Chapter 2
Origins and Development of PA
TRADITIONAL AND
MODERN PARADIGMS OF
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
It developed through several successive stages
Public Public
The Politics- Administration
The Principles of Administration
administration as Management
Administration as Political
dichotomy (NPM)
Science
The New Public Digital Governance
Service Paradigm
This development represents crises a for public
Administration and how PA dealt with the
challenge.
Need to discover where PA has been to understand
its present situation.
The several successive stages in PA constitute a
specific yet overlapping paradigm.
The development of public administration from its mother
discipline (political science) can be seen through several
successive stages:
1. The politics-administration dichotomy (1880s-1920s)
The idea of politics-administration dichotomy originated largely
from the writing of Woodrow Wilson in 1887 entitled "The
Study of Public administration"
In his article, Wilson coined the idea of politic/administration
dichotomy in which there is distinction between political and
administrative activity in public administration.
·
It was followed by later scholars like Frank J. Goodnow and
Leonard D. White. According to Goodnow, politics has to
do with policies or expression of the state will while
administration has to do with the execution of the
policies. It means, the legislative branch and the judicial
branch express the will of the state and formed the policy
while the executive branch administers those policies
impartially and apolitically.
Public administration received its first serious attention from
Scholar during this period was largely due to the public
service movement that took place in American universities.
It regarded that public administration is something more
than a significant field of political science.
In 1912, a committee on practical training for
civil service as established by the American
Political Science Association. In 1914, it
recommended the special professional
school to train public administrator.
At this stage the relationship between the
academics and the practitioners of this field
were quite close.
The politics-administration dichotomy reached its peak
in 1920s with the publication of Leonard D. White
Introduction to the Study Of Public Administration in
1926.
This book upholds the principle that "politic should not
intrude on administration. Management lends itself to
scientific study. Public administration is capable of
becoming a value free science in its own right and the
mission of administration is economy and efficiency."
The apparent contributions of this period were:
1. Strengthen the politics-administration dichotomy (public
administration deals with executive branch of government that
should focus on facts and should be scientific. On the contrary,
politics ideals with legislature branch of government that should
focus on public policy making and other related matters).
The emphasis on science and facts during this period laid the
foundation for the development of scientific principle of
administration.
2. The Principles of Administration (1927s-1937s)
The work of W.F. Willogh by Principles of Administration
marked the second stage of the development of public
administration. He emphasized that there are certain scientific
principles of administration that can be applied by
administrator.
At this time, the focus of public administration was essential
expertise in the form of administrative principle. Due to this
reason, scholars in public administration were highly sought by
government and industry alike for their managerial knowledge.
However, public administration lost its locus (the
institutional where the field is being practiced). The
locus was in fact can be found everywhere. It is simply
because, they believed that administrative principles
work in any administrative setting regardless of
culture, environment, function or institutional setting.
Among significant works related to this field were
Mary Parker Follet's Creative Experience, Henry Fayol's
Industrial General Management, Frederick W. Taylor's
Principles of Scientific Management and others.
As an academic field, the public administration was taught in a
wide approach in various universities in America.
Scholars in public administration also has managed to establish the
American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) which continues
to function as the primary association and the sponsoring
organization for Public Administration Review Journal.
Wilson viewed this as an attempt to loosen public administration
from the restraints of political science. More than that, it also
symbolized public administration conscious need to become an
independent discipline.
Another study by Luther H. Gullick and Lyndall Urwick
marked the highest development in this stage. They
had promoted seven principles of administration
known as POSDCORB. The results of this stage were:
1. The focus of public administration is narrow and
rigid while the locus is too general.
2. The principles of Administration only help people to
understand how particular organization worked.
3. Public Administration as political science (1938-
1947)
Various critics on the writing of Gullick and Urwirk
marked the third staged of the development of
public administration.
So many challenges were raised against the
principles approach to public administration
The prominent scholars like Chester Bernard, Herbert A. Simon and
Robert A. Dahl seriously challenged the principles of administration.
Simon for example, described the principles of administration of Gullick,
Urwick and others as proverbs that often contradict on another.
For Dahl on the other hand, claimed that although the field of public
administration claiming to be value free was actually based on
preference for particular value especially political and ethical values.
