 Elementary Algebraic Notions

Classification of Numbers
✓ Rational Number → defined as the quotient of two integers. Thus, 3, -4, .07 and 2 are rational
numbers.
3
✓ Irrational Number → a number that is not rational. Thus, √2 and √5 are irrational numbers.
Note:
The class of all rational and irrational numbers is called real numbers.

Law of Operations
→ The four operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division applied to the set of real
numbers follow certain fundamental laws, which justify certain procedures and results in arithmetic and algebra.
These laws are the following:
I. COMMUTATIVE LAW → states that the addends in addition or the factors in multiplication may be
rearranged without changing the value of the result.
a. Commutative Law for Addition
➢ that is, if a and b are any two numbers, then, 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒃 + 𝒂
e.g., 6 + 4 = 4 + 6
b. Commutative Law for Multiplication
➢ that is, if a and b are any two numbers, then, 𝒂 × 𝒃 = 𝒃 × 𝒂
e.g., 3 × 8 = 8 × 3
Note:
In general, 𝒂 − 𝒃 ≠ 𝒃 − 𝒂 and 𝒂 ÷ 𝒃 ≠ 𝒃 ÷ 𝒂 so that subtraction and division are not commutative.
II. ASSOCIATIVE LAW → states that the addends in addition or the factors in multiplication may be
grouped without changing the value of the result.
a. Associative Law of Addition
➢ that is, if a, b and c are any three numbers, then, 𝒂 + (𝒃 + 𝒄) = (𝒂 + 𝒃) + 𝒄
e.g., 2 + (3 + 4) = 2 + 7 = 9
(2 + 3) + 4 = 5 + 4 = 9
Hence, 2 + (3 + 4) = (2+3) + 4
b. Associative Law of Multiplication
➢ that is, if a, b and c are any three numbers, then, 𝒂 ∙ (𝒃 ∙ 𝒄) = (𝒂 ∙ 𝒃) ∙ 𝒄
e.g., 2 x (3 x 5) = 2 x 15 = 30
(2 x 3) x 5 = 6 x 5 = 30 and
2 x (3 x 5) = (2 x 3) x 5
Note:
It can readily be shown that subtraction and division are not associative.
III. DISTRIBUTIVE LAW OF MULTIPLICATION WITH RESPECT TO ADDITION → states that
in multiplication, the multiplier distributes itself to each term in the multiplicand.
That is, if a, b, and c are any three numbers, then 𝒂 ∙ (𝒃 + 𝒄) = 𝒂𝒃 + 𝒂𝒄 = 𝒂𝒄 + 𝒃𝒄
e.g., 4 (3 + 2) = 4 x 5 = 20
(4 x 3) + (4 x 2) = 12 + 8 =20
Hence, 4 (3 + 2) = (4 x 3) + (4 x 2)
Note:
This law will simply be referred to as the distributive law. It can readily be seen that multiplication is
not distributive with respect to division that is in general, 𝒂 ∙ (𝒃 ÷ 𝒄) ≠ (𝒂𝒃) ÷ (𝒂𝒄)
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Law of Signed Numbers
→ The absolute or numerical value of a number is the value of the number regardless of its
sign. Thus, the absolute value of +5 is 5 and of –3 is 3.
Note:
The symbol for Absolute Value is | |. Thus, |+7| = 7 ; |−4| = 4
Rules:
It is important that the student should be able to apply the folowing rules not only correctly but also
proficiently.
1. To add numbers having like signs, find the sum of their absolute value and prefix their common sign.
2. To add two numbers having unlike signs subtract the smaller value from the greater value and prefix to
the difference the sign of the number having greater absolute value.
3. To subtract one number from another, change the sign of the number to be subtracted and add
the result to the other number (by rules 1 and 2).
4. To multiply two numbers, multiply their absolute values and prefix a (+) sign to the result if the numbers
have like signs, and (–) sign if the numbers have unlike signs.
5. To divide a number by another number (which is not equal to 0), divide the absolute value of the first
by that of the second, and prefix a + sin to the result if the numbers have like signs, and a – sign if the
numbers have unlike signs.

