shelves.

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ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE CONTINENTAL SHELVES OF INDIA

The continental shelves of India have been formed differently:
• Ganga, Godavari, Krishna and Cauveri mouths - formed through delta formation.
• Midinapur to Madura - result of sedimentation and consequent subsidence.
• Andaman Nicobar, Lakshadweep, the Gulf of Mannar - originated due to coral reefs.
• Western coast - due to faulting and consequent submergence.
B. Continental Slope
• The continuously sloping portion of the continental margin, seaward of the continental shelf and
extending down to the deep sea floor of the abyssal plain, is known as continental slope.
• Continental slope is the steeply sloping part of the sea floor which marks the boundary between the
sea floor and the continental shelf.
• It is charactersied by gradients of 2.5 degrees. It extends between the depth of 180 to 3600 metres.
• Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.
• In some places, for example, off the shore of Philippines, the continental slope extends to a great depth.
• Continental slopes, mainly due to their steepness and increasing distance from the land have very little
deposits of sediments on them.
• Sea life is also far less here than on the shelf.
• Along the base of the continental slope is a deposit of sediments. This belt of sedimentary deposits form
the continental rise.
C. Continental Rise
• The belt of sediments deposited along the base of the continental slope is called continental rise.
• In some regions the rise is very narrow but in others it may extend up to 600 km in width.
• The continental rise has an average slope of between 0.5° to 1° and its general relief is low.
• With increasing depth the continental rise becomes virtually flat and merges with the abyssal plain.

CONTINENTAL MARGIN

• The ‘continental margin’ is the shallow water

area found in proximity to continents.
• The continental margin consists of three different
features: the continental shelf, the continental
slope, and the continental rise.
• Continental margins constitute about 28% of the
oceanic area.
D. Abyssal Plain or Deep Sea Plain
• Abyssal plains are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins; extremely flat and featureless plains of the
deep ocean floor. In fact, the abyssal plains are likely the most level areas on the earth.
• These are the flattest and smoothest regions of the world.
• Abyssal plains covering a major portion of ocean floor between the depth of 3000m to 6000m.
• They have extensive submarine plateaus, hills, guyots and seamounts.
• The floor of the abyssal plain is covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.
• It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
4.1.2 MINOR RELIEF FEATURES
Apart from the above-mentioned major relief features of the ocean floor, some minor but significant features
predominate in different parts of the oceans:

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Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine

Ridges

Abyssal Hills, Seamounts and Guyots

Minor Ocean Relief
Features
Submarine Canyons

Atoll

Bank, Shoal and Reef

A. Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

• These are the deepest parts of the oceans with their bottoms far below the average level of the ocean
floors. Eg. Mariana Trench in the Pacific (deepest).
• A long, narrow, flat-floored and steep sided depression on the ocean bottom is called a trench.
• The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins.
• They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
• They are usually found adjacent to the areas of volcanic and earthquake activity.
• Great earthquakes and tsunamis are born in them.
• They occur in all the major oceans. The Pacific Ocean has the largest number of trenches.
B. Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges
• The lofty mountain systems which exist on the continents is also represented beneath the ocean waters.
These oceanic mountains are known as submarine ridges.
• They are linear belts occurring near the middle of the oceans and are also called mid-oceanic ridges.
• The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach above the ocean’s
surface. At some places, the peaks, rise above the surface of water in the form of islands.
• All the mid oceanic ridges constitute a world-wide system which is interconnected from ocean to ocean.
• These ridges are intersected by faults.
• The oceanic ridge is the site of frequent earthquakes. Volcanism is common in ocean ridges and it
produces many relief features.
• The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is the largest continuous submerged mountain ridge which runs from north to
south in the Atlantic-Ocean.
• Iceland, a part of the mid Atlantic Ridge, is an example of mid-Oceanic Ridge.
• The East Pacific Ridge and Carlsberg Ridge are some of the important submarine ridges.

C. Abyssal Hills, Seamounts and Guyot

• An abyssal hill is a small hill that rises from the floor of an abyssal plain.
• The deep sea floor also contains thousands of isolated abyssal Hills, seamounts and guyots.
• It is estimated that more than 10,000 seamounts and guyots exist in the Pacific Ocean alone.

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• Scattered over the entire sea floor are thousands of submerged volcanoes with sharp tops called
seamounts.
• A submarine mountain or peak rising more than 1000 metres above the ocean floor is also known as a
seamount. Seamounts can be 3,000-4,500 m tall. The Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian
Islands in the Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
• Volcano rising above the ocean floor whose top has been flattened by erosion and is covered by water
is called guyot. Guyots show evidences of gradual subsidence through stages to become flat topped
submerged mountains.

D. Submarine Canyons
• Submarine canyons are defined as steep-walled, sinuous valleys with V-shaped cross sections, axes
sloping outward as continuously as river-cut land canyons and relief comparable to even the largest of
land canyons.
• Submarine canyon is a deep valley cut into a continental shelf and extends to continental slope.
• One of the striking features of the continental shelf is the presence of submarine canyons which extend
to the continental slope.
• They are very similar to the gorges found on the continents.
• Examples:
- Godavari Canyon in front of the Godavari river mouth is 502 metres deep.

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- The Hudson Canyon is the best-known submarine canyon in the world.

E. Atoll
• Atolls are more or less annular reef and reef-
island systems found mostly in oceanic mid-
plate settings, where they rest on the peaks of
submarine volcanic edifices.
• An atoll is a ring-shaped coral reef, island, or
series of islets.
• An atoll surrounds a body of water called a
lagoon.
• Sometimes, atolls and lagoons protect a
central island.
• Channels between islets connect a lagoon to
the open ocean or sea.
F. Bank, Shoal and Reef
• Bank, shoal and reef are the marine features which are formed through the processes of erosion, hot
deposition and biological activity.
• These features are produced upon other features which are primarily of diastrophic origin.
• They are, therefore, located on upper parts of elevations.
Bank
• A bank is more or less flat-topped elevation located in the continental margins.
• The depth of water over a bank is relatively small but is adequate for navigation.
• The Dogger Bank in the North Sea and the Grand Bank in the north-western Atlantic off Newfoundland,
are famous examples.
• The banks are the sites of some of the most productive oceanic fisheries of the world.
Shoal
• A shoal is a detached elevation with shallow depths.
• The shoal is not composed of a rock or coral.
• At many places, shoals are associated with banks.
• In the Dogger Bank, there are shoals which are about 18 metres high above their surroundings and only
about 20 metres below the water surface at their crests. That is why soles are dangerous for navigation.
Reef
• A reef is predominantly organic deposit made by living or dead organisms that forms a mound or a rocky
elevation like a ridge.
• The reefs formed by coral organisms are most characteristic of the Pacific Ocean where they are
associated with seamounts and guyots.
• The largest reef in the world is found off the Queensland coast of Australia.
• Reefs are generally dangerous to navigation because they may extend above the surface.
4.2 OCEAN MOVEMENT
• The waters of oceans are never still. Ocean water is constantly in motion: north-south, east-west,
alongshore, and vertically.
• Ocean movements are the consequence of many separate factors: wind, tides, Coriolis effect, water
density differences, and the shape of the ocean basins.
• The physical characteristics like temperature, salinity, density and the external forces like of the sun,
moon and the winds of ocean water also influence the movement of large masses of water (ocean
water).

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• The oceans actually exhibit three major types of

movements – currents, waves and tides.
• The horizontal movement of large masses of water
or ocean water refers to the ocean currents and
waves.
• While, the vertical movement of large masses of
water or ocean water refers to tides.
• Ocean currents are the continuous flow of huge
amount of water in a definite direction.
• While, the waves are the horizontal motion of
water.
• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or
twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun
and the moon, is called a tide.

4.2.1 OCEAN CURRENTS

• In terms of their significance both in physical and human geography, the ocean currents are the most
important of the movements in the oceanic water.
• The ocean current is a general movement of a mass of water in a fairly defined direction over great
distances.
• They are like stream of water flowing through the main body of the ocean in a regular pattern.
• The average speed of current is between 3.2 km to 10 kms per hour.
• Ocean currents with higher speed are called ‘stream’ and currents with lower speed are called ‘drift’.
• A current is usually strongest at the surface and decreases in strength (speed) with depth.
• Most currents have speeds less than or equal to 5 knots.
• On temperature basis ocean currents can be broadly divided into two categories:
- Those currents which flow from equatorial regions towards poles have a higher surface
temperature and are called warm currents.
• Those currents which flow from polar regions towards equator have a lower surface temperature and
are called cold currents.

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4.2.2 FORCES RESPONSIBLE FOR OCEAN CURRENTS

A. Primary forces that initiate the movement of water:
• Heating by solar energy
• Wind
• Gravity
• Coriolis force

B. Secondary forces that influence the currents to flow:

• Temperature difference
• Salinity difference
• Density difference
A. Primary Forces
• Heating by solar energy:
- The amount of insolation received at the
earth's surface and constituent
temperature decreases from the equator
towards the pole.
- That is why, near the equator the ocean
water is about 8 cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes.
- As heating by solar energy causes the water to expand or rise.
- This causes a very slight gradient and water tends to flow down the slope.
• Wind:
- Prevailing or planetary winds (e.g. trade winds, westerlies and polar winds) play major roles in the
origin of ocean currents.
- The wind blowing on the water surface also moves water in its direction due to its friction with the
water.
- Most of the ocean currents of the world follow the direction of prevailing winds.
- For example, equatorial currents flow westward under the influence of North east and South east
trade wind.
- There is also a seasonal change in the direction of currents in the Indian Ocean twice a year( after
every six months) due to seasonal change in the direction of monsoon winds.
• Gravity
- Gravity causes the denser water to fall, pushing away the less dense water, which shoots sideways
and rises.
- Thus, gravity tends to pull the water down the pile and create gradient variation.
• Coriolis force
- The winds pull surface water with them, creating currents.
- As these currents flow westward, the Coriolis effect - a force that results from the rotation of the
Earth - deflects them.
- The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to move to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

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- These large accumulations of water and the flow around them are called ‘Gyres’.

B. Secondary Forces
• Temperature Difference
- Due to the high temperature in the equatorial region the water density decreases because of the
greater expansion of water particles whereas the density of seawater becomes comparatively
greater in the polar areas.
- Consequently, water moves due to the expansion of volume from the equatorial region of high
temperature to the polar region of relatively very low temperature.
- Thus, the poleward surface currents and equatorward subsurface currents from a complete
circulatory system of ocean water.
- The Gulf Stream and Kuroshio warm currents moving from the equator towards the north are
examples of such currents.
• Salinity Difference
- Oceanic salinity affects the density of ocean water and density variation causes ocean currents.
- Salinity increases the density of ocean water. If two areas having equal temperature are
characterized by varying salinity, the area of highest salinity will have a greater density than the area
of low salinity.
- The denser water sinks and moves as subsurface current whereas less saline water moves towards
the greatest saline water as surface current.
- For example, the current flowing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea via the
Gibraltar strait is caused because of salinity difference

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• Density difference:
- In fact, the difference in the density of oceanic water is the main cause for the moment of oceanic
water as ocean currents.
- Water density depends on a number of factors e.g. temperature, salinity, pressure, etc.
- In other words, density is the function of temperature and pressure, and salinity.
4.2.3 TYPES OF OCEAN CURRENTS
The two basic types of currents: Surface currents and Deep-water currents.
A. Surface Currents
• Surface currents refer to movement of the top layer of ocean water – the upper 330 feet or so –
primarily driven by wind.
• The large-scale circulation of these surface currents roughly mirrors the large-scale circulation of air,
which most simply derives from unequal heating of the planet’s surface by the sun.
• These currents transfer heat from the tropics to the polar regions, influencing local and global climate.
• The warm Gulf Stream originating in the tropical Caribbean, for instance, carries about 150 times more
water than the Amazon River.
• The current moves along the U.S. East Coast across the Atlantic Ocean towards Europe.
• The heat from the Gulf Stream keeps much of Northern Europe significantly warmer than other places
equally as far north.
B. Deep-water Currents
• Deep-water currents describe water movement patterns far below the ocean’s surface and the
influence of the wind.
• Instead of airflow, these currents primarily arise from variations in the density of seawater, controlled
by its temperature and salt content (salinity). This process is known as ‘thermohaline circulation’.
• In cold regions, such as the North Atlantic Ocean, ocean water loses heat to the atmosphere and
becomes cold and dense. When ocean water freezes, forming sea ice, salt is left behind causing
surrounding seawater to become saltier and denser.
4.2.4 DESERT FORMATION AND OCEAN CURRENTS
• Cold ocean currents contribute to the formation of coastal deserts.
• Air blowing toward shore, chilled by contact with cold water, produces a layer of fog.
• This heavy fog drifts onto land.
• Although humidity is high,
the atmospheric changes
that normally cause rainfall
are not present.
• A coastal desert may be
almost totally rainless, yet
damp with fog.
• Cold currents from the Polar
Regions flow towards the
equator and, in places,
come up against the edges
of continents.
• Winds blowing landwards
over this cold water
become cold and can carry little moisture; they may bring fog and mist but it rarely condensed into rain.
• The Falkland current -fogs the southern Patagonian Desert just as the Peru current shrouds the
Atacama-Peruvian; the Canaries and Benguela currents help to keep the western Sahara and the

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Kalahari dry, and the California current does the same for the Sonoran Desert, while misting the west
coast of arid Baja California.
4.2.5 TIDES
• The gravitational attraction between the Earth and the moon is strongest on the side of the Earth that
happens to be facing the moon, simply because it is closer.
• This attraction causes the water on this “near side” of Earth to be pulled toward the moon.
• As gravitational force acts to draw the water closer to the moon, inertia attempts to keep the water in
place. But the gravitational force exceeds it and the water is pulled toward the moon, causing a “bulge”
of water on the near side toward the moon.
• On the opposite side of the Earth, or the “far side,” the gravitational attraction of the moon is less
because it is farther away.
• Here, inertia exceeds the gravitational force, and the water tries to keep going in a straight line, moving
away from the Earth, also forming a bulge.
• The sun also plays a major role, affecting the size and position of the two tidal bulges.
• Thus, Gravity and inertia act in opposition on the Earth’s oceans, creating tidal bulges on opposite
sites of the planet.

4.3 TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OF OCEANS

• Generally, the temperature is higher
near the equator and gradually
decreases towards the poles.
• However, the decrease of
temperature of surface water
towards the poles or increase
towards the equator is not uniform
because drifting warm water from
the tropical seas may move into
higher latitudes or vice versa and
give a local increase or decrease of
temperature.
• Upwellings of deep, cold water also
reduce locally the surface
temperature of tropical and subtropical sea waters.

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• The high temperatures of waters are found in enclosed seas in the tropics e.g. the Red Sea.
• The Arctic and Antartic waters are so cold that their surface remains permanently frozen down to a
depth of several metres.

4.3.1 SOURCE OF HEAT IN OCEAN

• The main source of ocean heat is sunlight (solar insolation).
• Additionally, clouds, water vapour, and greenhouse gases emit heat that they have absorbed, and
some of that heat energy enters the ocean.
• Waves, tides, and currents constantly mix the ocean, moving heat from warmer to cooler latitudes and
to deeper levels.
• Most solar insolation arrives at the ocean surface (uppermost 100 m) in the Tropics.
• Other regionally important heat sources are volcanic eruptions, general heat flow and hot spring near
mid-ocean ridges, and anthropogenic effects (waste or cooling water discharges).

4.3.2 FACTORS AFFECTING TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

• Latitude
- The temperature of surface water decreases from the equator towards the poles because the
amount of insolation decreases from the equator towards the poles.
- The mean annual temperatures of about 27°C or higher, are common in tropical seas but there is
a general decrease towards the poles where the mean temperature of around 1.8°C are found.
• Unequal distribution of land and water
- The landmass is heated and cooled more rapidly and to a greater degree than water.
- Hence, greater extremes of the temperature are felt over the land than over the oceans.
- The temperature of ocean water varies in the northern and the southern hemispheres because of
dominance of land in the former and water in the latter.
- Thus, the oceans in the northern hemisphere receive more heat due to their contact with larger
extent of land than the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
• Prevailing wind
- Wind direction largely affects the distribution of temperature of ocean water. The winds blowing
from the land towards the oceans and seas (e.g., offshore winds) drive warm surface water away
from the coast resulting into upwelling of cold bottom water from below.
- Thus, the replacement of warm water by cold water introduces longitudinal variation in
temperature. Contrary to this, the onshore winds pile up warm water near the coast and thus raise
the temperature.
- For example, trade winds cause low temperature (in the tropics along the eastern margins of the
oceans or the western coastal regions of the continents) because they blow from the land towards
the oceans whereas these trade winds raise the temperature in the western margins of the oceans
or the eastern coastal areas of the continents because of their onshore position.
• Ocean currents
- Surface temperatures of the oceans are controlled by warm and cold currents.
- Warm ocean currents raise the temperature of the coastal areas, whereas cold currents lower
them.
- Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while the cold currents decrease the
temperature in warm ocean areas.
- For example, Gulf stream (warm current) raises the temperature near the eastern coast of North
America and the West Coast of Europe while the Labrador current (cold current) lowers the
temperature near the north-east coast of North America.
- Similarly, the temperature of the eastern coast of Siberia becomes low due to Kurile cool current.

