EEE 2509 - 2014 4 BREAKDOWN OF GASEOUS INSULATION

4 Breakdown of Gaseous Insulation

4.1 Ionization of Gases
Electrical Insulating Materials (or Dielectrics) are materials in which electrostatic fields
can remain almost indefinitely. These materials thus offer a very high resistance to the
passage of direct currents. However, they cannot withstand an infinitely high voltage.
When the applied voltage across the dielectric exceeds a critical value the insulation will
be damaged. The dielectrics may be gaseous, liquid or solid in form.
Gaseous dielectrics in practice are not free of electrically charged particles, including
free electrons. The electrons, which may be caused by irradiation or field emission, can
lead to a breakdown process to be initiated. These free electrons, however produced, on
the application of an electric field are accelerated from the cathode to the anode by the
electric stress applying a force on them. They acquire a kinetic energy ( 12 mu2 ) as they
move through the field. The energy is usually expressed as a voltage (in electron-volt,
eV , where e is the charge on an electron) as the energies involved are extremely small.
[1eV = 1.6 × 10−19 J].
These free electrons, moving towards the anode collide with the gas molecules present
between the electrodes. In these collisions, part of the kinetic energy of the electrons is lost
and part is transmitted to the neutral molecule. If this molecule gains sufficient energy
(more than the energy Ei necessary for ionization to occur), it may ionize by collision.
The (mean) number of ionizing collisions by one electron per unit drift across the gap
is not a constant but subject to statistical fluctuations. The newly liberated electron and
the impinging electron are then accelerated in the field and an electron avalanche is set up.
Further increase in voltage results in additional ionizing processes. Ionization increases
rapidly with voltage once these secondary processes take place, until ultimately breakdown
occurs.
It is worth noting that in uniform fields, the ionization present at voltages below
breakdown is normally too small to affect engineering applications. In non-uniform fields,
however, considerable ionization may be present in the region of high stress, at voltages
well below breakdown, constituting the well known corona discharge.

4.1.1 Ionization processes in gas discharges

The electrical breakdown of a gas is brought about by various processes of ionization.
These are gas processes involving the collision of electrons, ions and photons with gas
molecules, and electrode processes which take place at or near the electrode surface [Elec-
trons can be emitted from the cathode if the stress is around 100 - 1000 kV/cm due to
field emission].
Ionization is the process by which an electron is removed from an atom, leaving the
atom with a nett positive charge (positive ion). Since an electron in the outermost orbit
is subject to the least attractive force from the nucleus, it is the easiest removed by any
of the collision processes. The energy required to remove an outer electron completely
from its normal state in the atom to a distance well beyond the nucleus is called the first
ionization potential.
The reciprocal process of an electron falling from a great distance to the lowest unoc-
cupied orbit is also possible. In this case, a photon will be emitted having the same energy
as previously absorbed.

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4.1.2 Relevant gas ionization processes

(i) Ionization by simple collision
When the kinetic energy of an electron ( 21 mu2 ), in collision with a neutral gas
molecule exceeds the ionization energy (Ei = eVi ) of the molecule, then ionization
can occur. (i.e. when 12 mu2 > Ei )
 
− 1
M +e mu → M + + 2e−
2
2

In general, a positive ion and 2 slow moving electrons will result. The probability
of this process is zero for electron energies equal to the ionization energy Ei , but
increases almost linearly at first, and then gradually with electron energy up to a
maximum.
When the gas molecules are bombarded with electrons, other electrons bound to
atoms may be freed by the collision with the high energy electron. The ratio of
the electrons given by collision to the primary electrons depend, mainly on the
energy of the primaries. This is maximum at primary electron energies of about
200 − 500eV . For lower energy values, the energy transferred may not be sufficient
to cause electrons to escape from the surface of the molecules, and thus the proba-
bility of ionization is small. For much higher values of primary energies, the energy
of the impinging electron would be sufficient for this electron to penetrate the sur-
face deeper into the molecule, so that again the chance of escape of other electrons
decreases.
Thus the variation of the ionization probability in air with increase of electron energy
is as shown in figure 50.

Figure 50: Ionization probability curve in air

(ii) Excitation
In the case of simple collision, the neutral gas molecule does not always gets ionized
on electron impact. In such cases, the molecule will be left in an excited state M ∗ ,
with energy Ee .  
− 1
M +e mu → M ∗ + e−
2
2

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EEE 2509 - 2014 4 BREAKDOWN OF GASEOUS INSULATION

This excited molecule can subsequently give out a photon of frequency v with energy
emitted hv. The energy is given out when the electron jumps from one orbit to the
next.
M ∗ → M + hv
where h = Planck0 s constant = 6.624 × 10−34 Js
(iii) Ionization by Double electron impact
If a gas molecule is already raised to an excited state (with energy Ee ) by a previous
collision, then ionization of this excited molecule can occur by a collision with a
relatively slow electron. This electron would need less energy than the ionization
energy, but the energy must exceed the additional energy required to attain the
ionization energy. (i.e. when 12 mu2 > Ei − Ee )
 
∗ − 1
M +e mu → M + + 2e−
2
2

(iv) Photo-ionization
A molecule in the ground state can be ionized by a photon of frequency v provided
that the quantum of energy emitted hv (by an electron jumping from one orbit to
another), is greater than the ionization energy of the molecule. (i.e. hv > Ei ), where
h = Planck0 s constant = 6.624 × 10−34 Js
M + hv → M + + e−

(v) Electron Attachment

If a gas molecule has unoccupied energy levels in its outermost group, then a colliding
electron may take up one of these levels, converting the molecule into a negative ion
M −.
M + e− → M −
The negative ion thus formed would be in an excited state, caused by the excess
energy.
Note: Electron attachment decreases the number of free electrons, unlike ionization
which increases the free electrons.
(vi) Electron detachment
This occurs when a negative ion gives up its extra electron, and becomes a neutral
molecule.
M − → M + e−
(vi) Other Processes
The above processes are the most important in relation to the gas discharge phenom-
ena. Other possible gas processes include ion-atom collisions, excited atom-molecule
collisions, and atom-atom collisions. It should be noted that collisions between ions
and atoms rarely result in ionization, due to the relatively slow interaction time,
which allows the internal motion of the atomic system to adjust itself gradually to
the changing condition without any energy transition occurring.
In order to cause ionization of a neutral unexcited atom of its own kind, a positive ion
must possess energy of at least 2eV . Normally ions and atoms having such energies
are encountered only in high current arcs and thermonuclear discharges.

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4.2 Breakdown Mechanisms in gases

Two mechanisms of breakdown in gases are known. These are the avalanche and streamer
mechanisms.

4.2.1 Electron Avalanche Mechanism (Townsend Breakdown Process)

One of the processes which are considered in breakdown is the Townsend breakdown mech-
anism. It is based on the generation of successive secondary avalanches to produce break-
down.
Suppose a free electron exists (caused by some external effect such as radio-activity or
cosmic radiation) in a gas where an electric field exists. If the field strength is sufficiently
high, then it is likely to ionize a gas molecule by simple collision resulting in 2 free electrons
and a positive ion. These 2 electrons will be able to cause further ionization by collision
leading in general to 4 electrons and 3 positive ions. The process is cumulative, and the
number of free electrons will go on increasing as they continue to move under the action of
the electric field. The swarm of electrons and positive ions produced in this way is called
an electron avalanche. In the space of a few millimeters, it may grow until it contains
many millions of electrons. This is shown in Figure 51.

