Ionization

• Process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule with

the simultaneous production of a positive ion is called
ionisation.

Ionization Processes
• Ionization by collision
• Photo-ionization
• Secondary ionization
Ionization by Collision
• A free electron collides with a neutral gas molecule and
gives rise to a new electron and a positive ion.

A: atom, A+: positive ion, e- : electron

Photo-ionization
• Involves the interaction of radiation with matter
• Occurs when the amount of radiation energy absorbed by
an atom or molecule exceeds its ionisation potential.
• Radiation can be absorbed by atoms or molecules
through,
• excitation of the atom to a higher energy state
• continuous absorption by direct excitation or direct
ionisation
• Ionisation occurs when,

h: Planck's constant, c: velocity of light

λ: wavelength of the incident radiation
Vi : ionisation energy of the atom

• Higher the ionisation energy, the shorter will be the

wavelength of the radiation
Secondary Ionisation Processes
• Processes by which secondary electrons are produced

(a) Electron Emission due to Positive Ion Impact

• Positive ions formed due to ionisation by collision or by
photo-ionisation travel towards the cathode
• Cause emission of electrons from the cathode by giving up
its kinetic energy
• If the total energy of the positive ion, (sum of its kinetic
energy and the ionisation energy) is greater than twice the
work function of the metal, then one electron will be
ejected
• The probability of this process is measured as γi
(Townsend's secondary ionisation coefficient)
• γi is defined as the net yield of electrons per incident
positive ion.
(b) Electron Emission due to Photons
• Energy is supplied in the form of a photon of ultraviolet
light to cause an electron to escape from a metal
• Electron emission from a metal surface occurs when,
h.v ≥ φ
Φ: work function of metallic electrode
v: threshold frequency
(c) Electron Emission due to Metastable & Neutral Atoms
• Electrons can be ejected from the metal surface by the
impact of metastable atoms, provided that their total
energy is sufficient to overcome the work function
• Since the lifetime of metastable atoms is high (10-3s)
compared to an ordinary particle (10-8s), they can easily
reach the cathode and cause electron emission
• Neutral atoms also give rise to secondary electron
emission if their kinetic energy is high (≈ 1000 eV).
Electron Attachment Process
• Electrons attached to atoms or molecules to form negative
ions are called attachment collisions

• The energy liberated as a result of this process is the

kinetic energy K plus the electron affinity Ea.
• The attachment process plays an important role in the
removal of free electrons from an ionized gas during arc
interruption.
TOWNSEND’S CURRENT GROWTH EQUATION
• Town send's first ionization coefficient = E/p
E: field, p: gas pressure
• Let α be the average number of ionizing collisions made
by an electron per centimeter travel
• The average current in the gap is the number of electrons
travelling per second ,
I= I0 exp (αd)
I0 : initial current at the cathode.
• Townsend's secondary ionization coefficient γ is defined
as the net number of secondary electrons produced per
incident positive ion, photon, excited or metastable
particle.
• γ is the sum of the individual coefficients due to the
three different processes, i.e., γ = γ1 + γ2 + γ3
• γ is a function of the gas pressure p and E/p.
CURRENT GROWTH IN THE PRESENCE OF
SECONDARY PROCESSES
• Total number of electrons reaching the anode,

Or

n0 :number of electrons produced due to secondary

processes.
TOWNSEND'S CRITERION FOR BREAKDOWN
• As d is increased, the denominator of the equation tends to zero,
and at some critical distance d = ds

• If d = ds, I ∞ and the current will be limited only by the

resistance of the power supply and the external circuit. This
condition is called Townsend's breakdown criterion and can be
written as

• Normally, exp(α d) is very large, and hence the above equation

reduces to,
Spark breakdown voltage, Vs
• Voltage which gives the values of α and γ satisfying the
breakdown criterion
• The corresponding distance ds is called the sparking
distance.
STREAMER THEORY OF BREAKDOWN IN GASES

Drawbacks of Townsend’s mechanism

• According to the Townsend’s theory, current growth occurs as a

result of ionization processes only. But in practice, breakdown
voltages were found to depend on the gas pressure and the
geometry of the gap.