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4.3.3 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE

• Temperature decreases with increase in depth.
• This is because the surface of the sea water receives
the largest amount of insolation.
• As the rays penetrate the water, their intensity is
reduced by scattering, reflection and diffusion.
• Consequently, the temperature decreases from the
ocean surface with increasing depth but the rate of
decrease of temperature with increasing depth is
not uniform everywhere.
• Upto a depth of about 100 metres, the temperature
of water is about the same as that of the surface,
while it falls from 15°C to about 2°C between the
surface and a depth of 1,800 metres.
• The decrease between 1,800 and 4,000 metres is
from 2°C to about 1.6°C.
• This boundary region, from where there is a rapid
decrease of temperature, is called the
‘thermocline’.
• About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is
found below the thermocline in the deep ocean.
• In this zone, temperatures approach 0° C.
4.3.4 HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE
• On an average, the temperature of surface water of the oceans is 26.7°C (80°F) and the temperature
gradually decreases from equator towards the poles.
• The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitudes is generally 0.5°F per latitude.
• The average temperatures become 22°C (73°F) at 20° latitude, 14°C (57°F) at 40° latitude, and 0°C (32°F)
near the poles.
• The oceans in the northern hemisphere record relatively higher average temperature than in the
southern hemisphere.
• The highest temperature is not recorded at the equator rather it is a bit north of it.
• The average annual temperature of all the oceans is 17.2°C (63°F).
• The average annual temperatures for the northern and southern hemispheres are 19.4°C (67°F) and
16.1°C (61°F) respectively.
• The variation of temperatures in the northern and southern hemispheres is because of unequal
distribution of land and ocean water.
• The high temperatures of waters are found in enclosed seas in the tropics e.g. the Red Sea.
• The Arctic and Antartic waters are so cold that their surface remains permanently frozen down to a
depth of several metres. In the summer months, parts of the ice break off as icebergs which dilute the
water and lower the surface temperature of surrounding ice free seas.
4.4 SALINITY OF OCEAN WATERS
• The dominant salts in ocean are sodium chloride & Magnesuim Chloride with 77.5% & 11% respectively.
• Due to the free movement of ocean water, the proportion of different salts remain remarkably constant
in all oceans and even to great depth.
• But the degree of concentration of the salt solution in oceans does vary appreciably in different seas.
• The salinity of the ocean water is produced by a large number of dissolved chemical compounds.
• In the Baltic Sea, fresh water enters it from the surrounding land and reduce the salinity to 70 / 00 and
it may fall in this sea as low as 20 / 00.

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• But great evaporation combined with a very dry climate in the Red Sea region gives the water of this sea
a high salinity of 410 / 00 to 420 / 00.
• In enclose sea, which are areas of inland drainage such as the Caspian Sea, the salinity is very high,
180/00 in the Dead Sea of Jordan. The salinity may by as high as 250 / 00.
• The variation of salinity in different seas and oceans is affected by:
- The rate of evaporation
- The amount of fresh water added by streams and icebergs
- Mixing of the ocean waters.
4.4.1 HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN SALINITY
• On an average, salinity decreases from equator towards the poles.
• It may be mentioned that the highest salinity is seldom recorded near the equator though this zone
records high temperature and evaporation but high rainfall reduces the relative proportion of salt.
• Thus, the equator accounts for only 350/00 salinity.
• The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33o/oo and 37 o/oo .
• In the land locked Red Sea, it is as high as 41o/oo , while in the estuaries and the Arctic, the salinity
fluctuates from 0 - 35 o/oo , seasonally.
• In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes reaches to 70 o/oo.
• The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger areal extent.
• Salinity decreases from 35 o/oo - 31 o/oo on the western parts of the northern hemisphere because of
the influx of melted water from the Arctic region. In the same way, after 15° - 20° south, it decreases to
33 o/oo .
• The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36 o/oo.
• The highest salinity is recorded between 15° and 20° latitudes. Maximum salinity (37 o/oo) is observed
between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W - 60° W.
• It gradually decreases towards the north. The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes,
records higher salinity due to more saline water brought by the North Atlantic Drift.
• Baltic Sea records low salinity due to influx of river waters in large quantity.
• The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high evaporation.
• Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous fresh water influx by rivers.
• The average salinity of the Indian Ocean is 35 o/oo.
• The low salinity trend is observed in the Bay of Bengal due to influx of river water.
• On the contrary, the Arabian Sea shows higher salinity due to high evaporation and low influx of fresh
water.
4.4.2 VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF OCEAN SALINITY
• Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the location of the sea.
• Therefore, no definite trend of distribution of salinity with depth can be spelt out because both the
trends of increase and decrease of salinity with increasing depths have been observed.
• For example, salinity at the southern boundary of the Atlantic is 330/00 at the surface but it increases
to 34.50/00 at the depth of 200 fathoms (1200 feet).
• It further increases to 34.75% at the depth of 600 fathoms. On the other hand, surface salinity is 370/00
at 20°S latitude but it decreases to 350/00 at greater depth.
• Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or the salt is ‘added.’
• There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface zones and the deep zones of the oceans.
• The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.

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4.5 CORAL REEFS

• ‘Coral reefs’ are large underwater structures
composed of the skeletons of lime secreting
organisms known as coral polyps.
• Coral polyps extract calcium Salt from seawater to
build hard skeletons to protect their soft bodies.
• The tube-like skeletons extend upward and outward
as the old polyps die and new ones are born.
• These are about 2500 species of coral polyps.
• They live mainly in colonies that remain fastened to
the rocky seafloor.
• When one generation of polyps dies, fresh structures are built upon the old skeletons by a new
generation.
• In due course of time, a great mass of ‘coral reef’ is formed.
• Lakshadweep Islands group lying close to the Malabar Coast of Kerala are composed of small coral
islands.

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• Coral reefs only occupy 0.1% of the area of the ocean but they support 25% of all marine species on the
planet.
• In fact, Reefs provide a large fraction of earth’s biodiversity—they have been called “the rainforests of
the oceans.”
• Coral reefs are much more than just beautiful ocean ecosystems — they protect our coasts from storm
surge, support a great number of marine life species, and generate billions of tourism and fishing
dollars each year.
4.5.1 IDEAL CONDITIONS FOR CORAL GROWTH
• Corals are found mainly in the tropical Oceans and seas because they require high mean annual
temperature ranging between 20 degree celsius to 21 degree celsius for their survival. They cannot
survive in the waters having either very low temperature or very high temperature.
• Corals need to grow in shallow water where sunlight can reach them. Corals depend on the
zooxanthellae (algae) that grow inside of them for oxygen and other things, and since these algae needs
sunlight to survive, corals also need sunlight to survive. Corals rarely develop in water deeper than 165
feet (50 meters).
• Corals need clear water that lets sunlight through; they don’t thrive well when the water is opaque.
Sediment and plankton can cloud water, which decreases the amount of sunlight that reaches the
zooxanthellae.
• Reef-building corals require warm water conditions to survive. Different corals living in different
regions can withstand various temperature fluctuations. However, corals generally live in water
temperatures of 68–90° F or 20–32° C.
• Corals need clean sediment-free water because muddy water or turbid water clogs the mouth of Coral
polyps resulting into their death. Corals are also sensitive to pollution and sediments. Sediment can
create cloudy water and be deposited on corals, blocking out the sun and harming the polyps.
Wastewater discharged into the ocean near the reef can contain too many nutrients that cause
seaweeds to overgrow the reef.
• Corals need saltwater to survive and require a certain balance in the ratio of salt to water. This is why
corals don’t live in areas where rivers drain fresh water into the ocean (“estuaries”).
• Ocean currents and waves are favourable for corals because they bring the necessary food supply for
the polyps.
• Corals also need extensive submarine platforms for the formation of colonies by the coral polyps.
4.5.2 CORAL REEF RELIEF FEATURES
• Three Types of Coral features have been recognized on the basis of their characteristics and mode of
occurrence: -

A. Fringing Reef
• Fringing reef is the most common type of coral reef.
• It is a coral platform attached to the coast of the continent or an island.
• Sometimes, there is a Lagoon or a shallow channel between the edge of
the reef and the land.
• The fringing reef is a narrow belt and its width varies between 0.5 to 2.5
km.
• The fringing reef grows from the deep-sea bottom.
• Its seaward side usually drops steeply into the sea.
• The surface of the reef is rough and is located above the level of low water.
• These reefs consist of two parts: the reef flat (closest to shore) and the reef slope (facing the open
ocean).
• Most marine life on fringing reefs live along the slope.

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• The waves deposit coral fragments and form a boulder zone called a ‘reef flat’.
• The largest fringing reef in the world is the Ningaloo Reef along the western coast of Australia.
• The punching fringing reefs occur in new Hebrides society Islands and off the southern coast of Florida.
• It is also found in the Gulf of Mannar near Rameshwaram in South India.

B. Barrier Reef
• The barrier reef is formed by the accumulation of corals of
various shapes, sizes through the ages.
• Its surface is covered with boulders, Coral debris and sand.
• Generally, barrier reefs encircle islands in an irregular and broken
ring.
• It is the largest of the three types.
• It may be several kilometres wide and several hundred
kilometres long.
• The essential characteristic of this kind of reef is its distant
location from the coast or the island.
• It is separated from the land by a comparatively broader and deeper Lagoon.
• Lying almost parallel to the coast, it develops on a coastal platform.
• The barrier reef is generally very thick which extend below a depth of about 180 metres with very steep
seaward slopes.
• Small channels usually cut across the barrier reef connecting the Lagoon with the open Sea.
• The Great Barrier Reef, a chain of smaller barrier reefs off the northeast coast of Australia is the largest
in the world. It is more than 1900 kilometres long and about 160 kilometres wide.
▪ In North America, there is only one coral barrier reef and it is protected by Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary.
C. Atoll
• It is a ring-like reef that partly or sometimes completely encloses a shallow lagoon.
• A cross-section of an atoll shows that the lagoon has a level floor but the
outer edges of the atoll slope steeply.
• The lagoon has a depth of 80 to 150 metres having an island or a
submerged plateau in it.
• Generally, a large number of channels cutting across the atoll reef join the
lagoon with the open Sea.
• Atolls are located at great distances from the deep-sea platforms.
• Favourable conditions are created at such places by the presence of
submarine features, the surface of which may rise to a level fit for coral growth.
• Such submarine features may include a submerged Island, a volcanic cone, or a drowned Island,
owing to the positive movement of the sea level.
• According to their nature atolls can be divided into three types: -
- The True atoll with a circular reef enclosing a shallow lagoon with no island in it.
- An atoll which surrounds a lagoon with an island in it.

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- A coral island or atoll Island which is in fact an atoll reef, built by the process of erosion and
deposition of waves with Island crowns formed on them.
• Distribution
- Atolls are far more common in the Pacific than any other ocean.
- Many of the Marshall Islands, a system of islands in the Pacific Ocean and home to the Marshallese,
are atolls.
- The northern-most coral atoll in the world is Kure Atoll which lies within Papahānaumokuākea
Marine National Monument.
- The Fiji atoll and the Funafuti Atoll in the Ellice Island are well-known examples of atolls.
- A large number of atolls also occur in the Lakshadweep Islands.
- Another famous atoll is the Rose Atoll of America which remains one of the most pristine atolls in
the world.
4.5.3 CORALS AND ZOOXANTHELLAE
• Most reef-building corals contain photosynthetic algae, called ‘zooxanthellae’, that live in their tissues.
• The corals and algae have a mutualistic relationship.
• The symbiotic relation is based on the corals inability to generate sufficient amounts of food and the
algae’s ability for photosynthesis and converting chemical elements into energy.
• The coral provides the algae with a protected environment and compounds they need for
photosynthesis.
• In return, the algae produce oxygen and help the coral to remove wastes.
• Most importantly, zooxanthellae supply the coral with glucose, glycerol, and amino acids, which are
the products of photosynthesis.
• The coral uses these products to make proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, and produce calcium
carbonate.
• The relationship between the algae and coral polyp facilitates a tight recycling of nutrients in nutrient-
poor tropical waters.
• In fact, as much as 90 percent of the organic material photo-synthetically produced by the
zooxanthellae is transferred to the host coral tissue.
• This is the driving force behind the growth and productivity of coral reefs.
4.5.4 CORAL BLEACHING OR CORAL REEF BLEACHING
• In addition to providing corals with essential nutrients, zooxanthellae are responsible for the unique
and beautiful colors of many stony corals.
• Sometimes when corals become physically stressed, from things such as heat or pollution, the polyps
expel their algal cells and the colony takes on a stark white appearance.
• This is commonly described as “coral bleaching”.
• Some corals can feed themselves, but, if the polyps go for too long without zooxanthellae, coral
bleaching can result in the coral's death.
4.5.5 CAUSES OF CORAL BLEACHING
• With the drastic changes of climate in recent years, global warming has caused seawater temperatures
to rise, and the greenhouse effect has also caused “ocean acidification” that weakened coral’s
absorption of calcium carbonate. When coral reefs are not strong enough to resist natural erosion it will
take longer for them to recover from bleaching. Scientists estimate that at current rates of ocean
warming and reef decline, most of the world’s coral reefs could be lost in the next few decades.
• The outbreaks of Coral diseases (Black band disease, Coral plague, and white band disease) cause Coral
death.
• Overfishing affects the ecological balance of coral reef communities, warping the food chain and causing
effects far beyond the directly overfished population.

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• Urban and industrial waste, plastics, sewage, agrochemicals, and oil pollution are poisoning reefs. These
toxins are dumped directly into the ocean or carried by river systems from sources upstream. Some
pollutants, such as sewage and runoff from farming, increase the level of nitrogen in seawater, causing
an overgrowth of algae.
• Erosion caused by construction (both along coasts and inland), mining, logging, and farming is leading
to increased sediment in rivers. This ends up in the ocean, where it can 'smother' corals by depriving
them of the light needed to survive. The destruction of mangrove forests, which normally trap large
amounts of sediment, is exacerbating the problem.
• Destructive fishing practices include cyanide fishing, blast or dynamite fishing, bottom trawling, and
muro-ami (banging on the reef with sticks). Bottom-trawling is one of the greatest threats to cold-water
coral reefs.
• El Nino phenomenon has also been related to Coral bleaching.
• The corals in the Gulf of Kutch have been bleached due to siltation and in Lakshadweep due to bacterial
diseases and warmer sea temperature.
4.5.6 SOLUTION TO CORAL BLEACHING
• In the face of the unusual increase in seawater temperature caused by climate change, more ambitious
carbon reduction targets should be set to replace fossil fuels with sustainable energy.
• Beautiful corals provide habitat for diversified marine creatures. However, various human activities,
excessive coastal development, or the unusual increase in seawater temperatures due to climate change
have put great pressure on corals. As human beings get to know the importance of coral reefs, the
related preservation work can be started on the individual level.

=========================================================================================

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. What explains the eastward flow of the equatorial 1. Gravitational force of the Sun
counter-current? (2015) 2. Gravitational force of the Moon
(a) The Earth's rotation on its axis 3. Centrifugal force of the Earth
(b) Convergence of the two equatorial currents Select the correct answer using the code given
(c) Difference in salinity of water below. (2015)
(d) Occurrence of the belt of calm near the (a) 1 only
equator (b) 2 and 3 only
2. Tides occur in the oceans and seas due to which (c) 1 and 3 only
among the following? (d) 1, 2 and 3

ANSWERS
1(b) 2.(d)

=========================================================================================

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5 INDIAN GEOGRAPHY (PART 1)

MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Structure/Physiography:
- Geographical extent of various Physiographic regions
- Himalayas-Formation, Syntaxial bends, Major Ranges and divisions, Himalayan Passes
•
- Indian Islands, Indian Plains

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats
• Physiographic Mapping
• Western Ghat Passes
• Deserts and Islands in India

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

• India is a large landmass formed during different geological periods which has influenced her relief.
Besides geological formations, a number of processes such as weathering, erosion and deposition have
created and modified
the relief to its present
form.
• It is the seventh largest
country with 2.4% of
total area of the world.
• India is Physio-
graphically very
diverse:
- Mountainous
(above 2000m) -
10.7% ; Hilly (1000-
2000m) - 18.6%;
Plateau ( 300 –
1000m) - 27.7%
and Plain Area
(Less than 300m) -
43%
• The Indian sub-
continent is
characterised by a
great and diversified
group of physical
features. They are
classified into the
following
physiographic units:
- The Himalayan
Mountains
- The Great Plains of
North India

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- The Peninsular Plateau

- The Coastal Plains
- The Islands
- The Desert
5.2 HIMALAYAN RANGES
• The Himalayas consist of the youngest mountain chains in the world, existing in the northern India ➔
Loftiest peaks in the World – ( >8000 m – 14) & ( >7000 m – 20)
• It extends for almost 2400 km from the Indus Gorge in the West to the Brahmaputra Gorge in the East.
• Width of Himalayas varies from 500 km in Kashmir to 200 km in Arunachal Pradesh ➔ Extends
eastwards from the Pamir Knot and forms a curve.
5.2.1 BROAD DIVISION OF HIMALAYAN RANGE
A. The Siwaliks Ranges, which are called as outer Himalayas.
B. The Himachal Ranges called as Lesser Himalayas and
C. The Himadri Ranges which are called as Greater Himalayas.
D. Trans Himalayas

A. The Shiwalik Range/Outer Himalayas

• The Siwaliks Ranges are in the outer zone. The elevation is from 600 to 1500m. The average elevation
is 600m.
• This range is elongated to 2400km, including 90km long Gorges of the Tista and the Raidak.
• It is 8-45 km wide. This is a discontinuous range (Unbroken succession of Hills).
• Known by different names Jammu hills in J&K, Shiwalik Hills, Ghat Hills, Dafla hills and Mishmi hills.
• Shiwalik Ranges formed at Last stage - Duns formation.
- There are some broad valleys in between the Himachal and the Siwalik ranges. These valleys are
known as ‘duns’. Dehradun valley is one of the best examples.
• In the Siwalik range the notable valleys are Dehra Dun, Kotah, Patli, Kothri, Chumbi, and Kyarda.
• Eastern Regions covered by dense forest.
B. Middle/Lesser Himalayas
• It is located southwards of Himadri.