Figure 51: Ionization probability curve in air

Mathematical Analysis
When the voltage applied across a pair of electrodes is increased, the current throughout
the gap increases slowly, as the electrons emitted from the cathode move through the
gas with an average velocity determined by their mobility for the field strength existing
for the particular value of voltage. Impact ionization by electrons is probably the most
important process in the breakdown of gases, but this process alone is not sufficient to
produce breakdown.
Let n0 = number of electrons/second emitted from the cathode,
nx = number of electrons/second moving at a distance x from the cathode
[nx > n0 due to ionizing collisions in gap]
α = number of ionizing collisions, on average, made by one electron per unit drift
in the direction of the field. [Townsend’s first ionization coefficient]
then 1/α = average distance traversed in the field direction between ionizing collisions.
Consider a laminar of thickness dx at a distance x from the cathode. The nx electrons
entering the laminar will traverse it in the presence of the applied field E. The ionizing
collisions generated in the gas gap will be proportional to both dx and to nx .
Thus
dnx ∝ nx

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dnx ∝ dx
Therefore dnx = α · nx · dx (from definition of α)
Rearranging and integrating gives
Z nx Z x
dnx
=α dx
n0 nx 0

ln (nx /n0 ) = αx
nx = n0 eαx
If the anode is at a distance x = d from the cathode, then the number of electrons nd
striking the anode per second is given by nd = n0 eαd
Therefore, on the average, each electron leaving the cathode produces (nd − n0 )/n0
new electrons (and corresponding positive ions) in the gap.
In the steady state, the number of positive ions arriving at the cathode/second must
be exactly equal to the number of newly formed electrons arriving at the anode. Thus the
circuit current will be given by
I = I0 eαd
where I0 is the initial photo-electric current at the cathode.
In the actual breakdown process, the electron impact ionization is attended by sec-
ondary processes on the cathode, which replenish the gas gap with free electrons, with
every newly formed avalanche surpassing the preceding one in the number of electrons.
Consider now the current growth equations with the secondary mechanism also present.
Let γ = number of secondary electrons (on average) produced at the cathode per
ionizing collision in the gap. [Townsend’s second ionization coefficient]
n0 = number of primary photo-electrons/second emitted from the cathode
n00 = number of secondary electrons/second produced at the cathode
n000 = total number of electrons/second leaving the cathode
Then n000 = n0 + n00
On the average, each electron leaving the cathode produces (eαd − 1) collisions in the
gap, giving the number of ionizing collisions/second in the gap as n000 (eαd − 1). Thus by
definition
n0
γ = 00 αdo
no (e − 1)
giving
n0o = γn00o (eαd − 1)
but n000 = n0 + n00
so that
n00o = n0 + n00o (eαd − 1) · γ
This gives the result
n0
n00o =
1 − γ(eαd − 1)
Similar to the case of the primary process (with α only), we have
n0 eαd
nd = n00o eαd =
1 − γ(eαd − 1)
Thus, in steady state, the circuit current I will be given by
I0 eαd
I=
1 − γ(eαd − 1)

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This equation describes the growth of average current in the gap before spark break-
down occurs. As the applied voltage increases, eαd and γeαd increase until γeαd → 1, when
the denominator of the circuit current expression becomes zero and the current I → ∞.
In this case, the current will, in practice, be limited only by the resistance of the power
supply and the conducting gas.
This condition may thus be defined as the breakdown and can be written as

γ(eαd − 1) = 1

This condition is known as the Townsend criteria for spark breakdown.

The avalanche breakdown develops over relatively long periods of time, typically over
1µs and does not generally occur with impulse voltages.

Determination of Townsend’s Coefficients α and γ

Townsend’s coefficients are determined in an ionization chamber which is first evacuated
to a very high vacuum of the order of 10−4 and 10−6 mmHg before filling with the desired
gas at a pressure of a few mmHg. The applied direct voltage is about 2 to 10 kV, and
the electrode system consists of a plane high voltage electrode and a low voltage electrode
surrounded by a guard electrode to maintain a uniform field. The low voltage electrode
is earthed through an electrometer amplifier capable of measuring currents in the range
0.01 pA to 10 nA. The cathode is irradiated using an ultra-violet lamp from the outside
to produce the initiation electron. The voltage current characteristics are then obtained
for different gap settings. At low voltage the current growth is not steady. Afterwards the
steady Townsend process develops as shown in figure 52.

Figure 52: Ionization probability curve in air

From the Townsend mechanism, the discharge current is given by

I0 eαd
I= ≈ I0 eαd when αd  1
1 − γ(eαd − 1)

This can be written in logarithmic form as

ln I = αd + ln I0 (5)

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Figure 53: Ionization probability curve in air

From a graph of ln I vs d, the constants α and I0 can be determined from the gradient
and the intercept respectively, as in figure 53.
Once I0 and α are known, γ can be determined from points on the upward region of
the curve. The experiment can be repeated at different pressures if required.

4.2.2 Streamer Mechanism

This type of breakdown mainly arises due to the added effect of the space-charge field
of an avalanche and photo-electric ionization in the gas volume. While the Townsend
mechanism predicts a very diffused form of discharge, in actual practice many discharges
are found to be filamentary and irregular. The Streamer theory predicts the development
of a spark discharge directly from a single avalanche. The space charge produced in the
avalanche causes sufficient distortion of the electric field that those free electrons move
towards the avalanche head, and in so doing generate further avalanches in a process that
rapidly becomes cumulative.
As the electrons advance rapidly, the positive ions are left behind in a relatively slow-
moving tail.The field will be enhanced in front of the head. Just behind the head the field
between the electrons and the positive ions is in the opposite direction to the applied field
and hence the resultant field strength is less. Again between the tail and the cathode the
field is enhanced. (Figure 54)

Figure 54: Streamer Mechanism

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Due to the enhanced field between the head and the anode, the space charge increases,
causing a further enhancement of the field around the anode. The process is very fast and
the positive space charge extends to the cathode very rapidly resulting in the formation
of a streamer.

4.3 Factors affecting the breakdown voltage of a vacuum gap

A vacuum is ideally the best insulator, with breakdown strengths of the order of 104 kV /cm.
The breakdown voltage of a high vacuum is the voltage which when increased by a small
amount will cause the breakdown of the gap that was held at that voltage for an infinite
time. However, this definition is not always practicable as the breakdown is affected by
many factors.

(i) Electrode Separation

For vacuum gaps less than about 1 mm, the breakdown voltage is approximately
proportional to the length, all other parameters remaining constant. This gives a
constant breakdown strength. For these small gaps, the breakdown stress is relatively
high, being of the order of 1 MV/cm. Field emission of electrons probably plays an
important part in the breakdown process.

V = k · d for d < 1 mm

For gaps greater than about 1 mm, the breakdown voltage does not increase at an
equal rate and the apparent breakdown stress for longer gaps is much reduced, being
about 10 kV/cm at a spacing of 10 cm.
(ii) Electrode Effects (Conditioning)
The breakdown voltage of a gap increases on successive flashovers, until a constant
value is reached. The electrodes are then said to be conditioned. This increase
in voltage is ascribed to the burning off by sparking of microscopic irregularities
or impurities which may exist on the electrodes. When investigating the effect of
various factors on breakdown, the electrodes must first be conditioned in such a way
that reproducible results are obtained.

Figure 55: Breakdown characteristics

The effect of conditioning is shown in figure 55. The breakdown voltage of con-
ditioned electrodes or gaps is very much reproducible than otherwise, and hence

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breakdown values that are normally obtained experimentally are those of condi-
tioned electrodes. Unconditioned electrodes may have breakdown values a low as
50% of the breakdown voltage with conditioned electrodes.

(iii) Material and Surface Finish

The electrode surfaces form the physical boundaries between which the breakdown
finally takes place. Thus it is not surprising to find that the breakdown strength of a
given size of gap is strongly dependent on the material of the electrodes. In general,
the smoother the surface finish, the greater the breakdown voltage.

(iv) Surface contamination

The presence of contamination in the test cell reduces the breakdown voltage some-
times by as much as 50% of the clean electrode value.

(v) Area and configuration of electrodes

Increasing the area of the electrodes makes it more difficult to maintain a given
breakdown voltage. Thus breakdown voltage decreases slightly with increase in
surface area. For example, electrodes of 20cm2 area gives the breakdown voltage
across a 1 mm gap of 40 kV, whereas electrodes of the same material of area 1000cm2
gives a breakdown voltage across the same 1 mm gap as 25 kV.
Up to 1 mm gap, the more convex electrodes have higher breakdown voltage than
the more nearly plane electrodes even though at the same voltage they carried a
higher electric field at the surface.

(vi) Temperature
The variation of the breakdown voltage with temperature is very small, and for
nickel and iron electrodes, the strength remains unchanged for temperatures as high
as 5000 C. Cooling the electrodes to liquid Nitrogen temperature increases the break-
down voltage.