 Exponent
Exponent
→ a number that tells how many times a number is to be multiplied by itself. The number that is to be
multiplied is called the base.
Example
a. In the expression 𝒙𝟐
✓ 2 is called exponent
✓ x is the base
b. In the expression (𝒙 + 𝒚)𝟕
✓ 7 is called the exponent
✓ (x+y) is called the base
c. In the expression 𝒙𝒚𝟐
✓ The exponent of x is 1, x is called the base
✓ In 𝑦 2 , 2 is the exponent, y is called the base
Law of Exponents
→ For any m and n positive integers and x ≠ 0, we have:
1. (𝒂𝒎 )𝒏 = 𝒂𝒎𝒏
2. 𝒂𝒎 × 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂𝒎+𝒏
𝒂𝒎
3. = 𝒂𝒎−𝒏
𝒂𝒏
𝟏
4. 𝒂𝒏 = 𝒏√𝒂
𝟏
5. 𝒂−𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏
6. (𝒂 × 𝒃)𝒎 = 𝒂𝒎 × 𝒃𝒎

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Note:
• Any number or expression except zero with a zero exponent has a numerical value of 1.
• Any number or expression with a negative exponent is equal to the reciprocal of that number
with a corresponding positive exponent.

 Radicals
Radical
→ is an expression of the form 𝑛√𝑎 which denotes the principal nth root of a. The positive integer n is
the index, or order, of the radical and the number a is the radicand. The index is omitted if n=2
3 4
Thus √5 , √7𝑥 3 − 2𝑦 2 , √𝑥 + 10 are radicals which have respectively indices, 3, 4 and 2 and
radicands 5, 7x3-2y2, and x+10

Law of Radicals
𝟏
1. ( 𝒏√𝒂) = 𝒂𝒏
𝒏
2. √𝒂𝒏 = 𝒂
𝒎 𝟏
3. √ 𝒏√𝒂 = 𝒂𝒎𝒏
𝒏 𝒏
4. 𝒏√𝒂 ∙ √𝒃 = √𝒂𝒃
𝒏
√𝒂 𝒏 𝒂
5. 𝒏 = √𝒃 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑏 ≠ 0
√𝒃
Examples:
2⁄
1. Simplify 8 3

2⁄ 3 3
Solution: 8 3 = √82 = √64 = 4

1⁄ 7⁄
2. Express 5𝑎 2𝑐 2 in radical form

1⁄ 7⁄
Solution: 5𝑎 2𝑐 2 = 5√𝑎 ∙ √𝑐 7 = 5√𝑎𝑐 7
1⁄
3. Simplify 27 3

1⁄ 3
Solution: 27 3 = √27 = 3

Roots of a Number
→ If a = rn then r is the nth root of a.
• Any number a, except zero, has n distinct nth roots which can be real or imaginary.
• If n is even, a has two real roots, one positive and one negative but of equal absolute values.
• If n is odd, a has just one real nth root either positive or negative as to the sign of a.
• If n is even and a is negative, all nth roots of a are imaginary.

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Examples:

6
1. √64 = ±2
2. √9 = ±3
3
3. √729 = 9
3
4. √−729 = −9
4 4 4
5. √−81𝑥 4 = √−1 √81𝑥 4 = 3𝑥𝑖

Removal of perfect powers from the Radicand

→ To remove perfect powers of a, express a as 𝑟 𝑛 and refer to the laws (I), (II), and (III). When the
radicand has a factor, which is a perfect nth power, where n is the index of the radical, this factor may be
removed and its root is written outside of the radical.
Examples:

1. √32 = √16 ∙ 2 = √16√2 = 4√2

2. √144𝑥 = √144√𝑥 = 12√𝑥
3. √242𝑚3 𝑛2 = √242√𝑚3 √𝑛2 = 11√2𝑚√𝑚𝑛 = 11𝑚𝑛√2𝑚
5 5 5 5 5
4. √−𝑥 − 2 = √(−1)(𝑥 + 2) = √−1 √(𝑥 + 2 = − √𝑥 + 2
3 3
5. √16𝑎 3𝑥 4 = √(8𝑎3 𝑥 3 )(2𝑥) = 2𝑎𝑥 √2𝑥