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• It is also called the Himachal or Lower Himalaya.

• The breadth of Himachal range is 60 to 80 km and the height varies from 1000 metres to 4500 metres.
Some of the peaks of this range have a height of more than 5000 metres.
• This range is highly dissected and uneven. Rocks in this zone have been metamorphosed due to violent
thrusts and compression. Therefore, this range mainly consists of metamorphosed rocks. The most
ancient to Palaeozoic rocks exist here.
• The gentle slopes of the eastern part of this range are covered with dense forests. The south facing
slopes of other parts of this range are very steep and generally devoid of any vegetation. The north
facing gentle slopes of this range are covered by dense vegetation.
• It includes the Kashmir, Himachal and Garhwal Sections.
• Pir Panjal in Jammu and Kashmir and Dhauladhar in Himachal Pradesh are the local names of this
range.
• The famous valley of Kullu and Kangra are also a part of Himachal ranges.
• Most of the hill towns or resort towns are located in the Himachal range. Shimla, Nainital, Mussouri,
Almora and Darjeeling are some such famous hill towns. There are a number of beautiful lakes around
Nainital.
C. The Great Himalaya/Inner Himalayas
• It is also known as the Himadri ranges.
• The elevation is from 4500 to 6000m and
average Width: 25 km.
• Extends from Nanga Parbat (PoK-8126 m) in
west to Namcha Barwa (Tibet-7756 m) in
east.
• It is mainly formed of the central crystallines
(granites and gneisses) overlain by
metamorphosed sediments [limestone].
{Rock System}
• The folds in this range are asymmetrical with
steep south slope and gentle north slope.
• This mountain arc convexes to the south just
like the other two.
• Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial bends.
One in the Nanga Parbat in north-west and
the other in the Namcha Barwa in the north-
east.
• The Himadri range is snow clad throughout
the year. There are a number of large and small glaciers. After melting of snow and ice, their water falls
in the rivers of northern India making them perennial throughout the year.
• Gangotri and Yamunotri are good examples of such glaciers.
• This range houses the highest peaks of the Himalayas. The average height is 6100m. The notable peaks
are: Mount Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaulagiri, Mansalu, Cho Oyu, Nanga Parbat and
Annapurna.
D. The Trans-Himalayan Ranges
• There are some mountain ranges to the north of the Himadri in Jammu and Kashmir. The range
extending to the north of the Himadri and running parallel to it is called the Zaskar range. North of
Zaskar range is the Ladakh range.
• This is about 40km wide and 965km long. It consists of Karakoram Range, Ladakh and Kailash ranges.
• The average height ranges from 3100m to 3700m.

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• The Karakoram Range if known as the “backbone of High Asia”.

• Rivers originating in these mountains, flow through the fertile Indo–Gangetic plains as perennial rivers.
The river Indus flows towards northwest between Zaskar and Ladakh range. Many scholars treat Zaskar
and Ladakh ranges as parts of the Great Himalayas and include them in Kashmir Himalayas. North of the
Ladakh range lie the Karakoram.
• K2 (8611m) is the highest peak of the Karakoram Mountains.
• Ladakh plateau is situated in the north eastern part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
• This plateau is a very high and arid.

Himalayan Mountain Complex: Cross Sectional View from South to North

MFT-MAIN FRONTAL THUSRT MBT-MAIN BOUNDARY THURST
MCT-MAIN CENTRAL THRUST STDS- INDUS-TSANGPO (DIVISION SYSTEM) SUTURE ZONE

1. Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone: It represents a belt of tectonic compression caused by the under-thrusting of the
Indian shield/ plate against the Tibetan mass. It marks the boundary between the Indian and Eurasian plates.
The suture zone stretches from the North-Western Himalayan syntaxis bordering the Nanga Parbat to the East
as far as the Namche Barwa Mountain.
▪ The Karakoram Range and the Ladakh plateau lie to the north of ITSZ and originally formed a part of the
European plate.
2. Main Central Thrust Zone: This separates the Higher Himalayas in the north from lesser Himalayas in the
south. It has played an important role in the tectonic history of these mountains.
3. Main Boundary Thrust: It is a reverse fault of great dimensions which extends all the way from Assam to Punjab
and serves to separate the outer Himalayas from the lesser Himalayas.
4. Himalayan Frontal Fault: It is a series of reverse faults that demarcates the boundary of the Shivalik from of
the Himalayan province from the alluvial expanse of the Indo-Gangetic plains.

5.2.2 HIMALAYAS REGIONAL DIVISIONS

NAME LOCATION DISTANCE

Western Between Indus and 560km
Himalaya Satluj
Kumaon Between Satluj and 320 km
Himalaya Kali
Central Between Kali and 800km
Himalaya Tista
Eastern Between Tista and 720km
Himalaya Dihang

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Longitudinal Extent of Himalayas

A. Western Himalayas - The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas

• Kashmir Himalayas lies between the Indus River and Sutlej. A significant portion of the Himalayas lies in
Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. This is also known as Punjab Himalayas.
• Major ranges: Karakoram, Ladakh, Pir Panjal, Zaskar and Dhaola Dhar.
• The general elevation falls westwards.
• In Jammu and Kashmir region: It is characterized by high snow-covered peaks, deep valleys,
interlocked spurs, and high mountain passes. The range stretches for 700km in length and 500 km in
width. It has a height of 3000 m with a large number of glaciers.
• The Ladakh region of the Kashmir Himalayas is dominated by cold desert conditions. The Kashmir valley
which belongs to this division is surrounded by the Greater Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayas.
• The Karewa soil is found here and this area is famous for the saffron and other dry fruit cultivation.
- ‘Karewas’ in Kashmiri language refer to the lake deposits, found in the flat-topped terraces of the
Kashmir valley and on the flanks of the Pir Panjal range.
• These deposits consist of clays, silts and sands, these deposits also show evidence of glaciation.
• The occurrence of tilted beds of Karewas at the altitudes of 1500-1800m on the flanks of the Pir Panjal
strongly suggests that the Himalayas were in process of uplift as late as Pliocene and Pleistocene (1.8mya
to 10k years ago).
• Important passes: Pir panjal, Banihal, Zoji La, Burzil, Khardungla, Pensi- La, Saser- La, Lanak- La, Jara-
La, Tasaka-La, Umasi-La and Qara-Tagh-La. The important snow-capped peaks are Nanda Devi, Trisul,
Nunkun, Kamath and Nanga-Parbat.
• In the Himachal Pradesh Region - All the three ranges- the greater, the lesser, and the outer Himalayas
are well represented in this region.
• In this section of Lesser Himalayas, the altitude between 1,000-2,000 m specially attracted to the British
colonial administration, and subsequently, some of the important hill stations such as Dharamshala,
Mussoorie, Shimla, Kaosani and the cantonment towns and health resorts such as Shimla, Mussoorie,
Kasauli, Almora, Lansdowne and Ranikhet, etc. were developed in this region.
• Duns: Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh dun, Dehra Dun, Harike dun and the Kota dun, etc. Dehra Dun is
the largest of all the duns with an approximate length of 35-45 km and a width of 22-25 km.
• The northern slopes of the Himachal Himalayas are covered with thick forests.

B. The Kumaun Himalayas

• This division lies between the Satluj and Kali River.
• The highest peak in this division is Nanda Devi.

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• Important peaks in this region are Nanda Devi, Trisul, Kedarnath, Dunagiri, Kamet, Badrinath, Jaonli,
Gangotri, and Bandarpunch. Pindari, Gangotri, and Milam are important glaciers in this division. The
major hill stations are Mussoorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, and Bageshwar.
• Important Passes: Thaga La, Muling La, Mana, Mangsha Dhura, and Lipu Lekh.

C. The Central/Nepal Himalayas

• This division stretches from the Kali River to the Tista River.
• The major part of it lies in Nepal except for the extreme eastern part- Sikkim Himalayas.
• The important peaks are the Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaula Giri, Annapurna, Manaslu,
and Gosainath. Nathu La and Jelep La are the important passes in this region.
• The British, taking advantage of the physical conditions such as moderate slope, thick soil cover with
high organic content, well distributed rainfall throughout the year and mild winters, introduced tea
plantations in this region.
• As compared to the other sections of the Himalayas, these along with the Arunachal Himalayas are
conspicuous by the absence of the Shiwalik formations.
• In place of the Shiwaliks here, the ‘duar formations’ are important, which have also been used for the
development of tea gardens.
• Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas are also known for their scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna,
particularly various types of orchids.
D. The Assam/Eastern Himalayas (The Purvanchal)
• This division lies between Tista and
the Brahmaputra River (Dihang).
• Elevation: 1500 - 3000 meters.
• It mainly occupies the state of
Arunachal Pradesh in India and
Bhutan. On the southern border of
Arunachal Pradesh, it takes a
southerly turn, and ranges are
arranged in North-South direction
passing through Nagaland,
Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura
called Purvanchal.
• The Purvanchal is joined by
Meghalaya Plateau in the west and
its extension of the Myanmar
mountain chain continues to Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Archipelago of Indonesia.
• Himalayas rise very rapidly in the plains of Assam and narrow at the foothills of Shiwaliks. It comprises
of many hills called Aka hills, Dafla hills, Miri hills, Abor hills, Mishmi hills, and Namcha Barwa.
• The important hills of eastern Himalayas are Patkai bum, Manipur hills, Blue Mountain, Tripura range,
and Brail range.
• The important passes in this region are Bomdi La, Yonggyap, Diphu, Pangsau, Tse La, Dihang, Debang,
Tunga, and Bom La.
5.2.3 Important Valleys in Himalayas
The most important valleys in the Himalayan region are
• The valley of Kashmir and the Karewas.
• The Kangra and Kulu valley in Himachal Pradesh.
• The Bhagirathi valley (near Gangotri) and the Mandakini valley (near Kedarnath) in Uttarakhand
• The Kathmandu valley in Nepal.

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Some of the important glaciers are:

LOCATIONS IMPORTANT GLACIERS
Karakoram Siachin, Sasaini, Hispara, Biafo, Baltoro, Chogo Lungma, Khordopin
Kashmir Rimo,Punma, Rupal,diamir
Uttarakhand Gangotri,Milam,Pindari
Sikkim Zemu
5.2.4 IMPORTANT MOUNTAIN PASSES THROUGH MAPS

A. Western Himalayas

B. Central Himalayas

C. Sikkim

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D. Eastern Himalayas

5.3 INDO-GANGETIC PLAINS

5.3.1 FORMATION INDO- GANGETIC BRAHMAPUTRA PLAINS
• The Northern plains or the great plains in India were formed from the sedimentary deposits - alluvium,
brought by the rivers from the Himalayas by its erosion.
• The plains were formed in the Pleistocene and Holocene during the Quaternary era and are the most
recent geological unit of India.
• The upheaval of Himalayas created a marine depression between the mountains and the Indian
peninsula.
• That basin was filled with sediments from the rivers which came from the mountains in the north and
from the peninsula in the south.
• These extensive alluvial deposits led to formation of northern plains of India. The deposition of alluvium
from the Himalayas commenced after the final phase of the Siwaliks and has continued till now.
• They lie to the south of the Shivaliks, separated by the Himalayan Frontal Fault (HFF).

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• The southern boundary is a wavy irregular line along the northern edge of the Peninsular India. On the
eastern side, the plains are bordered by the Purvanchal hills.

5.3.2 PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF THE GREAT PLAINS OF INDIA

• The Physiography division of great plain of India:
1. The Bhabar
2. The Tarai
3. The alluvial plains – Bhangar and Khadar

A. Bhabar
• Rivers which descend from the Himalayas deposit their load along the foothills in the form of alluvial
fans.
• These fans consisting of coarser sediments have merged together to build up the piedmont plain/the
Bhabar.
• The porosity of the pebble-studded rock beds is very high and as a result, most of the streams sink and
flow underground. Therefore, the area is characterized by dry river courses except in the rainy season.
• This entire belt of 8-10 km runs from the river Indus in the west to the river Teesta in the east.
Location-lies to the south of the Shiwalik from west to east (Jammu Division to Assam).
• This division constitutes coarse rocks and pebbles in high intensity.
• It is quite unsuitable from crop cultivation.
• Big trees with large roots thrive in this region.

B. Tarai
• Tarai is a marsh land to the south of Bhabar and runs parallel to it. Its width is around 10-20 km.
• As opposed to Bhabar, it is wider in the eastern parts of the Great Plains in the Brahmaputra region
due to high rainfall.
• It is a zone of excessive dampness, thick forests, and rich wildlife.
• Once a marshy zone of jungle and wild grass along the southern edge of the Shivalik Tarai has been
almost reclaimed for agriculture.
• In Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, and Jammu Divisions the Tarai forests have been
cleared for cultivation of crops.
• Cultivated crops include sugarcane, rice, wheat, maize, linseeds, pulses, fodder.
• It features some underground streams of the Bhabar division.

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C. The Alluvial Plains

The alluvial plains are further divided into two subtypes:
1. Bhangar
• Comprising dark colour, massive humus, and alluvial soil deposits.
• The soil is clayey in composition and has lime modules (called kankar) found in doabs.
• ‘The Barind plains’ in the deltaic region of Bengal and the ‘bhur formations’ in the middle Ganga and
Yamuna doab are regional variations of Bhangar.
• In relatively drier areas, the Bhangar also exhibits small tracts of saline and alkaline efflorescence known
as ‘Reh’, ‘Kallar’ or ‘Bhur’. Reh areas have spread in recent times with increase in irrigation (capillary
action brings salts to the surface).
• May have fossil remains of even those plants and animals which have become extinct.
2. Khadar
• The new alluvium tracts along the courses of the rivers are known as the Khadar or Bet lands.
• Occasionally known as the flood plains with intense alluvium deposits
• Tracts are enriched by fresh deposits of silts every year during the rainy season.
• Khadar lands consist of sand, silt, clay and mud.
• The Khadar is porous in intensity, light in colour and sandy in texture.
• Most fertile soil belt out of all, especially around the Ganga region. Also referred to as Betlands or bets
in the state of Punjab.
• Post-independence, this region has been brought under cultivation and devoted to sugarcane, rice,
wheat, maize, oilseeds, legumes, and fodder crops.
• The Khaddar deposits have the fossils of living species like man, deer, oxen, buffaloes, horses, elephants
and fodder crops.
• Present along the minor rivers in between Punjab and Haryana. Over here, the khadar division is known
as Dhayas. The altitude of these Days is about 3m.
5.3.3 REGIONAL DIVISION OF INDO-GANGETIC AND BRAHMAPUTRA PLAINS
• The northern plains are the largest alluvial tract of the world. These plains extend approximately 3200
km from west to east. Rajasthan in the west to Assam in the east.
• The three Himalayan Rivers, the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra, constitute the formation of
these Northern plains.
• Covering a total area of around 7 lakh square km, the Indo-Gangetic plains have experienced
sedimentation deposits over a million years.
• This has further resulted in the formation of erosional land pieces such as meanders, braided channels,
bars, and oxbow lakes.
• There are divisions within the Northern Plains based on the rivers that drain the region, the kind of
alluvial soil present in the region and also the geographical location of the region.
• Starting from the west, moving towards the east, the plain has the following divisions
- Sindh Plain
- Rajasthan Plain
- Punjab Plain
- Ganga Plain
- Ganga - Brahmaputra Delta
- Brahmaputra Plain

A. Sindh Plain
• It comprises the older alluvium deposited by the Indus and its tributaries. Hence, these are considered
to be Bhangar plains.
• The two important features of these plains are Dhor and Dhand.