(vii) Frequency of applied voltage

It is known that a given gap stands a higher impulse voltage than an alternating
voltage, and a higher alternating voltage than a direct voltage. However, it has been
shown that for a small gap (2 mm) there is no dependence of the breakdown voltage
on the frequency in the range 50 Hz to 50 kHz.

(viii) Vacuum Pressure

For small gaps, increasing the degree of vacuum increases the breakdown voltage
until below a certain pressure there is no change. The vacuum breakdown region
is the region in which the breakdown voltage becomes independent of the nature
of the pressure of the gap between the electrodes. However, for large gaps (about
200 mm spacing) it is found that below a certain pressure the breakdown voltage
starts decreasing again, so that the breakdown stress at this stage could in fact be
improved by actually worsening the vacuum.

4.4 Corona Discharges

In a uniform electric field, a gradual increase in voltage across a gap produces a breakdown
of the gap in the form of a spark without any preliminary discharges. On the other hand,

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if the field is non-uniform, an increase in voltage will first cause a localized discharge in the
gas to appear at points with the highest electric field intensity, namely at sharp points or
where the electrodes are curved or on transmission line conductors. This form of discharge
is called a corona discharge and can be observed as a bluish luminance. This phenomena is
always accompanied by a hissing noise, and the air surrounding the corona region becomes
converted to ozone. Corona is responsible for considerable power loss in transmission lines
and also gives rise to radio interference.

4.4.1 Mechanism of Corona formation on a 2 conductor line

When a gradually increasing voltage is applied across two conductors, initially nothing
will be seen or heard. As the voltage is increased, the air surrounding the conductors
get ionized, and at a certain voltage a hissing noise is heard caused by the formation of
corona. This voltage is known as the disruptive critical voltage (dcv). A further increase
in the voltage would cause a visible violet glow around the conductors. This voltage is the
visual corona inception voltage.
If the applied voltage is direct, the glow observed will be uniform on the positive
conductor, while the negative conductor will be more patchy and often accompanied by
streamers at rough points. In the case of alternating voltages, both conductors appear to
have a uniform glow, but when observed stroboscopically the effect is seen to be similar
to the direct voltage case.
If the voltage is further increased, the corona increases and finally spark over would
occur between the two conductors. If the conductors are placed quite close together,
corona formation may not occur before the spark over occurs. The formation of corona
causes the current waveform in the line, and hence the voltage drop to be non-sinusoidal.
It also causes a loss of power.
There is always some electrons present in the atmosphere due to cosmic radiation etc.
When the line voltage is increased, the velocity of the electrons in the vicinity of the line
increases, and the electrons acquire sufficient velocity to cause ionization.
To prevent the formation of corona, the working voltage under fair weather conditions
should be kept at least 10% less than the disruptive critical voltage.
Corona formation may be reduced by increasing the effective radius. Thus steel cored
aluminium has the advantage over hard drawn copper conductors on account of the larger
diameter, other conditions remaining the same. The effective conductor diameter can also
be increased by the use of bundle conductors.
Corona acts as a safety valve for lightning surges, by causing a short circuit. The
advantage of corona in this instance is that it reduces transients by reducing the effective
magnitude of the surge by partially dissipating its energy due to corona.
The effect of corona on radio reception is a matter of some importance. The current
flowing into a corona discharge contains high-frequency components. These cause inter-
ference in the immediate vicinity of the line. As the voltage is gradually increased, the
disturbing field makes its appearance long before corona loss becomes appreciable. The
field has its maximum value under the line and attenuates rapidly with distance. The
interference fails to about a tenth at 50 m from the axis of the line.

Mechanism of corona formation

The stress surrounding the conductor is a maximum at the conductor surface itself, and
decreases rapidly as the distance from the conductor increases. Thus when the stress
has been raised to critical value immediately surrounding the conductor, ionization would

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commence only in this region and the air in this region would become conducting. The
effect is to increase the effective conductor diameter while the voltage remains constant.
This results in two effects. Firstly, an increase in the effective sharpness of the conductor
would reduce the stress outside this region, and secondly, this would cause a reduction of
the effective spacing between the conductors leading to an increase in stress. Depending
on which effect is stronger, the stress at increasing distance can either increase or decrease.
If the stress is made to increase, further ionization would occur and flashover is inevitable.
Under ordinary conditions, the breakdown strength of air can be taken as 30 kV/cm.
Corona will of course be affected by the physical state of the atmosphere. In stormy
weather, the number of ions present is generally much more than normal, and corona will
then be formed at a much lower voltage than in fair weather. This reduced voltage is
generally about 80% of the fair weather voltage.
The condition for stable corona can be analyzed as follows.

Figure 56: Electric stress in two conductor system

The electric stress ξ at a distance x from a conductor of radius r, and separated from
the return conductor by a distance d is given by
1 q
ξ= ·
0 2πxl
where q is the charge on each conductor of length l. R
Thus the potential V can be determined from V = ξdx
Z d−r
q
V = dx
r 2πx0

Since both charges (+q and −q) produce equal potential differences, the total potential
difference between the two conductors is double this value. Thus the conductor to neutral
voltage, which is half the difference would be equal to this value. Thus the conductor to
neutral voltage is  
q d−r
V = ln
2π0 r
Therefore the electric stress at distance x is given by
V
ξx = d−r


x ln r

V
ξx =
if r  d
x ln dr
[Note; ξx and V can both be peak values or both rms values]

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For three phase lines, with equilateral spacing, it can be shown that the stress is still
given by the same expression when V is the voltage to neutral and d is the equilateral
spacing.
For air, ξmax = 30 kV/cm, so that ξrms = 30/2 = 21.2 kV/cm.
Since there is no electric stress within the conductor, the maximum stress will occur
when x is a minimum, that is at x = r. Thus if E0,rms is the rms value of the disruptive
critical voltage to neutral,
E0,rms
ξrms =
r ln dr

When the surface of the conductor is irregular, it is more liable to corona. Thus an
irregularity factor m0 is introduced to account for this reduction. Typical values of this
factor are
m0 = 1.0 for smooth polished conductors,
m0 = 0.98 to 0.93 for roughened conductors,
m0 ≈ 0.90 for cables of more than 7 strands, and
m0 = 0.87 to 0.83 for 7 strand cables.
Since the corona formation is affected by the mean free path, and hence by the air
density, a correction factor δ is introduced. This air density correction factor is given
by the usual expression, with P being the pressure expressed in mmHg and T being the
temperature expressed in 0 C.
P 273 + 20 0.386P
δ= · =
760 273 + T 273 + T
The disruptive critical voltage can then be written as in the following equation.

E0,rms = 21.2δm0 r ln(d/r) kV to neutral

Visual Corona
Visual corona occurs at a higher voltage than the disruptive critical voltage. For the
formation of visual corona, a certain amount of ionization, and the raising of an electron
to an excited state are necessary. The production of light by discharge is not due to
ionization, but due to excitation, and subsequent giving out of excess energy in the form
of light and other electromagnetic waves. To obtain the critical voltage for visual corona
formation, the disruptive critical voltage has to be multiplied by a factor dependent on
the air density and the conductor radius. Further the value of the irregularity factor is
found to be different.
The empirical formula for the formation of visual corona is
 
0.3 d
Ev,rms = 21.2δmv r 1 + √ · ln( )
δr r

The values of the irregularity factor mv for visual corona is given by:
mv = 1.0 for smooth conductors,
mv = 0.72 for local corona on stranded wires (patches)
mv = 0.82 for decided corona on stranded wires (all over the wire)

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Power Loss due to Corona

The formation of corona is associated with a loss of power. This loss will have a small effect
on the efficiency of the line, but will not be of sufficient importance to have any appreciable
effect on the voltage regulation. The more important effect is the radio interference.
The power loss due to corona is proportional to the square of the difference between
the line-to-neutral voltage of the line and the disruptive critical voltage of the line. It is
given by the empirical formula
r
243 r
Pc = (f + 25) (E − E0,rms )2 × 10−5 kW/km/phase
δ d

where E0,rms = disruptive critical voltage (kV)

f = frequency of supply (Hz)
E = Phase Voltage (line to neutral) (kV)
For storm weather conditions, the disruptive critical voltage is to be taken as 80% of
disruptive critical voltage under fair weather conditions.