Reduction of Radical into Simplest Form

•
Express any power or root of a radical, or product of radicals as a single radical.
•
Reduce each radicand to a simple fraction in lowest terms, and rationalize all denominators.
•
Remove from each radicand any factor, which is a perfect nth power, where n is the order of
the radical.
• Reduce each radical to the lowest possible order.
• Combine similar terms with a common radical factor.
→ The radical said to be in its simplest form when
• No factor can be removed from the radicand.
• No index can be reduced.
• No radical in a denominator.
• No fractions under a radical sign.
Examples:

1. √12 = √4 ∙ 3 = 2√3, 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑢𝑡 √4 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 2

2. √50 = √25 ∙ 2 = 5√2
3 3
3. √−16 = 3√(−8)(2) = −2 √2
6 6
4. √27𝑥 9 = √33 (𝑥 3 )3 = √3𝑥 3 = 𝑥√3𝑥
6 64𝑥 9 6 (4𝑥 3 )3 4𝑥 3 2𝑥
5. √ =√ =√ 𝑜𝑟 √7𝑥
343𝑦6 (7𝑦 2 )3 7𝑦 2 7𝑦

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Rationalizing the Denominator
→ There are instances where the radicand is a fraction and there is a need to “rationalize” the
denominator or to remove a fractional radicand.
Examples: (Rationalizing)

1 √1 √2 1
1. √2 = ∙ 𝑜𝑟 √2
√2 2 2
1 1 √8 2√ 2 √2
2. = ∙ = =
√ 8 √ 8 √8 8 4
6 √6 √5 √30 1
3. √5 = ∙ = 𝑜𝑟 √30
√5 √5 5 5
2+√3 2+√3 1+√3 2+3√3+3 5+√3
4. = ∙ = =−
1−√3 1−√3 1+√3 1−3 2

Addition and Subtraction of Radicals

→ To add two or more radicals, reduce the radicals to those having the same radicands and indices and
collect terms having a common radical as a factor.
Examples:
1. 2√2 + 3√2 − 8√2 = (2 + 3 − 8)(√2) = −3√2
2. √2 − 7√8 + 6√18 = √2 − 7√4 ∙ 2 + 6√9 ∙ 2 = √2 − (7)(2)(√2) +
(6)(3)(√2)
= √2 − 14√2 + 18√2 = 15√2
1 3
3. √48 + √75 + 9√3 = √16 ∙ 3 + √25 ∙ 3 + 9√9 = 4√3 + 5√3 + 3√3 = 12√3

Multiplication of Radicals
→ To multiply two radicals, multiply the radical as long as the indices are the same. If the two radicals
do not have the same indices, they must first be reduced to radicals having the same indices.
Examples:
1. √3 ∙ √9 = √27 = 3√3
2. √3𝑥 ∙ √5𝑥 = √15𝑥 2 = 𝑥√15
3. √𝑥 ∙ √𝑥 + 1 = √(𝑥)(𝑥 + 1) = √𝑥 2 + 𝑥
4. √𝑥 + 𝑦 ∙ √𝑥 − 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2
1 3 2
3 1⁄ 6 6 6
5. √2𝑥 ∙ √3𝑥 = (2𝑥) 2 ∙ (3𝑥)3 = (2𝑥)6 ∙ (3𝑥)6 = √(2𝑥)3 ∙ √(3𝑥)2 = √8𝑥 3 ∙
6
√9𝑥 2
6
= √72𝑥 5

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Division of Radicals
→ To divide radicals, divide the radicand as long as the indices are the same. If the two radicals do not
have the same indices, they must be first reduced to radicals having the same indices.
Examples:
√8 8
1. = √ = √4 = 2
√2 2
√2+√5 √2+√5 √3 (√2)(√3)+√5)(√3) 1
2. =( ) ( 3) = = 3 (√6 + √15)
√3 √ 3 √ √9
3
√9 3 9 3
3. 3 = √ 3 = √3
√ 3