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- Dhors are long, narrow

depressions which are
considered to be the
remnants of an old river.
- Dhands are alkaline
lakes which are usually
found within the Dhors.
• It is mostly located in
Pakistan. The city of Karachi
is found in this region.

B. Rajasthan Plain
• Spread across 2 lakh square
km, Rajasthan plains extend
over the western parts of
Rajasthan. Stretching
through the Aravallis, these
plains cover portions of
Punjab, Gujarat, and Haryana.
• This entire plain area was under the sea during the Mesozoic era. Marine sedimentation and wood fossil
barks evidence this fact.
• With an average elevation of 325m above the mean sea level, this region is among the highest places in
the Northern plains.
• This plain is mostly occupied by the Great Indian Desert or the Thar Desert.
• This is an undulating plain or a rolling plain, with a wave-like topography of ups and downs.
• The desert is also known by its regional name of Marusthali and forms a part of the Marwar plain.
• Geologically, it's a part of the peninsular plateau. Hence, low lying rock formations (outcrops) can be
found at distant intervals on these plains. They mostly contain peninsular rocks such as granite, schist,
and gneiss.
• However, on the surface, it looks like a depositional/aggradational plain.
• Rajasthan Bagar is a semi-arid plain which occupies the intervening space between the Thar Desert
until the Aravalli range.
• Unlike, the Marusthali region, the plains of Rajasthan have fertile lands which support agriculture
because a number of short streams which are seasonal in nature and originate from the Aravallis drain
the region. These fertile tracts are known as rohi.
• Luni River flows through the southern part of Rajasthan plains.
• In fact, the lakes in these plains are used for salt production due to their brackish waters.

C. Punjab Plains
• This plain is formed by the deposition of sediments by the tributaries of Indus viz., Jhelum, Chenab,
Sutlej, Beas, and Ravi. A major portion of these plains is in Pakistan.
• It is divided into many Doabs (do-“two” + ab- “water or river” = “a region or land lying between and
reaching to the meeting of the two rivers”).This plain has an average elevation of 250 m above the mean
sea level.
• Apart from deposition, this plain also experienced intensive erosion due to numerous streams flowing
from the Shiwaliks termed as Chos.
• This gave rise to a gully landform, characteristic of an arid region.
• Malwa plain is a part of the Punjab plains and lies to the south of the Sutlej.
• Delhi ridge (the northernmost extent of Aravallis) forms the eastern boundary of these plains.

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• Ghaggara is a river which is considered to be the present day remnant of the legendary river Saraswati.
It lies in Haryana, in between Sutlej and Yamuna.
D. Ganga Plain
• With an area of around 3.75 lakh sq.km, this is the largest section of the Northern Plains.
• The Ganga plains lie between the Yamuna catchment in the west to the Bangladesh border in the East.
• The lower Ganga plain has been formed by the down warping of a part of the Peninsular India between
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau and subsequent sedimentation by the Ganga and
Brahmaputra rivers.
• The main topographical variations in these plains include Bhabar, Tarai, Bhangar, Khadar, levees,
abandoned courses etc.
• This region includes sediments brought down and deposited by the Himalayan Rivers as well as the
Peninsular Rivers.
• Himalayan rivers include the Ganga and its tributaries such as Yamuna, Gandak, Kali, Kosi etc. and
Peninsular rivers include such as Chambal, Ken, Betwa, Son etc.
• Since the plain is gently sloping towards the southeast, most of the rivers that flow through this region
drain into the Bay of Bengal.
• The lower reaches of Ganga and its tributaries are characterized by various landforms such as oxbow
lakes, marshes, etc. due to a slow movement of rivers leading to extensive sediment deposition which
can alter the courses of these rivers over a period.
• Kosi is considered to be the "sorrow of Bihar" due to frequent floods in its catchment area. These occur
because it flows from great heights onto a plain accompanied by deposition of huge amounts of
sediments along its riverbed. This causes the river to change its course frequently, flooding the areas
along its course.
• The region is further divided into - Rohilkhand plain, Awadh plain, Mithila plain, and Magadh plain.
E. Brahmaputra Plain
• It is formed by the deposition/aggradation of sediments by the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.
• It is mostly situated in Assam, in the Brahmaputra valley in Assam.
• Its western boundary is formed by the Indo-Bangladesh border as well as the boundary of the lower
Ganga Plain. Its eastern boundary is formed by Purvanchal hills.
• The region is surrounded by high mountains on all sides, except on the west.
• The whole length of the plain is traversed by the Brahmaputra.
• Due to the huge sediments brought down by the Brahmaputra, the river bed gets filled causing it to split
into a number of braided channels in this region.
• Majuli is the largest river island in the world and is situated in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam.
• The tributaries of Brahmaputra also bring down a large volume of sediments. This results in a number
of depositional landforms such as oxbow lakes, river islands etc.
• There are large marshy tracts in this area. The alluvial fans formed by the coarse alluvial debris have led
to the formation of terai or semi-terai conditions.
F. Ganga - Brahmaputra Delta
• The largest delta in the world, formed by the joining of the two largest rivers of the Indian subcontinent
- Ganga and Brahmaputra.
• It extends in the West Bengal and Bangladesh. It is one of the most fertile regions in the world and is called the
Green Delta. The delta stretches from the Hooghly River to the Meghna River.
• It is approximately 350 km wide at the Bay of Bengal.
• Kolkata and Haldia are the principal ports on the river banks in delta of India.
• This is an aggradational landform in which the merged river of Ganga and Brahmaputra, known as the
Padma, flows in the form of a number of channels.

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• This a low lying region, with some of the delta lying up to 30m below the mean sea level. This makes the
region highly vulnerable to climate change (sea level rise).
• Towards the mouth of the delta, there is a large mangrove forest famous for its Sundari trees and is
known as the Sunderbans.
5.3.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF INDO - GANGETIC - BRAHMAPUTRA PLAINS
• The plains constitute less than one-third of the total area of the country but support over 40 percent of
the total population of the country.
- The fertile tracts of land, availability of water, and vibrant cultivation of crops makes the region a
highly populated one.
• The Indo - Gangetic plains have a dense network of roads and railways crisscrossing them, facilitating
the growth of many industries.
• Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow moving perennial rivers and favourable climate facilitate an
intense agricultural activity.
- For example. the Terai region is a densely forested marshland. At present, the Terai is extensively
cultivated and densely populated. Rice, wheat, sugarcane, maize, pulses, and oilseeds are some of
the important crops cultivated in this region.
• The extensive use of irrigation has made Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar Pradesh the granary
of India (Prairies are called the granaries of the world).
• Cultural tourism: Several sacred places and centres of pilgrimage are situated in these plains e.g.
Haridwar, Amritsar, Varanasi, Allahabad, Bodh Gaya etc.
• The sedimentary rocks of plains have petroleum and natural gas deposits.
• The rivers here have very gentle gradients which make them navigable over long distances.

5.4 PENINSULAR PLATEAU AND HILLS

• The Peninsular Plateau is an ancient tabular block which is roughly triangular in shape with base
coinciding with the southern edge of the great plain of North India and its apex is formed by
Kanyakumari in the southern extremity.
• The entire plateau measures about 1600 km in north-south and 1400 km in east-west, covering a total
area of about 16 lakh sq. km (half of total land area of India).
• In its geological history the Peninsula has been a land area and has never been submerged beneath the
sea which makes it a stable shield.
• The entire plateau is an aggregation of several smaller plateaus and hill ranges.
• The Peninsular Plateau of India is the oldest and the most stable landmass of the Indian sub-continent.
• It contains a rich variety of minerals which occur in large quantities.
- There are huge deposits of iron, manganese, copper, bauxite, chromium, mica, gold, etc.
- Above all, 98 per cent of the Gondwana coal deposits of India are found in the Peninsular Plateau.
- Besides, there are large reserves of slate, shale, sandstones, marbles, etc.
• A large part of north-west plateau is covered with fertile black lava soil which is extremely useful for
growing cotton.
• Some other areas of the Peninsular Plateau are suitable for the cultivation of tea, coffee, rubber, millets,
spices, tobacco and oilseeds.
• The highlands of the plateau are covered with different types of forests which provide a large variety of
forest products.
• The rivers originating in the Western Ghats offer great opportunity for developing hydroelectricity and
providing irrigation facilities to the agricultural crops.
• The plateau is also known for its hill resorts such as Udagamangalam (Ooty), Pachmarhi, Kodaikanal,
Mahabaleshwar, Khandala, Matheron, Mount Abu, etc.

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5.4.1 THE PLATEAUS OF THE PENINSULAR INDIA

A. Marwar Upland
• It is also called the upland of
eastern Rajasthan as it lies
in the east of the Aravalli
Range.
• Average elevation of this
area is 250-500 m above sea
level sloping down
eastwards.
• Made up of sandstone,
shales and limestones of
Vindhyan period.
• Banas River originates in the
Aravalli range and joins
Chambal River.
• The area has been carved
into a rolling plain by the
erosional work of the Banas
River and its tributaries.
B. Central Highland
• Also called as ‘Madhya
Bharat Pathar’ and is in the
east of the Marwar Upland.
• Most of it comprises of the
basin of the Chambal River
which flows in a rift valley.
The Sindh and the Parbati
are its main tributaries.
• It is an open rolling plateau made of old rocks which is interspersed with rounded hills composed of
sandstone. Thick forests grow here.
• To the north are the ravines or Badlands of the Chambal River.

C. Bundelkhand Upland
• To the south of the Yamuna River between the Madhya Bharat Pathar and the Vindhyan scarplands is
the old dissected upland of the 'Bundelkhand gneiss' comprising of granite and gneiss. This is called
Bundelkhand upland.
• Covering an area of about 54,560 sq. km these upland spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh and
four districts of Madhya Pradesh.
• With an average elevation of 300-600 m above sea level, this area slopes down from the Vindhyan Scarp
toward the Yamuna River.
• The area is recognised by a mass of rounded hummocky hills made of granite and sandstone.
• The erosional work of the rivers flowing here has converted it into an undulating area and has rendered
it unfit for cultivation. The region is characterised by senile topography.
D. Malwa Plateau
• It roughly forms a triangle base on the Vindhyan Hills, bounded by the Aravalli Range in the west and
sharply defined scarp overlooking Bundelkhand in the east.
• There are two systems of drainage:

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- One towards the Arabian sea (The Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahi), and
- The other towards the Bay of Bengal (Chambal and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
• With a length of 530 km and a width of 390 km, it spreads over an area of 1,50,000 sq. km.
• In the north it is drained by the Chambal and many of its right bank tributaries like the Kali, the Sindh
and the Parbati. It also includes the upper courses of the Sindh, the Ken and the Betwa.
• It is composed of extensive lava flow and is covered with black soils.
• There are rolling surfaces and flat-topped hills dissected by rivers flowing through the area. In the north,
the plateau is marked by the Chambal ravines.
E. Baghelkhand
• It lies in the east of the Maikal Range and is up made of limestones and sandstones on the west and
granite in the east.
• It covers an area of about 1.4 lakh sq. km with a general elevation of 150 – 1200 m and has an uneven
relief.
• The central part of the plateau acts as a water divide between the Son drainage system in the north and
the Mahanadi river system in the south.
• The main elements of physiography are scarps of the Vindhyan sandstones between the Ganga plain
and the Narmada-Son trough.
• The general horizontality of the strata shows that this area has not undergone any major disturbance.
F. Chotanagpur Plateau
• East of Baghelkhand, the Chotanagpur plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the Indian
Peninsula covering an area of over 87000 sq. km and average elevation of the plateau is 700 m.
• Composed mainly of Gondwana rocks with patches of Archaean granite and gneisses and Deccan Lavas.
• The Chotanagpur plateau virtually consists of a series of plateaus standing at different levels of
elevation.
- The highest general elevation of about 1100 m is in the mid-western portion known as the Pat lands
(high level laterite plateau). From here, the land descends in all directions in a series of steps which
are marked by waterfalls across the rivers.
• The plateau is drained by numerous rivers like the Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the North Koel, the
South Koel and the Barkar in different directions and presents a radial drainage pattern.
• The Damodar River flows through the middle of this region in a rift valley from west to east. Here the
Gondwana coal fields are found which provide bulk of coal in India.
• North of the Damodar river is the Hazaribagh plateau with an average elevation of 600 m. The plateau
has isolated hills and are made up of quartz rocks. It looks like a peneplain due to large scale erosion.
• The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m. The maximum height is in
western part where pats or high mesas capped with laterite, rise steeply to an altitude of about 1100 m
like The Netarhat Pat and Goru. Most of the surface is rolling but at places it is interrupted by
monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-resistant rock rising above a peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock
in Australia) and conical hills.
• The Rajmahal Hills forming the north eastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau are mostly made of
basalt and are covered by lava flows running in north-south direction
G. Meghalaya Plateau
• The rocks of the peninsular plateau of India extend further north-east beyond the Rajmahal hills and
form a rectangular block known as the Meghalaya or the Shillong plateau.
• This plateau has been separated from the main block of the peninsular plateau by a wide gap known as
the Garo-Rajmahal Gap. This gap was formed by down-faulting and was later on filled by sediments
deposited by the Ganga.
• Extending over an area of about 35000 sq. km, this plateau is largely formed of Archaean (Dharwarian)
quartzites, shales and schists with granite intrusions and some basic silts.

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• The plateau slopes down to Brahmaputra valley in the north and the Surma and Meghna valleys in the
south. The western, central and the eastern parts of the plateau are known as the Garo Hills (900 m),
the Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1500 m) and the Mikir Hills (700 m).
H. Deccan Plateau
• This is the largest unit of the Peninsular Plateau of India covering an area of about 5 lakh sq. km. This
triangular plateau is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya in the North West, the Mahadev and the
Maikal in the north, the Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east.
• Its general slope is from west to east which is indicated by the flow of its major rivers like the Mahanadi,
the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery.
- These rivers have further subdivided this plateau into a number of smaller plateaus described as
under:
i. The Maharashtra Plateau - northern part of the Deccan Plateau underlain by basaltic rocks of
lava origin. The area looks like a rolling plain due to weathering.
✓ The horizontal lava sheets have led to the formation of typical Deccan Trap topography.
✓ The broad and shallow valleys of the Godavari, the Bhima and the Krishna are flanked by flat-
topped steep sided hills and ridges.
✓ The Ajanta range lies to the south of the Tapi River. The entire area is covered by black cotton
soil known as regur.
ii. The Karnataka Plateau - also known as the Mysore plateau lies to the south of the Maharashtra
plateau.
✓ Made up primarily of the Archaean formations, it is a rolling country with an average
elevation of 600-900 m.
✓ It is highly dissected by numerous rivers rising from the Western Ghats.
✓ The general trend of the hills is either parallel to the Western Ghats or athwart it.
✓ The plateau is divided to two parts called Malnad and Maidan. The Malnad in Kannada means
hill country. It is dissected into deep valleys covered with dense forests. The Maidan on the
other hand is formed of rolling plain with low granite hills.
✓ The plateau tapers between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in the south and
merges with the Niligiri hills there.
iii. The Telangana plateau - consists of Archaean gneisses at an average elevation of 500-600 m. The
southern part is higher than its northern counterpart.
✓ The region is drained by three river systems, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Penneru. The
entire plateau is divided into two major physiographic regions, namely, the Ghats and
Peneplains.
I. Chhattisgarh Plain
• The Chhattisgarh plain is the only plain worth the name in the vast stretch of plateaus and hill ranges of
the peninsular plateau.
- The general elevation of the plain ranges from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the west.
• It is a saucer shaped depression drained by the upper Mahanadi. The whole basin lies between the
Maikala Range and the Odisha hills.
• The basin is laid with nearly horizontal beds of limestone and shales deposited during the Cuddapah
age.

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5.4.2 HILL RANGES OF PENINSULAR PLATEAUS

• The above-mentioned plateaus of the Peninsula are separated from one another by hill ranges and river
valleys.
• The hills of the Peninsular India are much lower than the Himalayan ranges. Most of these hills are of
the relict type, being remnants of the originally higher hills but some typical horsts are also seen.

Important hill ranges are:

A. The Aravalli Range
• One of the major physiographic elements of the Peninsular India is the Aravalli range running in a north-
east to south-west direction.
• The Aravalli represent the relict of the world's oldest mountain formed as a result of folding at the close
of the Archaean era. Their dimensions were much larger and probably even higher than the present
Himalayas.

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• Although its north-eastern end is marked by the Delhi ridge.

B. The Vindhyan Range

• The Vindhya Range rises as an escarpment flanking the northern edge of the Narmada-Son Trough
overlooking the Narmada valley. It runs almost parallel to the Narmada Valley in an east-west direction
for a distance of over 1200 km with a general elevation of 300 to 650 m.
• The northern slope of this range is rather gentle and there are no well-marked spurs, steep falls and
valleys.
• Most parts of the Vindhyan Range are composed of horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks of ancient
age. The western part of this range is covered with lava.
• The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as the Bharner and Kaimur hills and acts as a watershed between
the Ganga system and the river systems of south India and forms the northern boundary of the Deccan.
C. The Satpura Range
• 'Sat' in Sanskrit means seven and 'pura' means mountains. Therefore, the Satpura range is a series of
seven mountains.
• It runs in an east-west direction south of the Vindhyas and in between the Narmada and the Tapi,
roughly parallel to these rivers.
• Commencing from the Rajpipla Hills in the west, through the Mahadev Hills to the Maikala Range, it
stretches for a distance of about 900 km.