Example
Determine the disruptive critical voltage, the visual corona inception voltage, and the
power loss in the line due to corona, both under fair weather conditions as well as stormy
weather conditions for a 100 km long 3-phase, 132 kV line consisting of conductors of
diameter 1.04 cm, arranged in an equilateral triangle configuration with 3 m spacing. The
temperature of the surroundings is 400 C and the pressure is 750 mm/Hg. The operating
frequency is 50 Hz. [The irregularity factors may be taken as mo = 0.85, mv = 0.72]

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5 Breakdown of Liquid and Solid Insulation

5.1 Breakdown in Liquids
In highly purified liquid dielectrics, breakdown is controlled by phenomena similar to those
for gases and the electric strength is high (of the order of 1 MV/cm).
Unfortunately, liquids are easily contaminated, and may contain solids, other liquids
in suspension and dissolved gases. The effect of these impurities is relatively small for
short duration pulses (10 µs). However, if the voltage is applied continuously, the solid
impurities line up at right angles to equipotentials, and distort the field so that breakdown
occurs at relatively low voltage. The line up of particles is a fairly slow process, and is
unlikely to affect the strength on voltages lasting for less than 1 ms.
Under the action of the electric field, dissolved gases may come out of solution, forming
a bubble. The gas in the bubble has a lower strength than the liquid, so that more
gas is produced and the bubble grows, ultimately causing breakdown. Because, of the
tendency to become contaminated, liquids are not usually used alone above 100 kV/cm in
continuously energized equipment, however, they are used at much higher tresses (up to
1 MV/cm) in conjunction with solids, which can be made to act as barriers, preventing
the line-up of solid impurities and localizing of any bubbles which may form. The main
function of the liquid in such arrangements is to fill up the voids.

5.1.1 Breakdown of Commercial liquids

When a difference of potential is applied to a pair of electrodes immersed in an insulating
liquid, a small conduction current is first observed. If the voltage is raised continuously, at
a critical voltage a spark passes between the electrodes. The passage of a spark through
a liquid involves the following.
(a) flow of a relatively large quantity of electricity, determined by the characteristics of
the circuit,

(b) a bright luminous path from electrode to electrode,

(c) the evolution of bubbles of gas and the formation of solid products of decomposition
(if the liquid is of requisite chemical nature)

(d) formation of small pits on the electrodes,

(e) an impulsive pressure through the liquid with an accompanying explosive sound.
Tests on highly purified transformer oil show that
(a) breakdown strength has a small but definite dependence on electrode material,

(b) breakdown strength decreases with increase in electrode spacing,

(c) breakdown strength is independent of hydrostatic pressure for degassed oil, but in-
creases with pressure if oil contains gases like nitrogen or oxygen in solution.
In the case of commercial insulating liquids, which may not be subjected to very
elaborate purifying treatment, the breakdown strength will depend more upon the nature
of impurities it contains than upon the nature of the liquid itself.
These impurities which lead to the breakdown of commercial liquids below their in-
trinsic strength, can be divided into the following 3 categories.

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(a) Impurities which have a breakdown strength lower than that of the liquid itself (ex:
bubbles of gas). Breakdown of the impurities may trigger off the total breakdown of
the liquid.

(b) Impurities which are unstable in the electric field (ex: globules of water). Instability
of the impurity can result in a low resistance bridge across the electrodes and in
total breakdown.

(c) Impurities which result in local enhancement of electric field in a liquid (ex: conduct-
ing particles). The enhanced field may cause local breakdown and therefore initiate
complete breakdown.

These will be considered in turn in the following sections.

5.1.2 Breakdown due to gaseous inclusions

Gas or vapour bubbles may exist in impure liquid dielectrics, either formed from dissolved
gases, temperature and pressure variations, or other causes. The electric field Eb in a gas
bubble which is immersed in a liquid of permitivity 1 is given by
31
Eb = E0
21 + 1
where E0 is the field in the liquid in the absence of the bubble.
The electrostatic forces on the bubble cause it to get elongated in the direction of the
electric field. The elongation continues, when sufficient electric field is applied, and at a
critical length the gas inside the bubble (which has a lower breakdown strength) breaks
down. This discharge causes decomposition of the liquid molecules and leads to total
breakdown.

5.1.3 Breakdown due to liquid globules

If an insulating liquid contains in suspension a globule of another liquid, then breakdown
can result from instability of the globule in the electric field.
Consider a spherical globule of liquid of permitivity 2 immersed in a liquid dielectric
of permitivity 1 . When it is subjected to an electric field between parallel electrodes, the
field inside the globule would be given by
31
E= E0
21 + 2
where E0 is the field in the liquid in the absence of the globule.
The electrostatic forces cause the globule to elongate and take the shape of a prolate
spheroid (i.e. an elongated spheroid). As the field is increased, the globule elongates so
that the ratio γ of the longer to the shorter diameter of the spheroid increases. For the
same field E, the ratio γ is a function of 2 /1 .
When 2  1 (generally when 2 /1 > 20), and the field exceeds a critical value, no
stable shape exists, and the globule keeps on elongating eventually causing bridging of the
electrodes, and breakdown of the gap. When 2 /1  20, the critical field at which the
globule becomes unstable no longer depends on the ratio, and is given by Ecrit .
 1/2
σ
Ecrit = 1.542 kV/m
R1

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Figure 57: Variation of ratio of diameters of spheroid

where σ = surface tension of the globule (N/m)

1 = relative permitivity of the insulating liquid
R = initial radius of globule (m).
Example
For a droplet of water (R = 1µm , 2 = 90) in an insulating oil (1 = 2); 2  1 . Also
σ = 0.043N/m. Thus
 1/2
0.043
Ecrit = 1.542 = 0.226 MV/cm
10−6 × 2

Thus we see that a droplet of water even as small as 1µm in radius (quite unobservable) can
greatly reduce the breakdown strength of the liquid dielectric. In fact, a globule of water
of radius of only 0.05µm, which is quite unobservable, will be disrupted at a value of about
1 MV/cm which is the breakdown strength of the pure liquid. Thus even submicroscopic
sources of water, such as condensed breakdown products, or hygroscopic solid impurities,
may greatly influence breakdown conditions. A globule which is unstable at an applied
value of field elongates rapidly, and then electrode gap breakdown channels develop at the
end of the globule. Propagation of the channels result in total breakdown.

5.1.4 Breakdown due to solid particles

In commercial liquids, solid impurities cannot be avoided and will be present as fibers
or as dispersed solid particles. If the impurity is considered to be a spherical particle of
permitivity 2 and is present in a liquid dielectric of permitivity 1 , it will experience a
force Generally 2 > 1 , so that the force would move the particle towards the regions of
stronger field. Particles will continue to move in this way and will line up in the direction
of the field. A stable chain of particles would be produced, which at a critical length may
cause breakdown.
Because of the tendency to become contaminated, liquids are seldom used alone above
100 kV/cm in continuously energized equipment. However they may be used up to 1
MV/cm in conjunction with solids which can be made to act as barriers, preventing the
line-up of solid impurities and localizing bubbles which may form.

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5.1.5 Purification of a liquid for testing

(a) Removal of dust
Small dust particles can become charged and cause local stresses which can initiate
breakdown. They can also coalesce to form conducting bridges between electrodes.
Careful filtration can remove dust particles greater in size than 1µm. The strength
of the liquid then increases and greater stability is achieved.

(b) Removal of dissolved gases

Liquid insulation will normally contain dissolved gas in small but significant amounts.
Some gases such as Nitrogen and Hydrogen do not appear to upset the electrical
properties to a great extent, but oxygen and carbon dioxide can cause the strength
to change significantly. Thus it necessary to control the amount of gases present.
This is done by distillation and degassing.

(c) Removal of ionic impurities

Ionic impurities in the liquid (particularly residual water which easily dissociates)
leads to abnormal conductivity and heating of the liquid. Water can be removed by
drying agents, vacuum drying, and by freezing out in low temperature distillation.

For measurements on liquid dielectrics, where test cells are small, electrode preparation is
much more critical than it is for measurements on gases or solids. Not only is the surface
smoothness important, but surface films, particularly oxides can have a marked influence
on the strength.