It reflected more human relation emphasis.
The implications were:
1. The politics and administration could never be
separated or put in detachment with one another.
2. The principles of administration are in fact the
expression of managerial rationality.
Attention to improve all aspects of the public
policymaking process.
4. Public administration as management (1960s-1990s)
It is also known as the new public administration, which
started in 1960. It is an attempt to make the field of public
administration more relevant in the present circumstances.
There are several groups in the new public administration.
One group advocates public administration as an instrument
of status quo while some agree that public administration to
be devoted to public good, civic improvement and
democracy.
Public Management Paradigms
Bureaucratic Joined-up Public
NPM Governance
model governance values
The New Public Service (NPS)
Addresses the core nature of public service, the role of administration in
governance, and the value tension surrounding the bureaucracy.
(efficiency, equity, responsiveness, and accountability)-explicit
consideration of democratic values and citizen engagement.
4. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS Management
A paradigm for managing government organisation and
reforms known as the New Public Management (NPM)
appeared to replace the traditional model of public
administration in which George Frederickson (1976)
regarded as ‘efficient, economical and coordinated
management of the services for the people’.
The fundamental tenet of The New Public
Management (NPM) is public management should
operate like the private sector to deal with the
inadequacy of the previous model of public
administration that emphasized hierarchical
structures, rules, and rigid management control.
Although NPM seems to overcome some inherent
problems in government administration, it does not
amount to a total replacement of the earlier model.
Historically, this managerial revolution in public sectors became
popular around 1980s but the term NPM reform itself was not in used
until 1991. This suggests that when it was implemented, the reform
agents like in the US, UK and New Zealand did not used the term to
describe their reform content.
It was later that scholars began to perceive the government initiative
to be considered NPM reform. At the same time, there were other
common terms used by scholars like ‘change government’, ‘reinventing
government’, entrepreneurial government, ‘the New Public
Administration’, post-bureaucratic paradigm, ‘Market-based public
administration’, and ‘managerialism’ to generally denote governments
deliberate reforms in process, structure, and personnel in the public
sector and were often used interchangeably with NPM.
Features of NPM
• Shift in the focus of management from inputs and
processes to outputs and outcomes;
• A shift towards measurement and quantification –
especially through the development of performance
indicators.
• A shift to greater competition in the public sector and
much wider use of alternative service delivery
mechanisms including contracting out and quasi-
privatization.
• Emphasis on private sector-style management and
flexibility, cost-recovery, and entrepreneurship.
• A shift towards a management culture that
emphasizes performance and accountability for
results
COMPARISON
Program/Agency
THE NEW PUBLIC MANAGEMENT
Hierarchical
Command and control
Delivery system Contingent tools
Structure of organisations Network
Effectiveness
Negotiation and persuasion
Normative order Paternalistic
Conformity to the procedures
Values Efficiency and effectiveness
Citizen
Roles of the government Empowering
Service delivery (rowing)
Measurement criterion
Producing results
Roles of citizens Customers
Roles of the state Policy decision (steering) TRADITIONAL /BUREAUCRATIC
APPROACH
23
• Serving, not Steering provides a framework for the many
voices calling for the reaffirmation of democratic values,
citizenship, and service in the public interest. It is organized
around a set of seven core principles: (1) serve citizens, not
customers; (2) seek the public interest; (3) value citizenship
and public service above entrepreneurship; (4) think
strategically, act democratically; (5) recognize that
accountability isn’t simple; (6) serve, rather than steer; and
(7) value people, not just productivity.
4. The
• The New Public Service is a reaffirmation of the
NEW centrality of the public interest in government
service. The New Public Service demands that the
Public process of establishing a “vision” for society is not
something merely to be left to elected political
SERVICE leaders or appointed public administrators. Instead,
the activity of establishing a vision or direction, of
defining shared values, is something in which
widespread public dialogue and deliberation are
central (Bryson and Crosby 1992; Luke 1998;
Stone 1988). Even more important, the public
interest isn’t something that just “happens” as a
result of the interaction between individual citizen
choices, organizational procedures, and electoral
politics. Rather, articulating and realizing the public
interest is one of the primary reasons government24
exists.