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• These hills appear to be affected by tectonic disturbances. There is evidence that parts of the Satpuras
have been folded and upheaved. They are regarded as structural uplift or 'horst'.
• No other east-west tectonic mountain of Peninsular India is as high as the Satpura. Most of the hills rise
to an elevation of 900-1000 m.
• Dhupgarh (1350 m) near Pachmarhi on Mahadev Hills is the highest peak.

D. The Western Ghats (or The Sahyadris)

• Forming the western edge of the Deccan tableland, the Western Ghats run in north-south direction,
parallel and close to the Arabian Sea coast for 1,600 km almost covering the entire west coast.
• The Western Ghats are steep-sided, terraced, flat topped hills or cliffs presenting a mesa-like stepped
topography facing the Arabian Sea coast. This is due to the horizontally bedded lavas, which on
weathering, have given a characteristic ‘landing stair aspect’ to the relief of this mountain chain.
• The Western Ghats abruptly rise as a sheer wall to an average elevation of 1000 m from the Western
Coastal Plain and appear to be an imposing mountain. But they slope gently on their eastern flank and
hardly appear to be a mountain when viewed from the Deccan tableland.
• The Northern Section of the ghats is made of horizontal sheets of Deccan lavas forming a formidable
wall looking over the West Coastal Plain. The average height of this section of the Ghats is 1200 m but
with few exceptions. Kalasubai (1646 m), Salher (1567 m), Mahabaleshwar (1438 m) and
Harishchandragarh (1424 m) are important peaks. Thalghat and Bhorghat are important passes which
provide passage by road and rail between the Konkan Plains in the west and the Deccan Plateau in the
east.
• The Middle Sahyadri runs up to Nilgiri hills. This part is made of granites and gneisses and presents
rougher topography and is covered with dense forests. The western scarp is considerably dissected by
headward erosion of the west flowing streams. The Vavul Mala (2339 m), Kudremukh (1892 m) and
Pashpagiri (1714 m) are important peaks. The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris rise abruptly to over
2000 m and mark the junction of the Western Ghats with Eastern Ghats. Doda Betta (2637 m) and
Makurti (2554 m) are important peaks of this area.
• The Southern Part of the Western Ghats is separated from the main Sahyadri range by Palghat Gap
which presents a sudden break in the continuity of this mountain range and is a rift valley.
- This gap is used by a number of roads and railway lines to connect the plains of Tamil Nadu with the
coastal plain of Kerala.
- It is through this gap that moist-bearing clouds of the South-West Monsoon can penetrate some
distance inland, bringing rain to parched Mysore region.
• South of the Palghat Gap there is an intricate system of steep and rugged slopes on both the eastern
and western sides of the Ghats.
• Anai Mudi (2695 m) is the highest peak in the whole of southern India. This is a nodal point from which
three ranges radiate in different directions.
- These ranges are the Anaimalai the north, the Palni to the north-east and the Cardamom Hills or
Ealaimalai to the south.
E. The Eastern Ghats
• Bordering the eastern edge of the Deccan Plateau, they run almost parallel to the east coast of India
leaving broad plains between their base and the coast. Eastern Ghats are a chain of highly broken and
detached hills.
• The hills constituting the Eastern Ghats have neither structural unity nor physiographic continuity. In
fact, they almost disappear between the Godavari and the Krishna.
• Depending upon the relief and structure, the Eastern Ghats can be divided into northern and southern
parts.

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- The northern part comprises the Maliya and the Madugula Konda ranges. Mahendra Giri (1501 m)
is the tallest peak in the Maliya ranges. Arma Konda (1680 m), Gali Konda (1643 m) and Sinkram
Gutta (1620 m) are important peaks of Madugula Konda range.
- The southern part continues with Nallamalai Range with general elevation of 600-850 m is the
most prominent, composed of quartz and slate. The southern part of this range is called the
Palkodna range. To the south, the hills and plateaus have low altitudes; only Javadi Hills and the
Shevroy Kalrayan Hills form two distinct features of 1000 m elevation. Further south, the Eastern
Ghats merge with the Western Ghats.

==========================================================================================

UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. Consider the following statements: (c) 2 and 3 only

1. In India, the Himalayas are spread over five (d) 1 and 3 only
States only.
2. From the ecological point of view, which one of
2. Western Ghats are spread over five States
the following assumes importance in being a good
only.
link between the Eastern Ghats and the Western
3. Pulicat Lake is spread over two States only.
Ghats? (2017)
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
(2017)
(b) Nallamala Forest
(a) 1 and 2 only
(c) Nagarhole National Park
(b) 3 only
(d) Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve

ANSWERS
1.(b) 2.(a)

==========================================================================================

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6 INDIAN GEOGRAPHY (PART 2)

MOST REPEATED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Himalayan & Peninsular Rivers: Types, pattern and paths; Godavari, Brahmaputra
• Lakes: Fresh water and Salt Water and Its Importance
• Climate: Temperature zones; Monsoon-El Nino, La Nina, MJO
• Types of Natural Vegetation: Tropical, evergreen, deciduous, moist/wet
•
•
Soils: Salinization, Various Soils in India-Laterite, Alluvial, black, Terrace farming

FURTHER EXPECTED THEMES IN UPSC CSE PRELIMS

• Rivers & Lakes:
- Krishna, Ganga, Kaveri, Mahanadi & Major National Parks on these rivers
- Himalayan Lakes, newly added Ramsar Wetlands
• Climate: Triple dip La Nina, Indian Ocean Dipole
• Natural vegetation: Himalayan Vegetation, Tropical, Arid and the Biogeographic Linkage
• Soil
- Processes in Soil: Podsolization, Laterization, chernozem.
- Soil Characteristics

6.1 DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA

6.1.1 INDUS RIVER SYSTEM
• The Indus (Sanskrit -Sindhu, Greek-Sinthos; Latin-Sindus), along with its tributaries forms one of the
largest drainage systems of the world.

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MAJOR RIVERS OF INDUS RIVER SYSTEM

RIVERS SOURCE ABOUT
Indus Near • Indus rises near Manasarovar Lake from the glaciers of the Kailas Range
Mansarovar in Western Tibet.
Lake, Kailas • After entering India, it flows in the north-west direction between Ladakh
Range and Zaskar Ranges.
• It encircles the town of Leh and is joined by Zaskar river and joined by
Shyok river at the end of Ladakh range.
• The Gilgit, Gortang, Dras, Shiger, Hunza, are the other Himalayan
tributaries of the Indus. Indus receives from Panjnad (Panchnad), the
accumulated waters of the five eastern tributaries the Jhelum, the
Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.
• The river empties into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi after forming a
huge delta.
• Total length – 2880 (709 in India) km and total drainage area – 1165000
sq. km.
Jhelum Verinag • Jhelum rises from a spring at Verinag in the south-eastern part of the
Kashmir Valley.
• Flows northwards into Wular Lake.
• At Baramulla it forms steep-sided narrow gorge through Pir Panjal
Range.
• It forms the India-Pakistan boundary for 170 km and emerges at the
Potwar Plateau near Mirpur.
• After flowing through the spurs of the Salt Range it debouches (emerge
from a confined space into a wide, open area) on the plains near the
city of Jhelum and finally joins the Chenab at Trimmu.
• Total Length – 726 km.
Chenab Bara Lacha Pass • It originates near the Bara Lacha Pass in the Lahul-Spiti part of the
Zaskar Range.
• Two small streams on opposite sides of the pass, Chandra and Bhaga,
form its headwaters.
• The united stream, Chandrabhaga then flows in the north-west
direction through the Pangi valley, parallel to the Pir Panjal range, and
enters Jammu and Kashmir as the Chenab.
• From here it passes through the plains of Pakistani Punjab to reach
Panchnad where it joins the Satluj after receiving the waters of Jhelum
and Ravi rivers.
• Total Length – 1180 km.
Ravi Near Rohtang • Rises in Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh, flowing
Pass in a northwest direction from its source, it drains the area between the
Pir Panjal and the Dhaola Dhar ranges.
• It enters Punjab plains near Madhopur and later enters Pakistan.
• Total Length – 725 km.
Beas Near Rohtang • Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass, on the southern end of the Pir
Pass Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi and meets the Satluj river

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at Harike in Punjab. It is a comparatively small river but it entirely drains

India.
• Total Length – 460 km.
Satluj Mansarovar – • Rises from Rakas Lakes near Darma Pass in western Tibet near the
Rakas Lake source of Indus.
• It takes a north-westerly course upto Shipki La on the Tibet-Himachal
Pradesh boundary.
• It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the Great Himalaya and the other
Himalayan ranges has created an extraordinary canyon.
• It cuts a gorge in Naina Devi Dhar, where the famous Bhakra dam has
been constructed. It enters Punjab plain at Rupnagar (Ropar) and turns
westwards and is joined by the Beas at Harike.
• Total Length – 1450 (1050 in India) km.

6.1.2 THE GANGA RIVER SYSTEM

• The Ganga river system is the largest in India having a number of perennial and non-perennial rivers
originating in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the south, respectively.
• It accounts for 26.3% of the geographical area of the country and is shared by ten states. It originates as
Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh, Uttar Kashi in Uttarakhand.

• Alaknanda river rises from the Satopanth Glacier in Badrinath. Both merge at Devprayag and thereafter
is called Ganga. Before Alaknanda meets Bhagirathi, it is joined by 4 rivers at 4 Prayags which are:
- Vishnuprayag, confluence of Dhauliganga river (Dunagiri Glacier, Almora) and Alaknanda river.
- Nandaprayag, confluence of Nandakini river (Nanda Devi Sanctuary) and Alaknanda river.

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- Karnaprayag, confluence of Pindar river (Pindari Glacier, Kumaon Himalayas) and Alaknanda river.
- Rudraprayag, confluence of Mandakini river (Chorabari Glacier, Kedarnath) and Alaknanda river.
Major Right Bank Tributaries:
1. YAMUNA
• Largest and the most important tributary originating from Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak
in the Garhwal region in Uttarakhand. It cuts across the Nag Tibba, the Mussoorie and the Shivalik
ranges. Its main tributaries are:
- Tons – also rises from Bandarpunch, joins Yamuna below Kalsi before the latter leaves the hills.
- Chambal River – rises in the highlands of Janapao Hills in Vindhyan Range. It flows through Malwa
Plateau and joins the Yamuna in Etawah, Uttar Pradesh.
✓ The river flows much below its banks due to severe erosion because of poor rainfall and
numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise to Badlands
topography (Arid Landforms).
✓ National Chambal Sanctuary is home to Critically Endangered Gharial, red-crowned roof turtle
and the Endangered Ganges river Dolphin. Important Tributaries are Banas and Kali Sindh
river.
- Ken – rises in Bhopal (Vindhyan Range) and has a total length of 590 km. Dhasan is its important
tributary
- Betwa - rising from the Barner Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the Yamuna near Chila.

2. Son
• It rises in the Amarkantak Plateau close to the origin of the Narmada. It passes along the Kaimur Range
and joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna district of Bihar.
• Important tributaries of the Son are the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the Kanhar and the North Koel.
Almost all the tributaries join it on its right bank. Total length – 784 km.

3. Damodar
• It rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows through a rift valley. Rich in mineral resources,
the valley is home to large-scale mining and industrial activity therefore is also called “the Ruhr of India”.
• It has a number of tributaries Barakar, Konar, Bokaro, Haharo, etc. Several dams have been constructed
in the valley, for the generation of hydroelectric power. It joins the Hugli River 48 km below Kolkata.
• Total length – 541 km.
Major Left Bank Tributaries:
1. Ramganga
• It rises in the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand. It enters the Ganga Plain near Kalagarh.

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• It joins the Ganga at the Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi, and the Deoha (Gorra) are important
tributaries of Ramganga.
2. Ghagra
• Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the trans-Himalayan
origin) and is known as the Karnaili in Nepal.
• Its important tributaries are the Sarda, the Sarju (Ayodhya is located on its bank) and the Rapti. The
river has a high flood frequency and has shifted its course several times.

3. Kali
• It rises in the high glaciers of trans-Himalaya and forms the boundary between Nepal and Kumaon.
• It is known as the Sarda after it reaches the plains near Tanakpur.

4. Gandak
• Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border. It receives a large number of tributaries in Nepal Himalaya.
• Important tributaries are the Kali Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and the Trishuli.

5. Burhi Gandak
• Originates from the western slopes of Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border and joins the Ganga
near Monghyr town.
6. Kosi
• The Kosi river consists of seven streams namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha, Doodh Kosi, Botia Kosi,
Arun and Tamber flowing through eastern Nepal which is known as the Sapt Kaushik region.
• They merge at Triveni north of the Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.
• The river channel is braided and it shifts its course frequently. This has resulted in frequent devastating
floods and has converted large tracts of cultivable land into waste land in Bihar. Thus, the river is often
termed as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
6.1.3 THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM
• Brahmaputra river system is one of
the largest rivers in the world. It rises
from Chemayundung glacier of the
Kailash range near the Mansarovar
Lake and flows as Yarlung Tsangpo in
Tibet.
• It enters as Siang and Dihang in
Arunachal Pradesh. After it enters
Assam Plains near Sadya, it is called
by the name of Brahmaputra.
• The Brahmaputra has a braided
channel (flow into shallow
interconnected channels divided by
deposited earth) for most of its
passage through Assam where
channels keep shifting. It carries a lot
of silt and there is excessive
meandering.
• The world's largest riverine island, Majuli Island is on Brahmaputra River in Assam. Important cities
along Brahmaputra are Dibrugarh, Pasighat, Neamati, Tezpur and Guwahati.

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• It flows in Bangladesh by the name of Jamuna. Finally, it merges with the Ganga River to form the
world’s largest delta.
• The number of streams joining the Brahmaputra on its right-bank is greater than that of those joining it
on the left-bank.
Primary Tributaries of the Brahmaputra River:
1. Dhansiri River
• It is a left-bank tributary and rises from Liasang peak of Nagaland.
2. Lohit River
• Important left-bank tributary, rises in the eastern Tibet and flows through the Mishmi Hills.
3. Dibang River
• Also left-bank principal tributary of the Brahmaputra river which flows through the states of Arunachal
Pradesh and Assam.

4. Subansiri River
• It is a right-bank tributary, rises in the Tibet and flows east and southeast through the Lower Subansiri
district in Arunachal Pradesh, and then south to the Assam valley.

5. Kameng River
• It’s a right-bank tributary in the Tawang district in the eastern Himalayas.
• The Kaziranga National Park and the Pakkhui Wildlife Sanctuary are located near the Kameng river.
6. Manas River
• Trans-boundary right-bank tributary in the Himalayan foothills between southern Bhutan and India. It
is named after Manasa, the serpent god in the Hindu mythology.
• Royal Manas National Park of Bhutan and the Manas Wildlife Sanctuary are located in the Manas River
valley.
7. The Teesta River
• It rises from Zemu glacier in Kanchenjunga in Sikkim. The Teesta river drains the entire state of Sikkim
and a part of Darjeeling Hills. It is known as the lifeline of Sikkim. The Teesta flows along a very deep
gorge which divides north Bengal or the hills of Darjeeling into two parts-Tiger Hill range in the west and
the Kalimpong Hill range in the east. It joins the Brahmaputra on its right-bank in Bangladesh.

6.1.4 THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE

• The Indian Peninsula is traversed by a large number of rivers which have existed for a much longer period
than the Himalayan rivers.
• They have reached mature stage and have almost reached the base level of their erosion.
• This is characterised by broad, shallow and largely graded valleys. The beds have very subdued gradient
except valleys.
• For a limited tract of river where faulting has allowed steepening of the gradient. Almost the entire
peninsula presents a senile topography showing features of mature drainage.

A. Evolution of Peninsular Drainage

• Geologists believe that the Sahyadri-Aravalli axis was the main water divide in the geological past. One
hypothesis assumes that the existing peninsula is the remaining half of bigger landmass.
• The Western Ghats were located in the middle of this landmass dividing the entire drainage into two
symmetrical parts - one flowing in the east and the other flowing in the west.
• But the western part of the Peninsula cracked and submerged in the Arabian Sea and disturbed the
symmetrical plan of the rivers on either side of the watershed during the early Tertiary period.