5.2 Breakdown of Solid Insulating Materials

In solid dielectrics, highly purified and free of imperfections, the breakdown strength is
high, of the order of 10 MV/cm. The highest breakdown strength obtained under carefully
controlled conditions is known as the ”intrinsic strength” of the dielectric. Dielectrics
usually fail at stresses well below the intrinsic strength due usually to one of the following
causes.

(a) electro-mechanical breakdown

(b) breakdown due to internal discharges

(c) surface breakdown (tracking and erosion)

(d) thermal breakdown

(e) electro-chemical breakdown

(f) chemical deterioration

These will now be considered in the following sections.

5.2.1 Electro-mechanical breakdown

When an electric field is applied to a dielectric between two electrodes, a mechanical force
will be exerted on the dielectric due to the force of attraction between the surface charges.
This compression decreases the dielectric thickness thus increasing the effective stress.
This is shown in figure 58.

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(a) In the absence of field (b) With applied field

Figure 58: Electro-mechanical breakdown

2
The compressive force Pc = 12 DE = 12 0 r Vd2 , and From Hooke’s Law for large strains,
Pc = Y ln dd0

At equilibrium, equating forces gives the equation,

2Y 2 d0
V2 = d ln
0 r d
By differentiating with respect to d, it is seen that the system becomes unstable when
ln(do/d) > 0.5 or d < 0.6do .
Thus when the field is increased, the thickness of the material decreases. At the field
when d < 0.6do , any further increase in the field would cause the mechanical collapse of
the dielectric. The apparent stress (V /do ) at which this collapse occurs is thus given by
the equation
 1/2
Y
Ea = 0.6
0 r

5.2.2 Breakdown due to internal discharges

Solid insulating materials sometimes contain voids or cavities in the medium or boundaries
between the dielectric and the electrodes. These voids have a dielectric constant of unity
and a lower dielectric strength. Hence the electric field strength in the voids is higher
than that across the dielectric. Thus even under normal working voltages, the field in the
voids may exceed their breakdown value and breakdown may occur. The mechanism can
be explained by considering the following equivalent circuit of the dielectric with the void,
shown in figure 59.

Figure 59: Equivalent circuit of dielectric with void

When the voltage Vv across the void exceeds the critical voltage Vc , a discharge is
initiated and the voltage collapses. The discharge extinguishes very rapidly (say 0.1µs).

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The voltage across the void again builds up and the discharges recur. The number and
frequency of the discharges will depend on the applied voltage. In each of the discharges,
there will be heat dissipated in the voids which will cause carbonization of the surface
of the voids and erosion of the material. The gradual erosion of the material and conse-
quent reduction in the thickness of the insulating material eventually leads to breakdown.
Breakdown by this process is slow and may occur in a few days or may take a few years.

5.2.3 Surface Breakdown

Surface flashover
Surface flashover is a breakdown of the medium in which the solid is immersed. The role
of the solid dielectric is only to distort the field so that the electric strength of the gas is
exceeded.
If a piece of solid insulation is inserted in a gas so that the solid surface is perpendicular
to the equipotentials at all points, then the voltage gradient is not affected by the solid
insulation. An example of this is a cylindrical insulator placed in the direction of a
uniform field. Field intensification results if solid insulation departs even in detail from
the cylindrical shape. In particular if the edges are chipped, or if the ends of the cylinder
are not quite perpendicular to the axis, then an air gap exists next to the electrode, and
the stress can reach up to r times the mean stress in the gap. (r is the dielectric constant
of the cylinder). Discharge may therefore occur at a voltage approaching 1/r times the
breakdown voltage in the absence of the cylinder, and these discharges can precipitate a
breakdown.
The three essential components of the surface flashover phenomena are

(a) the presence of a conducting film across the surface of the insulation

(b) a mechanism whereby the leakage current through the conducting film is interrupted
with the production of sparks,

(c) degradation of the insulation must be caused by the sparks.

Tracking
Tracking is the formation of a permanent conducting path across a surface of the insulation,
and in most cases the conduction (carbon path) results from degradation of the insulation
itself leading to a bridge between the electrodes. The insulating material must be organic
in nature for tracking to occur.

Erosion
In a surface discharge, if the products of decomposition are volatile and there is no residual
conducting carbon on the surface, the process is simply one of pitting. This is erosion,
which again occurs in organic materials. If surface discharges are likely to occur, it is
preferable to use materials with erosion properties rather than tracking properties, as
tracking makes insulation immediately completely ineffective, whereas erosion only weak-
ens the material but allows operation until replacement can be made later.

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5.2.4 Thermal Breakdown

Heat is generated continuously in electrically stressed insulation by dielectric losses, which
is transferred to the surrounding medium by conduction through the solid dielectric and
by radiation from its outer surfaces. If the heat generated exceeds the heat lost to the
surroundings, the temperature of the insulation increases. The power dissipated in the
dielectric can be calculated as follows.

Uniform direct stress

Power dissipated/volume = ξ 2 /ρ W/m3

where ξ = uniform direct stress V/m
ρ = resistivity of insulation Ωm

Uniform alternating stress

Power dissipated = V I cos φ = V · V Cω · tan δ

where V = applied voltage (V)
ω = supply frequency (rad/s)
C = dielectric capacitance (F)
δ = loss angle (rad)
but, Capacitance C = Ar 0 /d
where r = dielectric constant.
Therefore
P = V 2 (Ar 0 /d)ω tan δ
Re-arranging terms gives the result
P = (V /d)2 r 0 · 2πf tan δAd
Since Ad is the volume of the dielectric (m3 ), and V /d is the uniform applied stress ξ
(V/m),

Power dissipated/volume = ξ 2 r 0 2πf tan δ = 5.563 × 10−11 ξ 2 r f tan δ W/m3

If ξ is in kV/cm,

Power dissipated/volume = 0.556ξ 2 r f tan δ W/m3

The simplest case is where the loss of heat by cooling is linearly related to the tem-
perature rise above surroundings, and the heat generated is independent of temperature.
(i.e. the resistivity and the loss angle do not vary with temperature).

Heat lost = k(θ − θ0 )

where θ = ambient temperature
Equilibrium will be reached at a temperature θ1 where the heat generated is equal to
the heat lost to the surroundings, as shown in figure 60.
In practice, although the heat lost may be considered somewhat linear, the heat gen-
erated increases rapidly with temperature, and at certain values of electric field no stable
state exists where the heat lost is equal to the heat generated so that the material breaks
down thermally. The rapid increase is due to the fact that with rise in temperature, the

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Figure 60: Thermal breakdown

loss angle of the dielectric increases in accordance with an exponential law (loss ∝ e−A/T ,
where T is the absolute temperature).
Figure 61 shows the variation of heat generated by a device for 2 different applied fields
and the heat lost from the device with temperature.

Figure 61: Thermal breakdown

For the field E2 , a stable temperature θA exists (provided the temperature is not allowed
to reach θB ). For the field E1 , the heat generated is always greater than the heat lost so
that the temperature would keep increasing until breakdown occurs.
The maximum voltage a given insulating material can withstand cannot be increased
indefinitely simply by increasing its thickness. Owing to thermal effects, there is an upper
limit of voltage Vθ , beyond which it is not possible to go without thermal instability. This
is because with thick insulation, the internal temperature is little affected by the surface
conditions. Usually, in the practical use of insulating materials, Vθ is a limiting factor only
for high-temperature operation, or at high frequency failures.