The NEW PUBLIC service
• In many areas, it no longer makes sense to think of public policies as the
result of governmental decision-making processes. Government is indeed a
player-and in most cases a very substantial player. But public policies today,
the policies that guide society, are the outcome of a complex set of
interactions involving multiple groups and multiple interests, ultimately
combining in fascinating and unpredictable ways.
• Government is no longer “in charge.” rather, public servants must join with
their counterparts in nonprofit and private business to solve problems that are
simply too large in scope and cross too many boundaries to be tackled by any
single organization.
• Government becomes an important player, to move society in one direction or
another. Government acts, in concert with private and nonprofit groups and
organizations, to seek solutions to the problems faced by society.
25
• In this process, the role of government is transformed from
one of controlling to one of agenda setting, bringing the
proper players “to the table” and facilitating, negotiating, or
“brokering” solutions to public problems (often through
coalitions of public, private, and nonprofit agencies).
Whereas, traditionally, government has responded to needs
by saying, “yes, we can provide that service” or “no, we
can’t,”.
• The New Public Service suggests that elected officials and
public managers should respond to the requests of citizens,
not just by saying yes or no, but by saying such things as,
“Let’s work together to figure out what we’re going to do,
then make it happen.”
Digital Governance Paradigm
Represents a contemporary paradigm in public
administration that emphasizes the use of digital
technologies to enhance the efficiency, effectiveness, and
reach of government services.
It involves the integration of information and communication
technology (ICT) into all facets of public administration to
facilitate an open, transparent, and participatory
government.
This latest paradigm shift is driven by the need to adapt to
the rapid technological advancements and changing
expectations of citizens for more responsive and accessible
services.
KEY FEATURES OF DIGITAL GOVERNANCE
1. Digital Services and Platforms
The development and deployment of online platforms
for delivering government services to citizens,
businesses, and other government entities. This
includes e-filing of taxes, digital identification systems,
e-voting mechanisms, and more, enabling 24/7 access
to services.
2. Transparency and Open Data
Governments are increasingly making their data open
and accessible to the public. This transparency fosters
trust, enables civic engagement, and allows businesses
and individuals to innovate and make data-driven
decisions.
3. Citizen Engagement and Participation
Digital governance tools facilitate greater citizen involvement in the
policymaking process through online forums, social media, and other
digital platforms. This ensures that the government is more responsive
to the needs and preferences of its constituents.
4. Interoperability and Integration
A focus on ensuring that different government systems and services
can work together seamlessly, sharing data and processes where
appropriate, to provide a more coherent experience for users and more
efficient operation of government functions.
5. Cybersecurity and Data Protection
As government services move online, safeguarding personal
information and ensuring the integrity of government data becomes
paramount. Digital governance includes robust cybersecurity measures
and policies to protect sensitive information.
BENEFITS
1. Increased Efficiency and Cost Savings
Digital processes can significantly reduce the time and resources
required to deliver government services, resulting in cost savings for both
governments and citizens.
2. Improved Service Delivery
By leveraging technology, governments can provide services that are
more accessible, faster, and tailored to the needs of diverse populations.
3. Enhanced Democratic Participation
Digital platforms offer new ways for citizens to participate in governance
processes, from online consultations to direct feedback mechanisms.
4. Accountability and Transparency
The use of digital tools can help to track government activities and
spending, making it easier for citizens to hold their government
accountable
Challenges and Considerations
These include ensuring equitable access to digital
services, protecting against cyber threats, managing
privacy concerns, and addressing the digital divide that
may exclude segments of the population from benefiting
fully from digital governance initiatives.
focus on not just expanding digital services, but also
on enhancing digital literacy, ensuring inclusivity, and
fostering a culture of innovation within public
administration to meet the evolving expectations of
citizens and businesses alike.
ACTORS WITHIN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
FORMAL AND INFORMAL GROUPS
Actors within public administration
• It is normally related to public policy process and various
actors seek to influence policy process.
• Policy is what government says and does about perceived
problems. Policy making is how the government decides
what to do about perceived problems. Policymaking is an
interaction process between state and non-state actors
and Politics is the result of this interaction.
• The process is complex, with multiple actors involved in
one or more aspects of policymaking. There are two broad
categories of actors: formal and informal actors.