 Complex Numbers
Imaginary Numbers
𝑛
→ For an even integers n, √𝑥 is only defined for non negative real numbers x. In the equation 𝑎2 = −1
there is no real number thatv when squared is equal to -1.
Let us analyze the following examples:
1. √−9 = √(9)(−1) = 3√−1
2. √−24 = √(4)(6)(−1) = √4√6√−1 = 2√6√−1
In the examples, there is a common factor √−1. This √−1 generates a set of numbers called the set of
imaginary number is any nonzero real number multiple of √−1.
Note:
I is assigned as a symbol such that, 𝒊 = √−𝟏 and 𝒊𝟐 = −𝟏
Hence, in examples 1 and 2, 3√−1 = 𝟑𝒊 and 2√6√−1 = 𝟐𝒊√𝟔
Examples:
1. 𝑖 3 = 𝑖 2 ∙ 𝑖 = −1𝑖 = −𝑖
2. 𝑖 4 = 𝑖 2 ∙ 𝑖 2 = (−1)(−1) = 1
3. √−9 = (√9)(√−1) = 3√−1 = 3𝑖
4. √−16 + √−4 = (√16)(√−1) + (√4)(√−1) = 4𝑖 + 2𝑖 = 6𝑖
5. (5 − 𝑖)(5 + 𝑖) = 25 − 𝑖 2 = 25 − (−1) = 26

Set of Complex Numbers

→ The set of all numbers of the form 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊 where a and b are real numbers and 𝒊𝟐 = −𝟏 is called the
set of complex numbers.
For the complex number where the imaginary part is 0 that is 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊 , the a is called the real part and
the number bi is called the imaginary part. A complex numbers is in standard form if it is written as 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒊.
A real number is a complex number where the imaginary part is 0 that is 𝒂 = 𝒂 + 𝟎𝒊. Thus the set of
real numbers is a subset of the set of complex numbers.
Examples:
4, −12, 4𝑖, 3 + 2𝑖, −5 − 8𝑖, 15√6𝑎, −𝑖

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 Laws of Equality
I. REFLEXIVE PROPERTY → states that a number is always equal to itself. 𝒂 = 𝒂
II. SYMMETRIC PROPERTY → one side of an equation is equal to the other side, then the two sides
are interchangeable. 𝒂 = 𝒃, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒃 = 𝒂
III. TRANSITIVE PROPERTY → 𝒂 = 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃 = 𝒄, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂 = 𝒄. That is, things equal to the same
thing are equal to each other.
IV. ADDITION & SUBTRACTION PROPERTY → If 𝒂 = 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 = 𝒅, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂 ± 𝒄 = 𝒃 ± 𝒅. That
is, if equal are added to equals, the results are equal.
V. MULTIPLICATION PROPERTY → If 𝒂 = 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 = 𝒅, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂𝒄 = 𝒃𝒅. That is, if equals are
multiplied to equals the results are equal.
VI. DIVISION PROPERTY → If 𝒂 = 𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒂⁄𝒄 = 𝒃⁄𝒄

 Inequality
Inequality
→ A state that one quantity is greater than or less than another quantity.

Symbols used in inequality

𝑎 > 𝑏 𝒂 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝒃
𝑎<𝑏 𝒂 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝒃
𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 𝒂 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝒃
𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 𝒂 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝒃

Theorems on Inequality
1. 𝑎 > 𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 − 𝑎 < −𝑏
2. 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 − 𝑎 < 0
3. 𝐼𝑓 − 𝑎 < 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 < 0
4. 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑐 < 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑐 < 𝑏𝑐
5. 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑐 > 𝑑, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 (𝑎 + 𝑐 ) > (𝑏 + 𝑑)
6. 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑐 > 𝑑, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑐 > 𝑏𝑑
7. 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 > 0, 𝑏 > 0, 𝑎 > 𝑏, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 1⁄𝑎 < 1⁄𝑏

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 Logarithm
Definition of Logarithm
→ If 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑁, where N is a positive number and b is a positive number different from 1, then the
exponent x is the logarithm od N to the base b and is written 𝑥 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑁

Properties of Logarithm
• 𝑰𝒇 𝒃𝒙 = 𝒏 , 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝑵
• 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙𝒚 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒚
• 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 (𝒙⁄𝒚) = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒚
• 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒏𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒙
• 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐨 𝐠 𝒙 ⟵ 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒎
• 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒆 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 𝐱 ⟵ 𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒎
where 𝑒 = 2.71828 ⟵ 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆
1 𝑥
𝑒 = lim (1 + 𝑥) ⟵ 𝒆𝒙𝒂𝒄𝒕
𝑥→∞
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒙
• Change – base rule 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒚 𝒙 = 𝒍𝒏 𝒙⁄𝒍𝒏 𝒚 = ⁄𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒚
• 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝒃 = 𝟏
• 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒃 𝟏 = 𝟎

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