5.2.5 Electro-chemical Breakdown

Since no insulant is completely free of ions, a leakage current will flow when an electric
field is applied. The ions may arise from dissociation of impurities or from slight ion-
izations of the insulating material itself. When these ions reach the electrodes, reactions
occur in accordance with Faraday’s law of electrolysis, but on a much smaller scale. The
insulation and the electrode metal may be attacked, gas may be evolved or substance may
be deposited on the electrodes. The products of the electrode reaction may be chemically
or electrically harmful and in some cases can lead to rapid failure of the insulation. The

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reactions are much slower than in normal electrolytic processes due to the much smaller
currents. The products of the reactions may be electrically and chemically harmful be-
cause the insulation and electrodes may be attacked, and because harmful gases may be
evolved.
Typically a 1µF paper capacitor operating at 1 kV at room temperature would re-
quire 2 to 3 years to generate 1cm3 hydrogen. At elevated temperatures, the products
of electrolysis would be formed much more rapidly. Also since impurities give rise to an
increase in the ion concentration, care must be taken to prevent contamination during
manufacture.
The rate of electrolysis is much greater with direct stress than with alternating stress.
This is due to the fact that the reactions may be wholly or partially reversed when the
polarity changes and the extent of reaction depends on the reaction rate and the time
for diffusion of the reaction products away from the electrodes as well as on the nature
of the reaction products. However at power frequency, electrochemical effects can be
serious and are often responsible for long-term failure of insulation. The most frequent
source of ions is ionizable impurities in the insulation. Thus contamination of insulation
during manufacture and during assembly into equipment must be avoided with great care.
Also, contamination in polar insulating materials should be avoided with still greater care
because of the greater degree of dissociation of ionic substance in solution.
The long term lives of capacitors containing chlorinated impregnants under direct stress
may be greatly extended by adding small quantities of certain stabilizers, which are hy-
drogen acceptors and act as depolarizers at the cathode. Hydrogen ions discharged at the
cathode readily react with the stabilizer rather than with the impregnant, a more difficult
chemical process. In the absence of the stabilizer, the hydrogen reacts with the chlorine
of the impregnant to produce hydrochloric acid, and rapid deterioration occurs due to
attack of the acid on the electrodes and cellulose. The extension of the life caused by the
stabilizers is proportional to the amount of stabilizer added. For example, with 2% of the
stabilizer Azobenzene, mean life may be extended 50 times.

5.2.6 Chemical Deterioration

Progressive chemical degradation of insulating materials can occur in the absence of electric
stress from a number of causes.

Chemical Instability
Many insulating materials, especially organic materials, show chemical instability. Such
chemical changes may result from spontaneous breakdown of the structure of the material.
Under normal operating conditions, this process is very slow, but the process is strongly
temperature dependant.

Oxidation
In the presence of air or oxygen, especially ozone, materials such as rubber and polyethy-
lene undergo oxidation giving rise to surface cracks, particularly if stretched and exposed
to light. Polythene also oxidises in strong day light unless protected by an opaque filler.

Hydrolysis
When moisture or water vapour is present on the surface of a solid dielectric, hydrolysis
occurs and the materials lose their electrical and mechanical properties. Electrical prop-

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erties of materials such as paper, cotton tape, and other cellulose materials deteriorate
very rapidly due to hydrolysis. Polyethylene film may lose its mechanical strength in a
few days if kept at 100 % relative humidity.

Other processes
Progressive chemical degradation of insulating materials can also occur due to a variety of
processes such as, incompatibility of materials (ex: rubber ages more rapidly at elevated
temperatures in the presence of copper, and cellulose degrades much more rapidly in the
presence of traces of acidic substances), and leaching (washing out of a soluble constituent)
of chemically active substances (ex: glass fabrics made from glasses of high sodium content
lose their strength rapidly due to leaching of sodium to the surface of the fibres and the
subsequent chemical attack of the strong alkali on the glass surface).

5.3 Breakdown of Composite Insulation

Almost no complete electrical insulation consists of one insulating phase. Usually more
than one insulating material will be involved, either in series, parallel or both.
The simplest form of composite insulation system consists of 2 layers of the same
material. In this case advantage is taken of the fact that two thin sheets have a higher
electric strength than a single sheet of the same total thickness. In other cases, composite
dielectrics occur either due to design considerations (ex: paper with an impregnating
liquid) or due to practical difficulties of fabrication (ex: air in parallel with solid insulation).
In certain cases, the behaviour of the composite insulation could be predicted from the
behaviour of the components. But in most cases, the system as whole has to be considered.
The following considerations determine the performance of the system as a whole.

(i) The stress distribution at different parts of the insulation system is distorted due to
the component dielectric constants and conductivities,

(ii) the breakdown characteristics at the surface are affected by the insulation boundaries
of various components,

(iii) the internal or partial discharge products of one component invariably affect the
other components in the system, and

(iv) the chemical ageing products of one component also affect the performance of other
components in the system.

5.3.1 Matching dielectric constants

When composite insulation has components with different dielectric constants, utilization
of the materials may be impaired. This is especially true in the oil/transformerboard
dielectric. This is because the oil has a lower dielectric constant and lower dielectric
strength compared to that of transformerboard.
Since the dielectrics are in series,
V1 C2 A2 d1 2 d1
= = · =
V2 C1 d2 A1 1 d2

V = V1 + V2

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Figure 62: Composite Dielectric

therefore
V1 V1 2 d1
= =
V V1 + V2 1 d2 + 2 d1
and
V1 2
ξ1 = = ·V
d1 1 d2 + 2 d1
V2 1
ξ2 = = ·V
d2 1 d2 + 2 d1

Example
A transformer oil having a dielectric constant of 2.2 and a dielectric strength of 25 kV/mm,
is used as an insulation in a of spacing 8 mm. Determine the maximum applicable voltage.
A barrier of thickness 3 mm of transfomerboard with a higher dielectric strength of 50
kV/mm (dielectric constant 4.4) is used in this space to increase the strength. Does the
transformerboard serve this purpose in this case?

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6 High Voltage Testing

High Voltage Testing Procedure
Electrical equipment must be capable of withstanding overvoltages during operation. Thus
through a suitable testing procedure we must ensure that this is done. High voltage testing
can be broadly classified into testing of insulating materials (samples of dielectrics) and
tests on completed equipment.
The tests carried out on samples of dielectric consist generally of the measurement of
permittivity, dielectric loss per unit volume, and the dielectric strength of the material.
The first two can be measured using the High Voltage Schering Bridge.
The tests carried out on completed equipment are the measurement of capacitance,
the power factor or the total dielectric loss, the ultimate breakdown voltage and the flash-
over voltage. The breakdown voltage test on completed equipment is only done on a few
samples since it permanently damages and destroys the equipment from further use.
However since all equipment have to stand up to a certain voltage without damage
under operating conditions, all equipment are subjected to withstand tests on which the
voltage applied is about twice the normal voltage, but which is less than the breakdown
voltage.

6.1 General tests carried out on High voltage equipment

6.1.1 Sustained low-frequency tests
Sustained low frequency tests are done at power frequency (50 Hz), and are the commonest
of all tests. These tests are made upon specimens of insulation materials for the determi-
nation of dielectric strength and dielectric loss, for routine testing of supply mains, and
for work tests on high voltage transformers, porcelain insulators and other apparatus.
Since the dielectric loss is sensitive to electric stress, the tests are carried out at the
highest ultimate stress possible. For testing of porcelain insulators and in high tension
cables, voltages as high as 2000 kV may be used.
High voltage a.c. tests at 50 Hz are carried out as Routine tests on low voltage (230
or 400 V) equipment. Each device is subjected to a high voltage of 1 kV + 2 × (working
voltage). A 230 V piece of equipment may thus be subjected to about 1.5 to 2 kV. These
tests are generally carried out after manufacture before installation.
The high voltage is applied across the device under test by means of a transformer.
The transformer need not have a high power rating. If a very high voltage is required,
the transformer is usually built up in stages by cascading. By means of cascading, the
size of the transformer and the insulation bushing necessary may be reduced in size. The
transformers are usually designed to have poor regulation so that if the device under test
is faulty and breakdown occurs, the terminal voltage would drop due to the high current
caused. A resistance of about 1 ohm/volt is used in series with the transformer so as to
limit the current in the event of a breakdown to about 1 A. The resistance used could be
of electrolyte type (which would be far from constant, but would be a simple device) such
as a tube filled with water.
In all high voltage tests, safety precautions are taken so as to ensure that there is no
access to the testing area when the high voltage is on. There would be switches that would
automatically be operated when the door to the area is opened etc..

