Acoustics continued

Overview
Acoustics is the science of sound, including its production, transmission, and effects. In the
context of building design, acoustics focuses on controlling sound transmission and ensuring
an optimal auditory environment within spaces. This lesson covers the following subtopics:
1. Transmission and Vibration of Sound in Buildings
2. Sound Transmission Loss
3. Maximum Acceptable Noise Level
4. Means of Noise and Sound Insulation

1. Transmission and Vibration of Sound in Buildings

Introduction
Sound is a mechanical wave that travels through a medium (solid, liquid, or gas) by
vibrating particles in the medium. In buildings, sound can be transmitted through the air
(airborne sound) or through the structure itself (structure-borne sound).

Sound Transmission Paths

-Airborne Sound: Travels through the air and typically enters or leaves a building via
openings like windows, doors, or ventilation systems.
- Structure-borne Sound: Results from vibrations transmitted through building materials,
such as walls, floors, and ceilings. Common sources include footsteps, machinery, or any
impact on the building structure.

Vibration and Resonance

- Vibration: When a sound wave strikes a surface, it causes the surface to vibrate. These
vibrations can be transmitted through the structure, leading to sound transmission.
- Resonance: This occurs when the frequency of the sound wave matches the natural
frequency of a structure or component, causing it to vibrate more strongly. This can amplify
the sound and increase transmission.

Key Factors Influencing Sound Transmission

- Material Properties: Density, elasticity, and damping properties of building materials
affect how sound is transmitted.
- Structural Design: The design and construction details, such as the presence of gaps and
the type of connections between elements, play a significant role.
2. Sound Transmission Loss
Sound Transmission Loss (STL) measures how well a building element, like a wall or floor,
reduces the transmission of sound through it. STL is expressed in decibels (dB).

Measuring STL
- STL Ratings: Higher STL values indicate better sound insulation. STL is typically
measured for different frequencies to account for the varying effectiveness of materials
across the sound spectrum.
- Sound Transmission Class (STC): A single-number rating that summarizes the STL of a
building element over a range of frequencies. Higher STC ratings mean better sound
insulation.

Factors Affecting STL

- Material Thickness: Thicker materials generally provide higher STL.
- Material Density: Denser materials are more effective at blocking sound.
- Air Gaps and Cavities: Air spaces within walls or between building elements can enhance
sound insulation by absorbing sound energy.
- Mass Law: The principle that increasing the mass of a partition increases its STL,
particularly for airborne sound.

3. Maximum Acceptable Noise Level

Importance of Noise Control
Excessive noise can negatively impact health, productivity, and comfort. Therefore, defining
and adhering to maximum acceptable noise levels is crucial in building design.

Standards and Guidelines

- Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA): Provides guidelines for noise
exposure in workplaces.
- World Health Organization (WHO): Recommends maximum noise levels for various
environments to prevent health issues.
- Local Building Codes: Often specify acceptable noise levels for residential, commercial,
and industrial areas.

Noise Level Metrics

- Decibel (dB): The unit of measurement for sound intensity.
- A-weighted decibels (dB(A)): Adjusted to reflect the human ear's sensitivity to different
frequencies.
- Equivalent Continuous Sound Level (Leq): Represents the average sound level over a
specified period.

Typical Maximum Acceptable Noise Levels

- Residential Areas: Typically, around 35-45 dB(A) during the night and 45-55 dB(A)
during the day.
- Commercial Areas: Usually in the range of 50-60 dB(A).
- Industrial Areas: Higher levels are permissible, often up to 70-80 dB(A).

4. Means of Noise and Sound Insulation

Building Design Strategies
- Room Layout: Positioning noise-sensitive rooms (e.g., bedrooms, offices) away from
noise sources.
- Buffer Zones: Using corridors, closets, or storage areas as buffers between noisy and quiet
spaces.
- Building Orientation: Orienting the building to minimize exposure to external noise
sources.

Structural Solutions
- Mass and Thickness: Increasing the mass and thickness of walls, floors, and ceilings to
improve sound insulation.
- Double Glazing: Using windows with two layers of glass and an air gap to reduce sound
transmission.
- Floating Floors: Installing floors that are isolated from the structural slab to reduce impact
noise.