• The mechanism predicts time lags of the order of 10-5s, while in

actual practice breakdown was observed to occur at very short
times of the order of 10-8s .

• While the Townsend mechanism predicts a very diffused

(dispersed) form of discharge, in actual practice, discharges were
found to be filamentary (thread) and irregular.
Streamer theory
• Development of a spark discharge directly from a single avalanche
(sudden large amount of electrons)
• Transform the avalanche into a plasma streamer (flow).
• Comparatively narrow luminous tracks occurring at breakdown at
high pressures are called streamers.
• As soon as the streamer tip approaches the cathode, a cathode spot
is formed and a stream of electrons rush from the cathode to
neutralize the positive space charge in the streamer; the result is a
spark, and the spark breakdown has occurred.
Meek’s criterion
• To estimate the electric field that transforms an avalanche
into a streamer.
• The field Er produced by the space charge, at the radius r,
is given by,

• α: Townsend's first ionization coefficient, p: gas pressure

x: distance to which the streamer has extended in the gap
PASCHEN'S LAW

• It has been shown earlier that the breakdown criterion in gases is

given as,

• The coefficients α and γ are functions of E/p,

and
• Also,

• Substituting,

• Implies that, the breakdown voltage varies as the product pd varies.

• Knowing the nature of functions f1 and f2, we can write,

• This equation is known as Paschen's law and has been

experimentally established for many gases.
• Paschen's curve shows the relationship between V and pd (not
linear and has a minimum value for any gas).
• If pd > (pd)min, electrons crossing the gap make more frequent
collisions with gas molecules
• If pd < (pd)min, electron may cross the gap without making a
collision or making only less number of collisions.
BREAKDOWN IN NON-UNIFORM FIELDS AND CORONA
DISCHARGES
• Non-uniform fields cause a discharge in the gas with highest electric
field intensity, at sharp points called a corona discharge.
• Observed as a bluish luminiscence.
• Accompanied by a hissing noise
• Air surrounding the region converted into ozone.
• Responsible for considerable loss of power.
• Leads to the deterioration of insulation (bombardment of ions
and of the chemical compounds)
• Gives rise to radio interference.
• The voltage gradient required to produce visual a.c. corona in air,
called the corona inception field.

• m: surface irregularity factor, d: air density correction factor

• b: atmospheric pressure, t: temperature

• Voltage is positive: Uniform bluish white sheath over the conductor.
• Voltage is negative: Reddish glowing spots along the conductor.
Burst corona
• At high voltage, up to a current of about 10-7A, the current becomes
pulsed (frequency of about 1 kHz), composed of small bursts, called
burst corona.
POST-BREAKDOWN PHENOMENA
Glow Discharge
• Characterized by a diffused luminous glow.
• Colour depends on the cathode material and the gas used.
• Used in cold cathode gaseous voltage stabilized tubes (voltage
regulation tubes or VR tubes), for rectification, as a relaxation
oscillator, and as an amplifier.
Arc Discharge
• If the current in the gap is increased to about 1 A or more, the
voltage across the gap suddenly reduces to a few volts (20-50 V).
• Discharge becomes very luminous and noisy called the arc
discharge.
• Associated with high temperatures, ranging from 10000C to several
thousand degrees Celsius.
• Used for welding and cutting of metals.
• It is the light source in lamps (carbon arc lamp)
• Used for generation of electricity through magneto-hydro dynamic
(MHD) or nuclear fusion processes.
Properties of a gaseous dielectric for high voltage applications
• high dielectric strength
• thermal stability and chemical inactivity towards materials
• non-flammability and physiological intertness
• low temperature of condensation
• good heat transfer
• ready availability at moderate cost

• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) found to possess most of the above

requirements.