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6.1.2 High Voltage direct current tests

These tests are done on apparatus expected to operate under direct voltage conditions,
and also where, due to the inconvenience of the use of high capacity transformers required
for extra high tension alternating voltage tests and due to transport difficulties, alternating
voltage tests cannot be performed after installation.
A special feature of importance of the d.c. test is the testing of cables which are
expected to operate under a.c. conditions. If the tests are done under a.c. conditions,
a high charging current would be drawn and the transformer used would have to have
a current rating. It is thus normal to subject the cable (soon after laying it, but before
energizing it) to carry out a high voltage test under d.c. conditions. The test voltage
would be about 2 times the working voltage and the voltage is maintained from 15 min to
1.5 hrs.
This d.c. test is not a complete equivalent to the corresponding a.c. conditions, it is
the leakage resistance which would determine the voltage distribution, while in the a.c.
conditions, it is the layers of different dielectrics that determine the voltage distribution
in the cable. Although the electric field differs in the 2 cases, it is likely that the cable
will stand up to the required a.c. voltage.
The methods used to generate these high d.c. voltages have already been described.

6.1.3 High-frequency tests

High frequency tests at frequencies varying from several kHz are important where there is
a possibility of high voltage in the lines etc., and in insulators which are expected to carry
high frequency such as radio transmitting stations. Also in the case of porcelain insulators,
breakdown or flashover occurs in most cases as a result of high frequency disturbances in
the line, these being due to either switching operations or external causes. It is also found
that high frequency oscillations cause failure of insulation at a comparatively low voltage
due to high dielectric loss and heating.
High voltage tests at high frequency are made at the manufacturing works so as to
obtain a design of insulator which will satisfactorily withstand all conditions of service.
In the case of power line suspension insulators, it is possible that breakdown or flash
over would occur due to high frequency over voltages produced by faults or switching
operations in the line. Sudden interruptions in the line would give rise to resonant effects
in the line which would give rise to voltage waves in the line of high frequency. These
might cause flashover of the insulators.
The behavior of insulating materials at high frequencies is quite different to that at
ordinary power frequency. The dielectric loss per cycle is very nearly constant so that
at high frequencies the dielectric loss is much higher and the higher loss causes heating
effects. The movements of charge carriers would be different.
There are two kinds of high frequency tests carried out: These are:
(a) Tests with apparatus which produces undamped high-frequency oscillations.
Undamped oscillations do not occur in power systems, but are useful for insulation testing
purposes especially for insulation to be in radio work.
(b) Tests with apparatus producing damped high-frequency oscillations.
When faults to earth or sudden switching of transmission lines occur, high frequency
transients occur whose frequency depends on the capacitance and inductance of the line
and will be about 50 kHz to about 200 kHz. These are damped out with time.

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6.1.4 Surge or impulse tests

These tests are carried out in order to investigate the influence of surges in transmission
lines, breakdown of insulators and of the end turns of transformer connections to line. In
impulse testing, to represent surges generated due to lightning, the IEC Standard impulse
wave of 1.2/50µs wave is generally used. By the use of spark gaps, conditions occurring
on the flash over to line are simulated. The total duration of a single lightning strike is
about 100µs, although the total duration of the lightning stroke may be a few seconds.
Overvoltages of much higher duration also arise due to line faults, switching operations
etc., for which impulse waves such as 100/5000µs duration may be used. In surge tests
it is required to apply to the circuit or apparatus under test, a high direct voltage whose
value rises from zero to maximum in a very short time and dies away again comparatively
slowly. Methods of generating such voltages have already been discussed earlier.
While impulse and high frequency tests are carried out by manufacturers, in order to
ensure that their finished products will give satisfactory performance in service, the most
general tests upon insulating materials are carried out at power frequencies.

Flash-over Tests
Porcelain insulators are designed so that spark over occurs at a lower voltage than punc-
ture, thus safeguarding the insulator, in service against destruction in the case of line
disturbances. Flash-over tests are very importance in this case.
The flash-over is due to a breakdown of air at the insulator surface, and is independent
of the material of the insulator. As the flash-over under wet conditions and dry conditions
differ, tests such as the one minute dry flash-over test and the one minute wet flash-over
test are performance.
(i) 50 percent dry impulse flash-over test, using an impulse generator delivering a
positive 1/50µs impulse wave: The voltage shall be increased to the 50 percent impulse
flash-over voltage (the voltage at which approximately half of the impulses applied cause
flash-over of the insulator)
(ii) Dry flash-over and dry one-minute test: Here, the test voltage is applied then
raised to the stated value in approximately 10 seconds and shall be maintained for one
minute. The voltage shall then be increased gradually until flash- over occurs.
(iii) Wet flash-over and one minute rain test: Here, the insulator is sprayed through-
out the test with artificial rain drawn from source of supply at a temperature within 10
degrees of centigrade of the ambient temperature in the neighborhood of the insulator.
The resistivity of the water is to be between 9,000 and 11,000 ohm cm.
In the case of the testing of insulating materials, it is not the voltage which produces
spark-over breakdown which is important, but rather the voltage for puncture of a given
thickness (i.e. dielectric strength). The measurements made on insulating materials are
usually, therefore, those of dielectric strength and of dielectric loss and power factor, the
latter been intimately connected with the dielectric strength of the material.
It is found that the dielectric strength of a given material depends, apart from chemical
and physical properties of the material itself, upon many factors including,
(a) thickness of the sample tested
(b) shape of the sample
(c) previous electrical and thermal treatment of the sample
(d) shape, size, material and arrangement of the electrodes
(e) nature of the contact which the electrodes make with the sample

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(f) waveform and frequency of the applied voltage (if alternating)

(g) rate of application of the testing voltage and the time during which it is maintained
at a constant value.
(h) temperature and humidity when the test is carried out
(i) moisture content of the sample.

6.2 Testing of solid dielectric materials

6.2.1 Nature of dielectric breakdown
Dielectric losses occur in insulating materials, when an electrostatic field is applied to
them. These losses result in the formation of heat within the material. Most insulating
materials are bad thermal conductors, so that, even though the heat so produced is small, it
is not rapidly carried away by the material. The conductivity of such materials increases
considerably with increase of temperature, and the dielectric losses, therefore, rise and
produce more heat, the temperature thus building up from the small initial temperature
rise. If the rate of increase of heat dissipated, with rise of temperature, is greater than
the rate of increase of dielectric loss with temperature rise, a stable condition (thermal
balance) will be reached. If, however, the latter rate of increase is greater than the former,
the insulation will breakdown owing to the excessive heat production, which burns the
material.
Now, the dielectric losses per cubic centimeter in a given material and at a given
temperature, are directly proportional to the frequency of the electric field and to the
square of the field strength. Hence the decrease in breakdown voltage with increasing
time of application and increasing temperature and also the dependence of this voltage
upon the shape, size, and material of the electrodes and upon the form the electric field.
The measurement of dielectric loss in insulating materials are very important, as they
give a fair indication as to comparative dielectric strengths of such materials. In the case
of cable, dielectric loss measurements are now generally recognized as the most reliable
guide to the quality and condition of the cable.

6.2.2 Determination of dielectric strength of solid dielectrics

A sheet or disc of the material of not less than 10cm in diameter, is taken and recessed
on both sides so as to accommodate spherical electrodes (2.5 cm in diameter) with a wall
or partition of the material between them 0.5mm thick. The electrical stress is applied
to the specimen by means of the two spheres fitting into the recesses without leaving any
clearance, especially at the center. The applied voltage is of approximately sine waveform
at 50Hz. This voltage is commenced at about 1/3 the full value and increased rapidly to
the full testing voltage.
Sometimes insulators after manufacture are found to contain flaws in the form of voids
or air spots. These spots (due to non-homogeneity) have lower breakdown strength than
the material itself, and if present would gradually deteriorate and cause ultimate break-
down after a number of years.
High degree ionizations caused in these spots would give rise to high energy electrons
which would bombard the rest of the material, causing physical decomposition. In plastic
type of materials, there might be carbonizations, polymerizations, chemical decomposition
etc., which would gradually diffuse into the material the by-products, causing chemical
destruction.