Materials and Technologies

- Sound Absorbing Materials: Using materials like acoustic panels, carpets, and draperies
to absorb sound energy within a room.
- Soundproofing Materials: Employing specialized materials like mass-loaded vinyl,
resilient channels, and acoustic caulk to block sound transmission.
- Acoustic Barriers: Installing barriers like acoustic walls or fences around the building
perimeter to reduce external noise.
Implementing Sound Insulation
- Sealing Gaps: Ensuring all gaps and openings are properly sealed to prevent sound
leakage.
- Isolating Noise Sources: Using isolation mounts and dampers to reduce vibrations from
machinery and equipment.
- Regular Maintenance: Maintaining sound insulation materials and systems to ensure
ongoing effectiveness.
Summary
Effective acoustics in building design involves understanding sound transmission, achieving
high sound transmission loss, adhering to maximum acceptable noise levels, and
implementing appropriate noise and sound insulation strategies. By considering these
factors, designers can create spaces that are acoustically comfortable and meet regulatory
requirements.

References
1. Beranek, L. L., & Vér, I. L. (1992). *Noise and Vibration Control Engineering*. Wiley.
2. Fahy, F. J., & Gardonio, P. (2007). *Sound and Structural Vibration: Radiation,
Transmission and Response*. Academic Press.
3. WHO. (1999). *Guidelines for Community Noise*. World Health Organization.
4. OSHA. (2008). *Occupational Noise Exposure*. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration.
Ice Breakers:
1. Sound Walk: Take a short walk around the building or campus, asking students to note
different sounds they hear and their potential sources.
2. Sound Scavenger Hunt: Have students identify and list different sources of sound in the
classroom or building. Discuss how these sounds are transmitted and how they might be
insulated.
3. Guess the Noise: Play various recorded sounds (e.g., footsteps, machinery, voices) and
have students guess the source and discuss the possible pathways of transmission in a
building.
4. Sound Demonstration: Use a tuning fork or a small speaker and show how sound can
cause objects to vibrate. Discuss how this principle applies to sound transmission in
buildings.
Take-Home Assignments:
1. Real-World Application: Visit a public space (e.g., library, restaurant, or office) and
assess its acoustic environment. Suggest improvements based on the principles learned in
class.
2. STL Research Report: research different building materials and their Sound
Transmission Loss (STL) values. Compare at least three materials and recommend the best
option for a specific type of room (e.g., bedroom, office, recording studio).
3. Noise Level Survey: Instruct students to use a smartphone app to measure the noise
levels in different parts of their home or neighbourhood at various times of the day. They
should record their findings, compare them to the recommended maximum acceptable noise
levels, and propose possible noise reduction strategies.
Acoustics: Sound in Buildings
1. Transmission and Vibration of Sound in Buildings
Sound transmission in buildings is a complex phenomenon involving the propagation of
acoustic energy through various mediums. There are two primary types of sound
transmission:
a) Airborne sound:
- Originates from a source and travels through air (e.g., speech, music, traffic noise)
- Causes air molecules to vibrate, creating pressure waves
- Can enter buildings through openings or cause building elements to vibrate
b) Structure-borne sound:
- Results from direct mechanical excitation of building elements
- Propagates through solid materials as vibrations
- Examples include footsteps, slamming doors, or vibrating machinery

Sound behaviour in buildings:

- Reflection: Sound waves bounce off hard, smooth surfaces
- Absorption: Porous materials convert sound energy into heat
- Transmission: Sound passes through materials, often with some reduction in intensity
- Diffraction: Sound waves bend around obstacles or through openings
- Resonance: Building elements vibrate at their natural frequencies when excited by sound

2. Sound Transmission Loss (STL)

STL is a crucial concept in building acoustics, quantifying a material's or structure's ability
to reduce sound transmission.
- Definition: The difference in sound pressure levels between the source side and receiving
side of a barrier
- Measured in decibels (dB)
- Typically increases with frequency (higher frequencies are easier to block)
Factors affecting STL:
a) Mass Law: Heavier materials generally provide better sound insulation
b) Stiffness: Affects the material's natural frequency and resonance behaviour
c) Damping: Reduces vibration and improves sound insulation, especially at resonance
frequencies
d) Coincidence effect: Occurs when the sound wave frequency matches the natural bending
wave frequency of the material, reducing STL
Calculation of STL:
STL = 10 log₁₀(1/τ), where τ is the sound transmission coefficient