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• During the collision of the Indian plate, a second major distortion was introduced in the Peninsular
block and it was subjected to subsidence and consequent trough faulting through which now flow main
west flowing rivers of the Peninsula, namely Narmada and Tapi.
• This is amply proved by the straight coastline, steep western slope of the Western Ghats, and the
absence of delta formations on the western coast.
• Another view is put forward keeping in view the exceptional behaviour of Narmada and Tapi. It is
believed that these two rivers do not flow in the valleys formed by the rivers themselves. Rather they
have occupied two fault planes or alluvium filled rifts in rocks running parallel to the Vindhyas.
• These faults are supposed to be caused by bending or 'sagging' of the northern part of the Peninsula at
the time of upheaval of the Himalayas.
B. Comparison with Himalayan River System:
Basis The Himalayan River System The Peninsular River System
Origin These rivers originate from the lofty Himalayan These rivers originate in the Peninsular Plateau
ranges and are named as the Himalayan rivers. and are named as Peninsular rivers.
Basins They have large basins and catchment areas. The They have small basins and catchment areas.
total basin area of Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra The Godavari has the largest basin area of 3.12
is 11.78, 8.61 and 5.8 lakh square kilometres. lakh square kilometres only which is less than
one-third the basin area of the Indus.
Valleys They flow through deep V-shaped valleys called They flow in comparatively shallow valleys.
gorges. These gorges have been carved out by These are more or less completely graded
down cutting carried on side by side with the uplift valleys. The rivers have little erosional activity to
of the Himalayas. These are examples of perform. These are examples of consequent
antecedent drainage. drainage.
Water They are perennial in nature. i.e., water flows They receive water only from rainfall and water
Flow throughout the year in these rivers. They receive flows in these rivers in rainy season only.
water both from the monsoons and snow-melt. Therefore, these rivers are seasonal or non-
The perennial nature of these rivers makes them perennial. As such these rivers are much less
useful for irrigation. useful for irrigation.
Stage They flow across the young fold mountains and They have been flowing in one of the oldest
are still in a youthful stage. plateaus of the world and have reached
maturity.
Meanders The upper reaches of the Himalayan rivers are The hard rock surface and non-alluvial character
highly tortuous. When they enter the plains, there of the plateau permits little scope for the
is a sudden reduction in the speed of flow of formation of meanders. As such, the rivers of the
water. Under these circumstances these rivers Peninsular Plateau follow more or less straight
form meanders and often shift their beds. courses.
Deltas They form big deltas at their mouths. The Ganga- Some of the Peninsular rivers, such as the
and Brahmaputra delta is the largest in the world. Narmada and the Tapi form estuaries. Other
Estuaries rivers such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
Krishna and the Cauvery form deltas. Several
small streams originating from the Western
Ghats and flowing towards the west enter the
Arabian Sea without forming any delta.
C. East Flowing Peninsular Rivers

1. Mahanadi
• Its source in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya near Chhattisgarh. Its upper course lies in the saucer
shaped basin called the 'Chhattisgarh Plain'.

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• This basin is surrounded by hills on the north, west and south as a result of which a large number of
tributaries that are Ib, Mand, Hasdo and Sheonath on the left bank and Ong, Jonk, and Tel on the right
bank.
• Mahanadi finally empties itself in the Bay of Bengal after flowing for a distance of 857 km.
2. Godavari
• Largest river system of the Peninsular India and is next only to the Ganga, therefore also called as Vridha
Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. Total length – 1465 kilometres.
• The source is in the Trimbak Plateau of North Sahyadri, Maharashtra. Its left bank tributaries are more
in number and larger in size than the right bank tributaries.
• Manjra is the only important right bank tributary, originating from Jamkhed Hill in Central Maharashtra
and joins the Godavari near Kondalwadi after passing through the Nizam Sagar.
• Penganga, Wardha, Wainganga, Indravati and Sabari are important left bank tributaries. Penganga
rises from the Buldana Range and joins Wardha near Ghughus. Wardha in its turn joins Wainganga.
3. Krishna
• Rises in the Western Ghats just to the
north of Mahabaleshwar. Koyna,
Ghataprabha, Malprabha, Bhima,
Tungabhadra, Musi and Muneru are its
important tributaries.
• Koyna is a small tributary but is very
famous for Koyna Dam. Bhima originates
from the Matheron Hills.
• Tungabhadra is formed by the
unification of Tunga and Bhadra
originating from Gangamula in the
Central Sahyadrı.
• The famous city of Hyderabad is located
on the banks of Musi. Krishna delta
appears to merge with that formed by
Godavari forming Krishna-Godavari
Delta (K-G Basin).

4. Kaveri (Cauvery)
• Most revered and sacred river of south
India and is designated as 'the Dakshina
Ganga' or 'the Ganga of the South'.
• Source lies at Taal Cauvery on the
Brahmagiri range of hills in Western
Ghats. In the Coorg Plateau (Karnataka),
its upper catchment area receives
rainfall during summer by the south-
west monsoon and the lower
catchment area during winter season by
the retreating north-east monsoon.
• It is almost a perennial river with
comparatively less fluctuations in flow
and is very useful for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.
• The main tributaries are Harangi, Hemavathi, Lokapavani, Srimsha and Arkavati from the north and
Laxmantirtha, Kabani, Suvarnavati, Bhavani and Amravati from the south.

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5. Subarnarekha
• Originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand and flows in south-east direction forming the boundary
between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course. It joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between
the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas. Total length – 395 km.
6. Brahmani
• Exist by the confluence of Koel and Sankh rivers near Rourkela. Its mouth becomes the northern end of
the Mahanadi delta. Total length - 800 km.
D. West Flowing Peninsular Rivers:
• The West flowing rivers are fewer and smaller as compared to their east flowing counterparts. Two
major west flowing rivers are Narmada and Tapi.
• Peninsular rivers which fall into the Arabian Sea do not form deltas, but only estuaries as they flow
through hard rocks and are not able to form distributaries before they enter the sea.
• Sabarmati, Mahi and Luni are other rivers of the Peninsular India which flow westwards.
1. Narmada
• Largest of all the west
flowing rivers of the
Peninsular India. Rises
from the western flanks of
the Amarkantak plateau,
Madhya Pradesh and flows
westwards through a rift
valley between the
Vindhyan Range (north)
and the Satpura Range
(south).
• It slopes down Jabalpur,
where it cascades into a
gorge to form the most
spectacular and world
famous Dhuan Dhar
(Cloud of Mist) Falls.
• Gorge is composed of marble; it is popularly known as the Marble Rocks.
• Near Maheshwar the river again descends from another small fall of 8 m, known as the Sahasradhara
Falls.
• There are several islands in the estuary of the Narmada of which Aliabet is the largest.
2. Tapi (also known as Tapti)
• 2nd largest west flowing river of Peninsular India & is known as 'the twin' or 'the handmaid' of Narmada.
• Originates from the sacred tank of Multai on the Satpura Plateau in Betul, Madhya Pradesh.
• It first traverses on open plain and then plunges into a rocky gorge of the Satpura hills between the
Kalibhit Range in Nimar and Chikalda in Berar.
• It enters the Khandesh Plain of Maharashtra, lying between the Satpura and the Ajanta Ranges. It
receives Purna river on its left bank.
3. Sabarmati
• It is the name given to the combined streams, Sabar and Hathmati. It rises from the hills of Mewar in
the Aravali Range. Its important tributaries are Sedhi, Wakul, Harnav, Meshwa and Vatrak.
4. Mahi

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• It rises in the Vindhyas, empties itself into the Gulf of Khambhat after flowing for a distance of 533 km.
Main tributaries of this river are Som, Anas and Panam.
5. Luni or the Salt River (Lonari or Lavanavari in Sanskrit)
• Named so because its water is brackish below Balotra. Its source lies to the west of Ajmer in the Aravalli
and flows in a south-west direction through the Thar desert. It is joined by Sarsuti after passing
Govindgarh and it is from this confluence that the river gets its proper name as Luni. Travels for 482 km
and is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the head of the Rann of Kachchh.
6.1.5 INLAND DRAINAGE
• Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage. Large parts of the
Rajasthan desert and parts of Aksai Chin in Ladakh have inland drainage.
• Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage. It is a seasonal stream which rises on the lower
slopes of the Himalayas and forms boundary between Haryana and Punjab. It gets lost in the dry sands
of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh after traversing a distance of 465 km. Its main tributaries are Tangri,
Markanda, Saraswati and Chaitanya.
• Most of the streams draining western slopes of the Aravalli Range dry up immediately after they enter
the sandy arid areas to the west of this range.

6.2 INDIAN MONSOON

• The word monsoon is derived from the Arabic word ‘mausim’ which literally means season.
• ‘Monsoon’ refers to the seasonal reversal in the wind direction during a year.
• It blows from the northeast during cooler months and reverses direction to blow from the southwest
during the warmest months of the year.

• This process brings large amounts of rainfall to the region during June and July.
• The monsoonal region delineated on the basis of significant change in the wind direction between
winter and summer (with the direction of the prevailing wind within each season being reasonably
steady) extends over a large part of the tropics, namely, 25◦S to 35◦N, 30◦W to 170◦E.
• Monsoon is actually a wind regime operating at a level of 20 km from the earth’s surface.

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• The nature of these winds can be described with reference to the surface distribution of pressure in
different regions of India during winter and summer seasons.
• During winter, the weather conditions are influenced by high pressure developed over North-western
part of the subcontinent. This results in the development of ‘The Northeast Monsoon’.
• During summer, the north-western parts of India become very hot due to very high temperature and
thus intense low pressure system is formed over the Tibetan plateau which causes ‘The Southwest
Monsoon’.
• Although the monsoon is a global phenomenon influenced by a variety of factors not yet completely
understood, the real monsoon rains cover mainly the South Asian region, represented by India,
Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Bhutan and parts of South East Asia.
• Attempts have been made to understand the nature and mechanism of the monsoon on the basis of
data collected on land, oceans and in the upper atmosphere.
• The intensity of southwest monsoon winds of southern oscillation can be measured, among others, by
measuring the difference in pressure between Tahiti (roughly 20°S and 140°W) in French Polynesia in
East Pacific and port Darwin (12°30'S and 131°E) in northern Australia.

6.2.1 MECHANISM OF INDIAN MONSOON

A. Role of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
• The ITCZ is associated with the zone of highest temperature and the lowest pressure. It is due to the
low pressure here that the Trade Winds of the northern and the southern hemispheres converge here.
• It is also known as the ‘doldrums’ or calm area. In this equatorial zone the planetary winds are equatorial
westerlies.
• During summer solstice sun’s rays are vertical over the Tropic of Cancer. Therefore, all wind and
pressure belts of the globe shift towards the north. At this point of time ITCZ shifts northwards and
becomes NITCZ (Northern Inter Tropical Convergence Zone). It extends up to 300 N Latitude in South
and South-East Asia. The excessive heating of Indian sub-continent further intensifies this process.
• Some scholars consider south-west monsoon winds as an extension of south-east trade winds of
southern hemisphere towards NITCZ. They become south-westerly under the influence of coriolis force
as they cross equator.
• NITCZ also result into tropical disturbances which play significant role in surface weather conditions.
• Heavy rainfall is received during summer season because south-west monsoon winds are on-shore.
• During winter season due to southward shifting of ITCZ the pressure and wind belts the planetary
system of north-east trade winds gets re-established over this region. These are called north-east winter
monsoons.
• They prevail over majority area as off-shore winds. Therefore are generally dry and devoid of rains. But
on Tamil Nadu coast they are on-shore and bring precipitation in winter months.
• The SITCZ (Southern Inter Tropical Convergence Zone) position is associated with north-west monsoon
rainy season over northern part of Australia.
• When the ITCZ shifts towards Tropic of Capricorn in winter, the Trade Winds of northern hemisphere
will cross the equator, will be deflected to left hand side and the southern hemisphere tropical zone
will experience northwesterly winds.
• The reversal of wind direction thus occurs in both hemispheres in the tropical zone.

B. Jet Stream Theory

• There are two types of jet streams in this area. First is ‘westerly jet stream’ which is generally an
extension of circum polar whirl during the northern winter season and it is obstructed by the mighty
Himalayas and the Tibetan plateau.

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• The southern branch of the westerly jet stream passes through Indian Gangetic plain and it brings
western disturbances (Temperate cyclones) of Mediterranean Sea and Persian Gulf to the great plains
of India.
• Second is the ‘easterly jet stream’ which originates only in the northern summer season due to regional
conditions of the subcontinent. The most important and leading among these is Tibet plateau.
• The mighty Tibet plateau act as a heat engine at the altitude of 5000 meters and it spreads in the area
of more than 2 lakh square kilometers.
• During this summer season the vertical sun rays at tropic of cancer the circum polar whirl along with
westerly jet stream weakened and shifted northward of the Himalayas and southern branch of this jet
stream disappeared by 6-10 June.
• This removal of westerly jet stream to the north of Tibet plateau leads to reversal of curvature of flow
of free air to the north and northwest of the subcontinent. It further leads to development of dynamic
depression overlying the thermal depression already established at the surface of northwest Indian
subcontinent which ultimately help to trigger the burst of Indian monsoon along with it vigorous
advance over the Indian subcontinent.
• So long as the position of upper air jet stream is maintained above the surface low pressure to the south
of the Himalayas, the dynamic anticyclonic conditions persist in the north-western part of Indian
subcontinent which obstruct the ascent of air from the surface low as the air is continuously descending
from the above. This is the reason why the months of April, May and June are dry inspite of high
temperature and evaporation while upper air low pressure in the east of the Himalayas over Myanmar,
Assam and Bangladesh helps in ascend of air and produce rainfall.
• It may be remembered that during northern summer there is winter in the southern hemisphere where
southern polar whirls or jet streams is more developed and extended upto the equator which pushed
the inter tropical convergence and south-easterly trade winds to cross over the equator and flow in
south-westerly direction due to coriolis force of rotation of earth.

WESTERN DISTURBANCES
• The western cyclonic disturbances which enter the Indian subcontinent from the west and the northwest during
the winter months, originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are brought into India by the westerly jet stream.
• It influences winter weather conditions over most parts of Northern Plains and Western Himalayan region.
• It brings little rain in winter months. This rain is considered to be very good for wheat crops in northern plains.

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C. Role of Sub-tropical Jet Stream

• The burst of monsoons depends upon the upper air circulation which is dominated by Sub Tropical Jet
Streams (STJ).
• The north east monsoon (winter monsoon) is related to the subtropical westerly Jet Stream which blows
between 20 degree and 35 degree latitudes in both hemispheres.
• In winter, STJ flows along the southern slopes of the Himalaya and in summer shifts northwards
dramatically, flowing along the edge of Himalayas in early June and in late summer (July-August) along
the northern edge of the Tibetan Plateau.
• The periodic movement of the Jet Stream often indicates the onset and subsequent withdrawal (STJ
returns back to its position – south of Himalayas) of the monsoon.
• Northward movement of the subtropical jet is the first indication of the onset of the monsoon over
India.
• With the beginning of summer, the STJ start their northward march. The weather over northern India
becomes hot, dry and squally due to larger incoming solar radiation and hot winds like loo.
• Over India, the Equatorial Trough (ITCZ) moves northwards with the weakening of the STJ south of Tibet,
but the burst of the monsoon does not take place until the upper air circulation has switched to its
summer pattern.
• By the end of May the southern jet breaks and later it is diverted to the north of Tibet Plateau. There is
sudden burst of monsoons (the ridge moves northwards into Central Asia, the high pressure zone over
north-west India moves northwards into Central Asia making way for south-west monsoon winds).
• The winter subtropical westerly Jet Stream blows from the west to the east in the entire west and
middle Asia.
• It is bifurcated by the Himalayan ranges and Tibetan Plateau. One of the branch blows parallel to the
plateau from the north while the other moves towards the east in the south of the Himalayas.
• The western disturbance which enter the Indian subcontinent in winter are brought by these westerly
winds. The southern branch blows to the south of the Himalayan ranges along 25° north latitude.

D. Role of Tropical Easterly Jet Stream

• The ‘Tropical Easterly jet stream’ (TEJ) is a unique and dominant feature of the northern hemispheric
summer over southern Asia and northern Africa.
• The TEJ is found near between 5° and 20°N and in 100-200 hPa layer.
• Its maximum speeds of 40-50 m s-1, about half the maximum speed of the STJ and the Polar Jet, are just
west of southern India over the Arabian Sea and close to 150 hPa.
• During summer, due to the apparent shift of the sun in northern hemisphere, the reversal in upper air
circulation takes place.
• The westerly stream is replaced by easterly jet stream which owes its origin to the heating of the
Tibetan plateau.
• This leads to the development of an easterly cold jet stream centered around 15°N latitude and blowing
over peninsular India. This helps in the sudden onset of monsoons.
• The easterly jet stream steers the tropical depressions into India. The tracks of these depressions are
the areas of highest rainfall in India.
• The frequency at which these depressions visit India, their direction and intensity, all go a long way in
determining the rainfall pattern during the southwest monsoon period.
• During the south Asian summer monsoon, the TEJ induced secondary circulations that enhance
convection over South India, the Maritime Continent, and nearby ocean, while suppressing upward
motion in its exit region over the near equatorial Africa and the Atlantic.

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• The establishment and maintenance of the TEJ is not fully understood but it is believed that the jet may
be caused by the uniquely high temperatures and heights over the Tibetan Plateau during summer.