POLICY MAKING PROCESS
EXECUTIVE
DEPARTMENTS
NATIONAL
LEVEL
FORMAL JUDICIAL
BRANCH
INSTITUTIONS ACTORS
LEGISLATIVE
BODIES
non-
governmental
organizations
political
citizens
parties
INFORMAL interest
mass media
ACTORS groups
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
A new style of political participation. (Increasing better-educated
publics that placed demands on government to address changing
problems e.g. sustainability, emerging problems).
Citizen organizations and associated social movements that arise
are much more likely to engage in protest politics or elites against
political activities such as demonstrations and boycotts.
Sustainable Development, Immigration Reform, and No Child Left
Behind Education Reform – These have spawned a variety of new
advocacy groups, many of which involve citizens in the political
process.
New trend of participation
1. Digital Activism and Online Platforms
• Social Media as a Tool
Social media platforms like Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok have become
powerful tools for organizing, spreading awareness, and mobilizing
supporters. Hashtags, live-streaming, and viral posts help movements
reach global audiences quickly.
• Decentralized Organization
Online tools enable leaderless movements, where individuals contribute
to a common cause without a central authority. Examples include
movements like #MeToo and Black Lives Matter, which gained traction
through decentralized participation.
• Crowdsourcing and Petitions
Platforms like Change.org or GoFundMe allow movements to quickly raise
funds or gather signatures, adding momentum to causes that might lack
institutional support.
2. Intersectionality and Inclusive Agendas
• Broadening Issues
Modern movements often adopt an intersectional
approach, recognizing the overlapping issues of race,
gender, class, and other identities. This makes them
more inclusive and appealing to a diverse base.
• Cross-Movement Solidarity
Social movements are more likely now to form
alliances with other movements. For instance, climate
activists may align with racial justice groups, seeing
connections between environmental and social justice
issues.
3. Globalization and Transnational Movements
• Global Solidarity
Movements now have a global reach. For example,
protests against police brutality in the United States
spurred similar movements in countries like the UK,
France, and Nigeria (with #EndSARS).
• Learning Across Borders
Movements today often share strategies and tactics
globally, learning from successes and failures
elsewhere. For instance, techniques used in Hong
Kong’s protests inspired activists in Belarus and
Thailand.
4. Data and Privacy Awareness
• Increased Surveillance and Digital Security
Many activists are more aware of the risks of government
surveillance and data tracking. They use encrypted messaging
apps like Signal and adopt digital security practices to protect
their identities.
• Tech-Savvy Activism
Movements are becoming more sophisticated in using data and
analytics to organize and strategize. They may use data to track
police violence, climate impacts, or other key statistics that
support their cause.
Focus on Policy Change Over Awareness
• Policy-Focused Activism
There is a shift toward achieving specific policy changes rather
than just raising awareness. Many movements now engage
directly with legislators, use legal channels, and promote bills
and policy initiatives to create long-lasting change.
• Participatory Politics
Some activists are moving beyond protest to enter politics or
influence political campaigns. This shift is evident in
organizations that endorse candidates, push for reforms, or run
educational campaigns on voting rights.
5. Mental Health and Self-Care in Activism
• Sustainable Activism
Activists today are more vocal about mental health and burnout.
Many movements encourage self-care and collective care
practices, recognizing that sustainable activism requires
emotional resilience and community support.
• Healing Justice
In response to trauma, violence, and systemic oppression, some
movements include elements of healing justice, focusing on
trauma-informed approaches to activism, especially in
marginalized communities.
6. Corporate Accountability and Ethical Consumerism
• Boycotts and "Buycotts"
Modern social movements frequently use boycotts against
companies that don’t align with their values or ethics.
Conversely, "buycotts" encourage supporting companies with
positive social or environmental practices.
• Pressure for Corporate Transparency
Activists increasingly demand transparency from companies,
including fair labor practices, sustainability, and support for
human rights. Movements like #WhoMadeMyClothes hold
companies accountable for supply chain practices.
TYPES (LEVEL) OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION/ IMPACT
(GOVERNMENT)
1. INTEREST GROUP
• Interest groups seek to influence public policy.
• Community-based interest groups and other
grassroots organizations concerned with a variety of
public policy issues are variously labeled as public
interest groups, citizen groups, or social movements.