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The useful life of a component using such material will depend on the weak spots and
the applied voltage. If the applied voltage is small, the life of the component is longer.
From design considerations the voltage to be applied if a particular life span is required
can be calculated.
The Schering bridge type of measurement gives an average type of measurement, where
the p.f. and the power loss indicate the value over the whole of the length. Thus small
flaws if present would not cause much of a variation in the overall p.f. Thus in the Schering
bridge type of measurement such flaws would not be brought out.
The loss factor of a material does not vary much for low voltages, but as the voltage
is increased at a certain value it starts increasing at a faster rate. This is the long time
safe working voltage, since beyond this, the specimen would keep on deteriorating. If the
apparatus need be used only for a short period, the applied voltage can be higher than
this safe value.
In a long length of cable, the greater part of the cable would be in good conditions but
with a few weak spots here and there.
In a Schering bridge type of measurement, since it measures the overall loss, such small
individual spots cannot be detected. It is necessary that such spots are detected as these
increase with time and finally cause its breakdown. In high voltage transformers also there
might be such small discharges occurring which would not be measured by the Schering
bridge.
The method is to apply suitable high voltage to sample, and subject it to a number
of duty cycles (heat cycles, make and break cycles). Discharges caused are made to give
pulses to a high frequency amplifier. The discharges caused are observed before and after
such duty cycles to see whether there is any appreciable increase in the pulse intensity
after the cycle of operation.

6.3 Impulse Testing

These are done as tests on sample of apparatus. The impulse test level is determined by
the operating level (4 to 5 times the normal operating value). Apply on to the sample a
certain number (say 10) positive impulse and 10 negative impulses of this particular value.
They should withstand this voltage without any destruction.
To test the ultimate impulse strength, apply increasing amounts of impulse voltage until
destruction occurs; during the tests it is necessary to see whether there is any damage.
The damage may not be immediately visible, so we have it on a high frequency (single
sweep and high speed) oscilloscope.

Figure 63: Observed impulse waveforms

In the event of complete damage, breakdown of the insulator due to the application of
the impulse voltage will be indicated as in (i). If the insulator has suffered only a minor

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damage the wave form would show slight distortion as shown in (ii). If there is no damage
caused due to the impulse, the waveform will be complete and undistorted as in (iii).
In testing high voltage insulators whose actual breakdown is in air (i.e flashover takes
place before breakdown of insulator) the porcelain itself can be tested by immersing the
whole insulator in liquid of high permeability so that there would be no outside flashover,
and actual breakdown of the insulator would occur.

Figure 64: Breakdown of an insulator unit

In specifying the flashover characteristic in air we give the 50% flashover characteristic.
This is done as flashover occur at the same voltage on each application of the impulse.
We apply different values of test voltages (impulse) and the voltage at which there is 50%
probability of breakdown is taken as 50% flashover voltage. The impulse flashover voltage
also depends on the time lag of the applied impulse before flashover time lag of the applied
impulse before flashover occurs. If the voltage remains above a critical value long enough,
flashover occurs.

Figure 65: Probability of flashover

6.4 Tests on Insulators

The tests on insulators can be divided into three groups. These are the type tests, sample
tests and the routine tests.

6.4.1 Type tests

These tests are done to determine whether the particular design is suitable for the purpose.
(a) Withstand Test: The insulator should be mounted so as to simulate practical
conditions. A 1/50µs wave of the specified voltage (corrected for humidity, air density

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etc.,) is applied. Flashover or puncture should not occur. (If puncture occurs, the insulator
is permanently damaged). The test is repeated five times for each polarity.
(b) Flash-over test: A 1/50µs wave is applied. The voltage is gradually increased to
the 50% impulse flashover voltage. The test is done for both polarities. There should be
no puncture of insulation during these tests.
(c) Dry One-minute test: The insulator, clean and dry, shall be mounted as specified
and the prescribed voltage (corrected for ambient conditions) should be gradually brought
up (at power frequency) and maintained for one minute. Thee shall not be puncture or
flash-over during the test.
Dry flash-over test: The voltage shall then be increased gradually until flash-over
occurs. This is repeated ten times. There shall be no damage to the insulator.
(d) One-minute Rain test: The insulator is sprayed throughout the test with artificial
rain drawn from a source of supply at a temperature within 10 − 0C of the ambient
temperature of the neighborhood of the insulator. The rain is sprayed at an angle of 450
on the insulator at the prescribed rate of 3 mm/minute. The resistivity of the water should
be 100 ohm-m ±10%. The prescribed voltage is maintained for one minute.
Wet flash-over test: The voltage shall then be increased gradually until flash-over
occurs. This is repeated ten times. There shall be no damage to the insulator.
(e) Visible discharge test: This states that after the room has been darkened and the
specified test voltage applied, after five minutes, there should be no visible signs of corona.

6.4.2 Sample Tests

The sample is tested fully, up to and including the point of breakdown. This is done only
on a few samples of the insulator.
(a) Temperature cycle test: The complete test shall consist of five transfers (hot-cold-
hot-....), each transfer not exceeding 30 s. The sample should be able to withstand these
extreme temperature cycles.
(b) Mechanical loading test: The insulator shall be mechanically loaded up to the
point of failure. The load at failure should not be less than those specified by laid down
standards.
(c) Electro-mechanical test: The insulator is simultaneously subjected to electrical and
mechanical stress. (i.e. it shall be subjected to a power frequency voltage and a tensile
force simultaneously. The voltage shall be 75% of dry flash-over voltage of the unit. There
should be no damage caused.
(d) Overvoltage test: The insulator shall be completely immersed in an insulating
medium (oil), to prevent external flashover occurring. The specified overvoltage must be
reached without puncture. The voltage is then gradually increased until puncture occurs.

6.4.3 Routine Tests

Electrical Routine Test: These are to be applied to all insulators and shall be commenced
at a low voltage and shall be increased rapidly until flash-over occurs every few seconds.
The voltage shall be maintained at this value for a minimum of five minutes, or if failures
occur, for five minutes after the last punctured piece has been removed. At the conclusion
of the test the voltage shall be reduced to about one-third of the test voltage before
switching off.
Mechanical Routine Test: A mechanical load of 20% in excess of the maximum working
load of the insulator is applied after suspending the insulator for one minute. There should
be no mechanical failure of the insulator.

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6.5 Tests on High Voltage Bushings

Bushing
A bushing is a single or composite structure carrying a conductor or providing passage
for a conductor, through a partition, such as a wall or tank cover, or through a ring type
current transformer and insulating it there from, it includes the means of attachment to
the partition.
(i) Solid Bushing: A bushing consisting of a single piece of solid insulating material
which is continuous between its outer surface and the inner conducting surface, which may
be the main conductor or a conducting layer connected thereto.
(ii) Plain Bushing: A bushing consisting of a single piece of solid insulating material,
with a space between the conductor and the inner surface of the solid insulation. The space
is occupied by air, oil or other insulating medium which forms part of the insulation.
(iii) Oil filled Bushing: A bushing consisting of an oil-filled insulating shell, the oil
providing the major radial insulation. (Note: The conductor may be further insulated by
a series of spaced concentric cylinders which may be provided with cylindrical conducting
layers with the object of controlling the internal and external electric fields.)
(iv) Condenser busing: A bushing in which cylindrical conducting layers are arranged
coaxially with the conductor within a solid body of insulating materials, (including materi-
als impregnated with oils or other impregnants),the lengths and diameters of the cylinders
being designed with the object of controlling the internal and external electric fields (Note:
A conductor bushing may be provided with a weather shield, in which case the intervening
space may be filled with oil or other insulating medium.it is recommended that the term
condenser bushing with oil filling be used for this type.)

6.5.1 Tests on Bushings

Rating of bushings: A bushing shall be rated in terms of the: voltage, normal current,
frequency, and insulation level.
The insulation level of bushing is designed by a voltage which the bushing must be
capable of withstanding under the specified test conditions.
For impulse tested bushings the rated insulation level is expressed as an impulse voltage
value i.e. the impulse withstand voltage with 1/50µs full wave. For non-impulse tested
bushings the rated insulation level is expressed as a power frequency voltage value i.e. one
minute dry withstand voltage.

Type Tests on high voltage bushings

• Power frequency test
• Impulse test
• Momentary dry withstand test (power frequency voltage)
• Visible discharge test (power frequency voltage)
• Wet withstand test (power frequency voltage)
• Puncture withstand test (power frequency voltage)
• Full wave withstand test (impulse voltage)
• Puncture withstand test (impulse voltage)

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Sample Tests
• Temperature rise test
• Thermal stability test
• Temperature cycle test
• Porosity test

Routine Tests
• One minute dry withstand test (power frequency voltage)
• Oil lightness test
• Power factor voltage test

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