3. Maximum Acceptable Noise Levels

Noise levels are typically measured in A-weighted decibels (dBA), which account for
human hearing sensitivity at different frequencies.
Recommended maximum noise levels for various spaces:
a) Residential:
- Bedrooms: 30-35 dBA
- Living rooms: 35-40 dBA
- Kitchens: 40-45 dBA
b) Educational:
- Classrooms: 35-40 dBA
- Libraries: 30-35 dBA
- Gymnasiums: 40-50 dBA
c) Commercial:
- Open-plan offices: 45-50 dBA
- Private offices: 35-40 dBA
- Restaurants: 50-55 dBA
d) Healthcare:
- Patient rooms: 35-40 dBA
- Operating rooms: 30-35 dBA
- Waiting areas: 40-45 dBA
Factors considered in setting these levels:
- Speech intelligibility
- Concentration and productivity
- Sleep quality
- Stress reduction
- Overall well-being
Note: Noise levels above these can cause discomfort, reduced productivity, or health issues.

4. Means of Noise and Sound Insulation

a) Material selection:
- Dense materials (concrete, brick, heavy timber):
* High mass improves low-frequency insulation
* Typical STL: 40-60 dB depending on thickness and frequency
- Porous materials (foam, fiberglass, mineral wool):
* Absorb sound energy, reducing reverberations
* Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) typically 0.5-0.95
b) Construction techniques:
- Double walls:
* Create an air gap between two separate wall structures
* Can improve STL by 10-15 dB compared to a single wall of the same total mass
- Floating floors:
* Use resilient layers to decouple floor from structure
* Effective for reducing impact noise transmission
- Suspended ceilings:
* Create air space and opportunity for sound-absorbing materials
* Can improve room acoustics and reduce sound transmission between floors
c) Soundproofing elements:
- Acoustic panels:
* Absorb sound and reduce reverberations
 * Can be decorative and functional
- Sound-blocking curtains:
* Heavy, dense fabrics that absorb and block sound
* Particularly useful for windows and large openings
- Door and window seals:
* Reduce air gaps, which are weak points in sound insulation
* Can improve STL of doors and windows by 5-10 dB
d) Active noise control:
- Uses electronic systems to generate "anti-noise"
- Particularly effective for low-frequency noise
- Applications include HVAC systems and industrial environments

e) Vibration isolation:
- Rubber mounts:
* Absorb vibrations from equipment
* Effective for mid to high-frequency vibrations
- Spring isolators:
* Used for heavy equipment or low-frequency vibrations
* Can achieve up to 95% vibration reduction

Implementing effective acoustic design requires a holistic approach, considering the specific
requirements of each space, the surrounding environment, and the building's overall
structure. Acoustic consultants often use computer modelling and on-site measurements to
optimize designs and ensure compliance with relevant standards and regulations.

Ice Breakers:
1. Sound Walk: Take a short walk around the building or campus, asking students to note
different sounds they hear and their potential sources.
2. Sound Scavenger Hunt: Have students identify and list different sources of sound in the
classroom or building. Discuss how these sounds are transmitted and how they might be
insulated.
3. Guess the Noise: Play various recorded sounds (e.g., footsteps, machinery, voices) and
have students guess the source and discuss the possible pathways of transmission in a
building.
4. Sound Demonstration: Use a tuning fork or a small speaker and show how sound can
cause objects to vibrate. Discuss how this principle applies to sound transmission in
buildings.

Take-Home Assignments:
1. Real-World Application: Visit a public space (e.g., library, restaurant, or office) and
assess its acoustic environment. Suggest improvements based on the principles learned in
class.
2. STL Research Report: research different building materials and their Sound
Transmission Loss (STL) values. Compare at least three materials and recommend the best
option for a specific type of room (e.g., bedroom, office, recording studio).
3. Noise Level Survey: Instruct students to use a smartphone app to measure the noise
levels in different parts of their home or neighbourhood at various times of the day. They
should record their findings, compare them to the recommended maximum acceptable noise
levels, and propose possible noise reduction strategies.