• May experience considerable difficulty organizing
and mobilizing action.
• e.g. environment, peace, human rights, consumer
rights and women’s movements
2. CITIZENS
Citizen can influence the policy process through various ways of voting, working on
political campaigns for candidates or political parties, which could include convincing
others how to vote, attending rallies or meetings, and fund-raising activities or
communal activities such as working, strikes, demonstrations, boycotts.
Types of Citizens:
1. Duty-based citizen
Duty-based citizenship, sometimes known as "traditional citizenship," emphasizes
responsibilities and obligations to the nation and society. This type of citizenship is
characterized by a sense of duty, loyalty, and adherence to societal rules.
2. Engaged based citizen
Engaged-based citizenship, often referred to as "active" or "participatory" citizenship,
is a more modern and inclusive approach that emphasizes personal involvement and
proactive engagement in community and social issues
Comparing duty-based and engaged-
based Citizens
Aspect Duty-Based Citizens Engaged-Based Citizens
Fulfilling formal civic Direct engagement and
Primary Focus
duties social change
Voting, paying taxes, jury Protests, volunteering,
Participation Type
duty advocacy
View of Institutions Respect and trust Skepticism and critique
Local and global (social
Level of Involvement National (formal roles)
issues)
Justice, equity, and
Motivation Patriotism and stability
change
3. MEDIA
With recent changes, only a small portion of people still report receiving
all or most of their news from television.
Given the growth of digital and electronic media, including social media
and online news platforms, it is clear that the media remain enormously
important, but the way people consume news has shifted significantly
Function:
1. formation of public opinion
2. prioritised public policy issue
3. Communicate public policy-relevant information, policy preferences,
and societal values.
4. POLITICAL PARTIES
Political parties reflect a political culture with distinct world views
that are organized to seek power in government.
Political parties can also facilitate the work of state government if
the same party controls both the legislature and governor’s office.
Develop a linkage between the party’s electorate and the
policymakers… represent the social composition of those who
mandate them and to respond politically to the demands of their
electorate.
Conclusion
• First, for at least the first three-quarters of the twentieth century, the mainstream model of public
administration was that articulated by writers such as Woodrow Wilson, Frederick Taylor, Luther Gallick, and
Herbert Simon.
• Even though many of its advocates orthodox public administration as neutral with respect to values, it was
not. It was a normative paradigm for the conduct of public agencies.
• Among the value choices made in the construction of this paradigm were a particular description of the public
administrator’s role, especially in relation to the political (or policy) process, the choice of efficiency (as
opposed to responsiveness, etc.) as the primary criterion for assessing the work of administrative agencies,
and an emphasis on designing public agencies as largely closed systems, featuring a single “controlling”
executive having substantial authority and operating in a top-down fashion.
• The New Public Service begins with the concept of public service, but the idea of public service is intertwined
with the responsibilities of democratic citizenship. In the words of Benjamin Barber: Public service derives,
therefore, from the civic virtues of duty and responsibility
51
• Public participation has increased the
complexity of policy processes leading to
multiple and competing perspectives on who
has power and influence and how public policy
decisions are made in the country.
CLASS ACTIVITY: TWO JOB SCAM VICTIMS IN MYANMAR
RETURN HOME AFTER SIX-MONTH ORDEAL
SEPANG: Two more job scam victims have returned to Malaysia after six months of
being forced to work as online scammers in Myawaddy, Myanmar.
For 29-year-old Sarawakian man who only wanted to be known as Lau, he said the
hellish experience began at the end of last year.
"I had been working in Singapore for six years and was offered a job through Facebook
for a position at a bank in Thailand.
"They claimed that I could earn upwards of RM15,000 monthly," he told reporters
when met at the Kuala Lumpur International Airport on Tuesday (May 7) night.
He said he was excited when he heard the offer and immediately made arrangements
to go to Thailand.
"At first I flew into Thailand but when I arrived I was told to get on another flight to
Myanmar.
"It was only when I reached Myanmar that I realised what was going on," he said,
adding the syndicate forced him to work as a scammer
Source: https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2024/05/08/two-job-scam-victims-in-
myanmar-return-home-after-six-month-ordeal
THANK YOU !
normalaadnan@iium.edu.my
019-2203265