E. Role of Tibet Plateau

• Tibet plateau with its peculiar
location at an altitude of 5000
meters acts as a heat engine in the
northern summer season. Due to its
protruded height it receives 3 to 4
degree C more insolation than its
surroundings.
• The mighty plateau affects the
atmosphere in two ways.
- Firstly, it acts as a mechanical
barrier in the month of June the
subtropical westerly jet stream
is completely withdraw from
India mainly due to
hydrodynamic effect of the
mighty plateau which
ultimately help in onset and
burst of Indian monsoon.
- Secondly, it acts as a high level heat source under which during the summer time high level heating
produces a thermal anticyclone in mid troposphere over this region.
• This anticyclone weakens the western subtropical jet stream to the south of Himalayas but produces
tropical easterly jet on the southern side of the anticyclone.
• This tropical jets first develop in longitudes east of India and then extends westward across India, over
the Arabian Sea and to eastern Africa. Air under this jet stream blowing along Kolkata-Bangalore axis,
the air descends over Indian Ocean and intensify it high pressure cell which moves southwest monsoon
swiftly towards Indian subcontinent.
• The high pressure cell over Indian Ocean responds positively to a stronger tropical easterly jet and
consequently a stronger southwest monsoon in India.
• In October the conditions are reversed as the middle and upper tropospheric anticyclone over the Tibet
plateau disintegrate and tropical easterly jet disappear and a subtropical westerly jet re-established in
place of it.

F. Role of Somali Jet

• Among the most well-known of the tropical low level jet is the Somali Jet, a south-westerly jet with
maximum speed near 850 hPa that feeds moisture and momentum to the South Indian monsoon.
• The Somali jet occurs during the summer over northern Madagascar and off the coast of Somalia.
• The jet is most intense from June to August with average monthly maximum speeds of 18 ms -1 even
though daily speeds can reach the order of 50 ms-1.
• The progress of the southwest monsoon towards India is greatly aided by the onset of Somali jet that
transits Kenya, Somalia and Sahel.

G. Role of Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)

• It is sustained variations in the difference between tropical western and eastern Indian Ocean surface
temperatures are referred to as the Indian Ocean Dipole or IOD.

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• Positive IOD which is associated with warm sea-surface temperatures of western Indian Ocean is
favourable for monsoon.
• With a positive IOD winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of Bengal towards
Arabian Sea). This results in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean near African Coast) being much
warmer and eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
• In the negative dipole year, reverse happens making Indonesia much warmer and rainier. Positive IOD
is good for Indian Monsoons as more evaporation occurs in warm water.
• Similar to ENSO, the atmospheric component of the IOD is named as Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation
(EQUINOO) (Oscillation of pressure cells between Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea).

6.3 KOPPENS CLASSIFICATION

• Koppen has suggested five major types of climate which correspond with five principal vegetation
groups. Each climatic type is represented by a capital letter explained as under:
- A: Tropical rainy climate with no cool season. Temperature of the coolest month above 18°C.
- В: Dry climate in which there is an excess of evaporation over precipitation.
- С: Middle-latitude rainy climate with mild winters. Average temperature of coldest month below
18°C but above -3°C. Average temperature of warmest month over 10°C.
- D: Middle-latitude rainy climate with severe winters. Average temperature of coldest month below
-3°C and that of warmest month above 10°C.
- E: Polar climate with no warm season. Average temperature of the warmest month below 10°C.
• The above mentioned major climatic types are further subdivided depending upon the seasonal
distribution of rainfall or degree of dryness or cold. They are designated by small letters a, c, f h, m, g, s
and w each having a specific meaning as per details given below:
- a: hot summer, average temperature of the warmest month over 22°C с : cool summer, average
temperature of the warmest month under 22°C : no dry season w : dry season in winter s : dry
season in summer
- g: Ganges type of annual march of temperature; hottest month comes before the solstice and the
summer rainy season.
- h (heiss) : average annual temperature under 18°C.
- m (monsoon) : short dry season.
- The capital letters S and W are employed to designate the two subdivisions of dry climate: semi-arid
or Steppe (S) and arid or desert (W).
- Capital letters T and F are similarly used to designate the two subdivisions of polar climate: tundra
(T) and icecap.

1. Amw (Monsoon Type with Short Dry Winter Season):

• This climate is found in the western coastal region, south of Mumbai. This area receives over 300 cm of
annual rainfall in summer from the south-west monsoons.

2. As (Monsoon Type With Dry Season in High Sun Period)

• This is the region in which rainfall occurs in winter and summer is dry.
• Coromandel coast experiences this type of climate. Coastal Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra
Pradesh are included in it.
• The amount of rainfall mostly in winter is 75-100 cm and is received from the retreating monsoons.

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KOEPPEN’S SCHEME – 9 CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

CLIMATE TYPE REGION ANNUAL RAINFALL
Amw Western coastal region, south of Mumbai over 300 cm
(Monsoon type with short
dry winter season)
As Coromandel coast = Coastal Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas 75 – 100 cm
(Monsoon type with dry of Andhra Pradesh [wet winters, dry
season in high sun period) summers]
Aw Most parts of the peninsular plateau barring Coromandel 75 cm
(Tropical Savanah type) and Malabar coastal strips
BShw Some rain shadow areas of Western Ghats, large part of 12 to 25 cm
(Semi-arid Steppe type) Rajasthan and contiguous areas of Haryana and Gujarat
BWhw Most of western Rajasthan less than 12 cm
(Hot desert type)
Cwg Most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern Rajasthan, Assam 100 – 200 cm
(Monsoon type with dry and in Malwa Plateau
winters)
Dfc Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts of Assam ~200 cm
(Cold, Humid winters type
with shorter summer)
Et Mountain areas of Uttarakhand Rainfall varies from
(Tundra Type) The average temperature varies from 0 to 10°C year to year.
E Higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh in Precipitation occurs in
(Polar Type) which the temperature of the warmest month varies from the form of snow
0° to 10°C

3. Aw (Tropical Savanah Type)

• This climate is found in most parts of the peninsular plateau barring Coromandel and Malabar coastal
strips.
• The northern boundary of this climatic region roughly coincides with the Tropic of Cancer.
• The average annual rainfall is about 75 cm which is received in summer season from the south west
monsoons. Winter season remains dry.

4. BShw (Semi-Arid Steppe Type)

• Some rainshadow areas of Western Ghats, large part of Rajasthan and contiguous areas of Haryana and
Gujarat have this type of climate.
• Rainfall varies from 12 to 25 cm and most of it occurs in summer. Winter is completely dry. Some arid
steppe vegetation is found here.

5. BWhw (Hot Desert Type)

• Most of western Rajasthan has hot desert type of climate where the amount of annual rainfall is less
than 12 cm. Temperatures are very high in summer. Natural vegetation is almost absent.

6. Cwg (Monsoon Type with Dry Winters)

• This type of climate is found in most parts of the Ganga Plain, eastern Rajasthan, Assam and in Malwa
Plateau. The summer temperature rises to 40°C which falls to 27°C in winter.
• Most of rainfall occurs in summer and winter is dry.

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7. Dfc (COLD, HUMID WINTERS TYPE WITH SHORTER SUMMER)

• Some of the north-eastern states such
as Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and parts
of Assam have this type of climate.
Winters are cold, humid and of longer
duration. The winter temperatures are
about 10°C. Summers are short but
humid.

8. Et (TUNDRA TYPE)
• This climate is found in the mountain
areas of Uttaranchal. The average
temperature varies from 0 to 10°C.
There is fall in temperature with
altitude.

9. E (POLAR TYPE)
• The higher areas of Jammu & Kashmir
and Himachal Pradesh experience
polar climate in which the temperature
of the warmest month varies from 0° to
10°C. These areas are covered with
snow for most part of the year.

6.4 NATURAL VEGETATION OF INDIA

• Depending upon the variations in the climate, physiographic and soil factors, the vegetation of India
changes from one region to another.
• Based on factors of temperature, rainfall and topographic conditions, India has diverse vegetation
patterns.
• It is so because each plant needs a definite range of temperature and precipitation for its growth.
• This justifies the growth of tropical evergreen vegetation confined mainly to the Western Ghats, on
account of hot and wet climatic conditions.
• The same is true for temperate evergreen vegetation of northeast India and thorny or arid or semi-
arid vegetation of Rajasthan desert and adjoining areas.
• Deciduous vegetation grows in central
parts of India owing to moderate
climatic conditions prevailing over
there.
• Soil is an equally determining factor in
few regions. Mangrove forests,
swamp forests are some of the
examples where soil is the major
factor.
• Topography is responsible for certain minor types e.g. alpine flora, tidal forests, etc.
• Temperature is the major factor in Himalayas and other hilly regions with an elevation of more than 900
meters.

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• As the temperature falls with altitude

in the Himalayan region the vegetal
cover changes with altitude
from tropical to sub-tropical,
temperate and finally alpine.
• The amount of annual rainfall has a
great bearing on the type of
vegetation as mentioned in the table:
6.4.1 TROPICAL EVERGREEN AND SEMI EVERGREEN FORESTS
These are the tropical rain forests which are further divided into two sub-types on the basis of their
characteristics as under:
(a) The Wet Tropical Evergreen Vegetation:
• It is found in regions of very high
annual rainfall exceeding 300 Cms with
a very brief dry season. Southern parts
of Western Ghat of Kerala and
Karnataka are very wet.
• North-eastern Hills are known for this
type of vegetation. It resembles the
equatorial vegetation. This type of
vegetal cover has been badly depleted due to over cutting of trees.
• The major characteristics of this type of vegetation are:
- These forests are dense and have lofty evergreen trees, often as high as 60 metres and above.
- The number of vegetal species per unit area is too large to exploit them commercially.
- Mahogony, cinchona, bamboos and palms are typical species of plants found in these forests.
Undergrowth is very dense and thick. Grass is almost absent.
(b) Moist Tropical Semi-evergreen Vegetation:
• It is found between wet evergreen vegetation and moist temperate deciduous vegetation.
• This type of vegetation is found on the Meghalaya plateau, Sahyadris and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
This vegetation is confined to areas receiving an annual rainfall of about 250 to 300 cms.
• Its important characteristics are:
- The vegetation cover is less dense than the wet evergreen forests.
- Timber of these forests is fine textured and of good quality.
- Rosewood, aini and telsur are important trees in Sahyadris, champa. joon and gurjan in Assam and
Meghalaya and ironwood, ebony and laurel grew in other regions.
- Shifting agriculture and over exploitation of forests have depleted this vegetal cover to a great
extent.

6.4.2 TROPICAL DECIDUOUS FORESTS

• These are the most widespread forests of India.
• They are also called the monsoon forests and spread over the region receiving rainfall between 200 cm
and 70 cm.
• Trees of this forest type shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks in dry summer.
• On the basis of the availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry deciduous.
• The Moist deciduous forests are more pronounced in the regions which record rainfall between 100-
200 cm.

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• These forests are found in the northeastern states along the foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of
the Western Ghats and Odisha.
• Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum, and sandalwood etc. are the main species of
these forests.
• Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas of the country, where rainfall ranges between 70 -100 cm.
• On the wetter margins, it has a transition to the moist deciduous, while on the drier margins to thorn
forests.
• These forests are found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
• In the higher rainfall regions of the Peninsular plateau and the northern Indian plain, these forests have
a parkland landscape with open stretches in which teak and other trees interspersed with patches of
grass are common.
• As the dry season begins, the trees shed their leaves completely and the forest appears like a vast
grassland with naked trees all around.
• Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these forests. In the western
and southern part of Rajasthan, vegetation cover is very scanty due to low rainfall and overgrazing.
• In these forests, the common animals found are lion, tiger, pig, deer and elephant.
• A huge variety of birds, lizards, snakes and tortoises are also found here.
6.4.3 TROPICAL THORN FORESTS & SCRUBS
• The areas with less than 75 cm of annual rainfall are characterized by the natural vegetation of thorny
trees and bushes.
• These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs.
• Climate of this part is mainly dry with occasional wet period, so it does not support dense vegetation.
• They are mainly found in North-Western India, interior parts of the Peninsular India including semi-arid
areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh and Maharashtra.
• Vegetation of these forests is widely distributed in the form of small trees and bushes with deep roots.
• The stems are succulent to conserve water.
• Leaves are mostly thick and small to minimize evaporation.
• These forests give way to thorn forests and scrubs in arid areas.
• Acacia, euphorbias, babul, cacti, khair, date and palms are common variety of trees in this type of
vegetation.
• In these forests, the common animals are rats, mice, rabbits, fox, wolf, tiger, lion, wild ass, horses and
camels.
6.4.4 MONTANE FORESTS
• Due to the difference in temperature and other weather conditions of northern and peninsular
mountain ranges, there exists difference in the vegetal cover of these two groups of mountain ranges.
• Hence, the mountain vegetation can be classified as the mountain vegetation of Peninsular plateau and
the mountain vegetation of the Himalayan ranges.
- The Mountain Vegetation of Peninsular Plateau: The high-altitude area of the plateau region
include Nilgiri, Annamalai and Palni hills, Mahabaleshwar in Western Ghats, Satpura and Maikal hills.
The important characteristics of vegetation of this region are:
✓ Stretches of open rolling grass plains with undeveloped forests or bushes are found.
✓ The wet temperate forests below 1500 metres are less dense than those found above this
height.
✓ The forests have thick undergrowth, epiphytes, mosses and ferns.
✓ Magnolia, laurel, elm are common trees.

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✓ Cinchona and eucalyptus have been introduced from outside the country.
The Mountain Vegetation of the Himalayan Ranges: In the Himalayan Mountain region, the vegetation is
different at increasing altitudes. This can be divided into following types:
A. Moist Tropical Deciduous forests are found along the foot hills in the Siwaliks, upto the height of 1000
metres. We have already learnt about these forests.
B. The Wet Temperate Evergreen forests are found in the areas lying between 1000 to 3000 metres. The
important characteristics of these forests are:
• These are very thick forests of lofty trees.
• Oak and chestnut are the predominant trees of the eastern Himalayan region while chir and pine are
in the western part.
• Sal is the important tree in lower altitudes.
• Deodar, silver fir and spruce are predominant trees between the height of 2000 and 3000 metres.
These forests are less dense as compared to the forests at lesser elevations.
• These forests are of great economic importance to the local population.
C. Dry Temperate Vegetation is found on the higher hilly slopes of this mountain region which has moderate
temperatures and rainfall between 70 cms and 100 cms. Important characteristics of this type of vegetation
are:
• This vegetation resembles the Mediterranean vegetation.
• Wild olives, acacia are important trees along with hard, coarse and thick savanna grass.
• Oak and deodar are found here and there.
D. Alpine Vegetation is found between the altitude 3000 and 4000 metres. The important characteristics of
these forests are:
• These are far less dense.
• Silver fir, juniper, birch, pine and rhododendron are important trees of these forests. However, all of
them have only a stunted growth.
• Alpine pastures are found at still higher altitudes.
• The trees get progressively stunted as they approach the snow line.

6.4.5 LITTORAL AND SWAMP FORESTS (MANGROVE FORESTS)

• The mangrove tidal forests are found in the areas of coasts influenced by tides.
• These areas are characterized by mud, silt and water accumulated on the surface.
• Roots and branches of the trees are submerged under water for specific period of time.
• The deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Godavari and the Kaveri are covered by such
vegetation.
• India has a rich variety of wetland habitats.
• About 70 per cent of this comprises areas under paddy cultivation.
• The total area of wet land is 3.9 million hectares.
• Two sites — Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl
habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar Convention).
• Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries
• They consist of a number of salt-tolerant species of plants.
• Crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows, these forests give shelter to a wide variety of
birds in India, the mangrove forests spread over 6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the world’s mangrove
forests.
• They are highly developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal.

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• Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, the Godavari and the Krishna deltas.
• Mangrove is the representative of this type of vegetation.
• Sundari is the typical tree of tidal forests.
• It is found in abundance in the lower Ganga delta of West Bengal. This is the reason why it is popularly
known as Sunderban. It is known for its hard and durable timber.
• These forests too, are being encroached upon, and hence, need conservation.

6.5 MAJOR SOIL GROUPS OF INDIA

Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be divided into two main types:
• Soils of peninsular India – formed by the decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e., directly from the underlying
rocks. They are transported and redeposited to a limited extent and are known as sedentary soils.
• Soils of extra-peninsular India – formed due to the depositional work of rivers and wind and are mainly
found in the river valleys and deltas. They are very deep and constitute some of the most fertile tracts
of the country and are often referred to as transported or azonal soils.

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6.5.1 ALLUVIAL SOIL

• They are by far the largest and the most important soil group of India.
• Covering about 15 lakh sq. km or about 45.6 per cent of the total land area of the country, these soils
contribute the largest share of our agriculture and support the bulk of India's population.
• Most of the alluvial soils are derived from the sediments deposited by rivers as in the Indo-Gangetic
plain although some alluvial soils in the coastal areas have been formed by the sea waves. Thus, the
parent material of these soils is of transported origin of Himalayan mountains.
• Characteristics – These soils are immature and have weak profiles. They differ in consistency from sand
to rich loams and from silts to stiff clays. Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are also present. Pebbly,
stony or gravelly soils are rare.
• Chemical Composition – Proportion of nitrogen is generally low, but potash, phosphoric acid and
alkalis are adequate, while iron oxide and lime vary within a wide range.
• Distribution – Great Indo-Gangetic Plain starting from Punjab in west to West Bengal and Assam in the
east. They also occur in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, where they
are called deltaic alluvium. Along the coast they are known as coastal alluvium. Some alluvial soils are
found in the Narmada and Tapi valleys. Northern parts of Gujarat also have some cover of alluvial soils.
• Crops – Due to the softness of their strata and fertility the alluvial soils are best suited to irrigation and
respond well to canal and well/tube-well irrigation. When properly irrigated, they yield crops of rice,
wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, oilseeds, vegetables and fruits.
6.5.2 BLACK SOIL
• Also called regur (from the Telugu word Reguda) and black cotton soils because cotton is the most
important crop grown on these soils.
• Most of the black soils are derived from two types of rocks, the Deccan and the Rajmahal trap, and
ferruginous gneisses and schists occurring in Tamil Nadu.
• Characteristics – A typical black soil is highly argillaceous with a large clay factor, 62 per cent or more.
Soils of uplands are of low fertility while those in the valleys are very fertile.
- Highly retentive of moisture and swells greatly on accumulating moisture, gets very sticky. In
summer, the moisture evaporates, the soil shrinks and is seamed with broad and deep cracks. The
lower layers can still retain moisture.
- The cracks permit oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths and the soil has extraordinary fertility.
The black colour is due to the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous magnetite or iron and
black constituents of the parent rock.
• Chemical Composition – 10 per cent of alumina, 9-10 per cent of iron oxide, 6-8 per cent of lime and
magnesium carbonates, Potash is variable (less than 0.5 per cent) and phosphates, nitrogen and humus
are low.
• Distribution – Spread over 46 lakh sq. km (16.6 per cent of the total area) across Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
• Crops – Best suited for cotton, but other major crops grown on the black soils include wheat, jowar,
linseed, Virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and millets. Rice and sugarcane are equally important
where irrigation facilities are available. Large varieties of vegetables and fruits are also successfully
grown on the black soils.
6.5.3 RED AND YELLOW SOIL
• Red soil develops on crystalline igneous rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part
of the Deccan Plateau.

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• Along the piedmont zone of the Western Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red loamy soil. Yellow
and red soils are also found in parts of Odisha and Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle
Ganga plain.
• The soil develops a reddish colour due to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
It looks yellow when it occurs in a hydrated form.
• The fine-grained red and yellow soils are normally fertile, whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry
upland areas are poor in fertility. They are generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and humus.

6.5.4 LATERITE SOIL

• The laterite soils develop in areas with high temperature and high rainfall. These are the result of
intense leaching due to tropical rains.
• With rain, lime and silica are leached away, and soils rich in iron oxide and aluminium compound are
left behind. Humus content of the soil is removed fast by bacteria that thrives well in high temperature.
• These soils are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide and potash
are in excess.
• Hence, laterites are not suitable for cultivation; however, application of manures and fertilisers are
required for making the soils fertile for cultivation.
• Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for tree crops like
cashewnut.
• Laterite soils are widely cut as bricks for use in house construction.
• These soils have mainly developed in the higher areas of the Peninsular plateau. The laterite soils are
commonly found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and
Assam.
6.5.5 ARID SOILS
• Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
• They are generally sandy in structure and saline in nature. In some areas, the salt content is so high that
common salt is obtained by evaporating the saline water.
• Due to the dry climate, high temperature and accelerated evaporation, they lack moisture and humus.
Nitrogen is insufficient and the phosphate content is normal.
• Lower horizons of the soil are occupied by ‘kankar’ layers because of the increasing calcium content
downwards.
• The ‘Kankar’ layer formation in the bottom horizons restricts the infiltration of water, and as such when
irrigation is made available, the soil moisture is readily available for a sustainable plant growth. Arid soils
are characteristically developed in western Rajasthan, which exhibit characteristic arid topography.
These soils are poor and contain little humus and organic matter.
6.5.6 PEATY SOILS
• They are found in the areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity, where there is a good growth of
vegetation. Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter accumulates in these areas, and this gives a rich
humus and organic content to the soil.
• Organic matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 per cent. These soils are normally heavy and black
in colour.
• At many places, they are alkaline also.
• It occurs widely in the northern part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West
Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
6.5.7 FOREST SOILS
• Forest soils are formed in the forest areas where sufficient rainfall is available.

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• The soils vary in structure and texture depending on the mountain environment where they are
formed.
• They are loamy and silty on valley sides and coarse-grained in the upper slopes. In the snow-bound areas
of the Himalayas, they experience denudation, and are acidic with low humus content.
• The soils found in the lower valleys are fertile.

==========================================================================================

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UPSC PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS (PYQs)

1. Consider the following statements: (b) 2 only

1. In India, the Himalayas are spread over five States (c) Both 1 and 2
only. (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Western Ghats are spread over five States only.
5.Which one of the following National Parks has a
3. Pulicat Lake is spread over two States only.
climate that varies from tropical to subtropical,
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
temperate and arctic? (2015)
(2017)
(a) Khangchendzonga National Park
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) Nandadevi National Park
(b) 3 only
(c) Neora Valley National Park
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) Namdapha National Park
(d) 1 and 3 only
6.Consider the following States:
2. From the ecological point of view, which one of
1.Chhattisgarh
the following assumes importance in being a good
2.Madhya Pradesh
link between the Eastern Ghats and the Western
3.Maharashtra
Ghats? (2017)
4.Odisha
(a) Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve
With reference to the States mentioned above, in
(b) Nallamala Forest
terms of the percentage of forest cover to the total
(c) Nagarhole National Park
area of the State, which one of the following is the
(d) Seshachalam Biosphere Reserve
correct ascending order? (2019)
(a) 2-3-1-4
3. With reference to 'Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)'
(b) 2-3-4-1
sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting
(c) 3-2-4-1
Indian monsoon, which of the following statements
(d) 3-2-1-4
is/are correct?
1. IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference 7.Recently, there was a growing awareness in our
in sea surface temperature between tropical country about the importance of Himalayan nettle
Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific (Girardinia diversifolia) because it is found to be a
Ocean. sustainable source of: (2019)
2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino's (a) anti-malarial drug
impact on the monsoon. (b) biodiesel
Select the correct answer using the code given (c) pulp for paper industry
below: (2017) (d) textile fibre
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only 8.Recently, our scientists have discovered a new
(c) Both 1 and 2 and distinct species of banana plant which attains a
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 height of about 11 metres and has orange-coloured
fruit pulp. In which part of India has it been
4.Consider the following statements. discovered? (2016)
1. The winds which blow between 30 ° N and 60 ° S (a) Andaman Islands
latitudes throughout the year are known as (b) Anaimalai Forests
westerlies. (c) Maikala Hills
2. The moist air masses that cause winter rains in (d) Tropical rain forests of northeast
North-Western region of India are part of
westerlies. 9.With reference to ‘Red Sanders’, sometimes seen
Which of the statements given above is/are in the news, consider the following statements:
correct? (2015) 1. It is a tree species found in a part of South India.
(a) 1 only 2. It is one of the most important trees in the
tropical rain forest areas of South India.

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Which of the statements given above is/are (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
correct? (2016) and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for
(a) 1 only Statement-I.
(b) 2 only (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is
(c) Both 1 and 2 incorrect.
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is
correct.
10. Which one of the following regions of India has
a combination of mangrove forest, evergreen forest 14. The black cotton soil of India has been formed
and deciduous forest? (2015) due to the weathering of (2021)
(a) North Coastal Andhra Pradesh (a) brown forest soil
(b) South-West Bengal (b) fissure volcanic rock
(c) Southern Saurashtra (c) granite and schist
(d) Andaman and Nicobar Islands (d) shale and limestone
11. Consider the following states: 15. In India, the problem of soil erosion is associated
1. Arunachal Pradesh with which of the following?
2. Himachal Pradesh 1. Terrace cultivation
3. Mizoram 2. Deforestation
In which of the above states do 'Tropical Wet 3. Tropical climate
Evergreen Forests' occur? (2015) Select the correct answer using the code given
(a) 1 only below: (2014)
(b) 2 and 3 only (a) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
12. If you travel through the Himalayas, you are
likely to see which of the following plants naturally 16. Which of the following statements regarding
growing there? laterite soils of India are correct?
1. Oak 1. They are generally red in colour.
2. Rhododendron 2. They are rich in nitrogen and potash.
3. Sandalwood 3. They are well-developed in Rajasthan and UP.
Select the correct answer using the code given 4. Tapioca and cashew nuts grow well on these soils.
below. (2014) Select the correct answer using the codes given
(a) 1 and 2 only below: (2013)
(b) 3 only (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 4 only
(d) 2 and 3 only
13. Consider the following statements:
Statement I: 17. With reference to the Himalayan rivers joining
The soil in tropical rainforests is rich in nutrients. the Ganga downstream of Prayagraj from West to
Statement-II: East, which one of the following sequences is
The high temperature and moisture of tropical rain correct? (2024)
forests cause dead organic matter in the soil to (a) Ghaghara-Gomati-Gandak-Kosi
decompose quickly. (b) Gomati-Ghaghara-Gandak-Kosi
Which one of the following is correct in respect of (c) Ghaghara-Gomati-Kosi-Gandak
the above statements? (2023) (d) Gomati-Ghaghara-Kosi-Gandak
(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct
and Statement-II is the correct explanation for 18. With reference to the Indus River system, of the
Statement-I. following four rivers, three of them pour into one of
them which joins the Indus direct. Among the

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following, which one is such a river that joins the 2. Kameng

Indus directly? (2021) 3. Lohit
(a) Chenab Select the correct answer using the code given
(b) Jhelum below. (2016)
(c) Ravi (a) 1 only
(d) Sutlej (b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
19. Consider the following rivers: (d) 1, 2 and 3
1. Brahmani
2. Nagawali 24. Consider the following rivers:
3. Subarnarekha 1. Vamsadhara
4. Vamsadhara 2. Indravati
Which of the above rise from the Eastern Ghats? 3. Pranhita
(2021) 4. Pennar
(a) 1 and 2 only Which of the above are tributaries of Godavari?
(b) 2 and 4 only (2015)
(c) 3 and 4 only (a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
20. With reference to river Teesta, consider the (d) 2 and 3 only
following statements:
25. Consider the following rivers :
1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of
1. Barak
Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim.
2. Lohit
2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a
3. Subansiri
tributary of river Teesta.
Which of the above flow/flows through Arunachal
3. River Teesta flows into Bay of Bengal on the
Pradesh? (2014)
border of India and Bangladesh.
(a) 1 only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(b) 2 and 3 only
(2017)
(c) 1 and 3 only
(a) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only 26. The Narmada river flows to the west, while most
(d) 1, 2 and 3 other large peninsular rivers flow to the east. Why?
1. It occupies a linear rift valley.
21. If you want to see gharials in their natural
2. It flows between the Vindhyas and the Satpuras.
habitat, which one of the following is the best place
3. The land slopes to the west from Central India.
to visit? (2017)
Select the correct answer using the codes given
(a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves
below: (2013)
(b) Chambal River
(a) 1 only
(c) Pulicat Lake
(b) 2 and 3
(d) Deepor Beel
(c) 1 and 3
22. Recently, linking of which of the following rivers (d) None
was undertaken? (2016)
27. Consider the following pairs: National Park :
(a) Cauvery and Tungabhadra
River flowing through the Park
(b) Godavari and Krishna
1. Corbett National Park : Ganga
(c) Mahanadi and Sone
2. Kaziranga National Park : Manas
(d) Narmada and Tapti
3. Silent Valley National Park : Kaveri
23. Which of the following is/are Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
tributary/tributaries of Brahmaputra? (2013)
1. Dibang (a) 1 and 2

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(b) 3 only
33. At one of the places in India, if you stand on the
(c) 1 and 3
seashore and watch the sea, you will find that the
(d) None
seawater recedes from the shoreline a few
28. With reference to India, Didwana, Kuchaman, kilometers and comes back to the shore, twice a
Sargol and Khatu are the names of (2021) day, and you can actually walk on the seafloor when
(a) Glaciers the water recedes. This unique phenomenon is seen
(b) Mangrove Areas at: (2017)
(c) Ramsar Sites (a) Bhavnagar
(d) Saline Lakes (b) Bheemunipatnam
(c) Chandipur
29. Which one of the following is an artificial lake?
(d) Nagapattinam
(2018)
(a) Kodaikanal (Tamil Nadu) 34. Which one of the following pairs of islands is
(b) Kolleru (Andhra Pradesh) separated from each other by the “Ten Degree
(c) Nainital (Uttarakhand) Channel”? (2014)
(d) Renuka (Himachal Pradesh) (a) Andaman and Nicobar
(b) Nicobar and Sumatra
30. Consider the following pairs:
(c) Maldives and Lakshadweep
Wetlands Confluence of rivers
(d) Sumatra and Java
1. Harike Wetlands Confluence of Beas and
Satluj/Sutlej 35. Consider the following information :
2. Keoladeo Ghana NP Confluence of Banas and Waterfall Region River
Chambal 1. Dhuanclhar Malwa Narmada
3. Kolleru Lake Confluence of Musi and 2. Hundru Chota Nagpur Subarnarekha
Krishna 3. Gersoppa Western Ghats Netravati
Which of the above pairs is/ are correctly matched? In how many of the above rows is the given
(2014) information correctly matched? (2024)
(a) 1 only (a) Only one
(b) 2 and 3 only (b) Only two
(c) 1 and 3 only (c) All three
(d) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None
31. Consider the following statements: 36. Consider the following statements:
1. The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano 1. Amarkantak Hills are at the confluence of Vindhya
located in the Indian territory. and Sahyadri Hills.
2. Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great 2. Biligirirangan Hills constitute the easternmost
Nicobar. part of Satpura Range.
3. The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted 3. Seshachalam Hills constitute the southernmost
was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then. part of Western Ghats.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? How many of the statements given above are
(2018) correct? (2023)
(a) 1 only (a) Only one
(b) 2 and 3 (b) Only two
(c) 3 only (c) All three
(d) 1 and 3 (d) None
32. Which of the following is geographically closest 37.Consider the following pairs
to Great Nicobar? (2017) Peak Mountains
(a) Sumatra 1. Namcha Barwa Garhwal Himalaya
(b) Borneo 2. Nanda Devi Kumaon Himalaya
(c) Java 3. Nokrek Sikkim Himalaya
(d) Sri Lanka

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 GEOGRAPHY (STATIC) – PRELIMS BOOSTER SERIES: TARGET 2025-26
Under the Guidance of M K YADAV SIR & TEAM

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly 3. Pushkar Mahadeo Hills
matched? (2022) Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (2015)
(b) 2 only (a) 1 only
(c) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only
(d) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
38. Siachen Glacier is situated to the (2020)
(a) East of Aksai Chin 41. Consider the following pairs:
(b) East of Leh Hills Region
(c) North of Gilgit 1. Cardamom Hills Coromandel Coast
(d) North of Nubra Valley 2. Kaimur Hills Konkan Coast
3. Mahadeo Hills Central India
39. Consider the following pairs:
4. Mikir Hills North-East India
Glacier River
Which of the above pairs are correctly matched?
1. Bandarpunch Yamuna
(2014)
2. Bara Shigri Chenab
(a) 1 and 2 only
3. Milam Mandakini
(b) 2 and 3 only
4. Siachen Nubra
(c) 3 and 4 only
5. Zemu Manas
(d) 2 and 4 only
Which of the pairs given above are correctly
matched? (2019) 42. Consider the following pairs:
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only 1. Nokrek Bio-sphere Reserve: Garo Hills
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only 2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake: Barail Range
(c) 2 and 5 only 3. Namdapha National Park: Dafla Hills
(d) 3 and 5 only Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(2013)
40. Consider the following pairs:
(a) 1 only
Place of Pilgrimage Location
(b) 2 and 3 only
1. Srisailam Nallamala Hills
(c) 1, 2 and 3
2. Omkareshwar Satmala Hills
(d) None

ANSWERS
1.(b) 2.(a) 3.(b) 4.(b) 5.(d) 6.(c)
7.(d) 8.(a) 9.(a) 10.(d) 11.(c) 12.(a)
13.(d) 14.(b) 15.(b) 16.(c) 17.(b) 18.(d)
19.(b) 20.(b) 21.(b) 22.(b) 23.(d) 24.(d)
25.(b) 26.(a) 27.(d) 28.(d) 29.(a) 30.(a)
31.(a) 32.(a) 33.(c) 34.(a) 35.(b) 36.(d)
37.(b) 38.(d) 39.(a) 40.(a) 41.(c) 42.(a)

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