PART B QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1.Explain the construction and working of DC generator.(N/D 2022)

The major parts of the DC generator is given below and also shown in fig.2.2

1. Magnetic frame or yoke

2. Poles, interpoles, windings, pole shoes

3. Armature

4. Commutator

5. Brushes, bearings and shaft

Yoke

The outer frame or yoke serves two purposes.

(i) It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover
for the whole machine.

(ii) It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles. In small machines where
cheapness is the main consideration and weight is not a critical factor. The yoke
is made up of cast iron. But for larger machines cast steel or rolled steel is used.

Poles
The poles consist of pole cores, pole shoes and pole coils. The pole cores and
pole shoes form the field magnet. The pole shoes used to spread out the flux in
the air gap and also reduce the reluctance of the magnetic path. The pole shoes
also support the exciting coils or field coils. The pole core is made up of cast
iron or cast steel. To minimize the eddy current losses the pole cores and pole
shoes are laminated. Annealed steel is used for laminations. The thickness of
laminations varies from 1 mm to 0.25 mm.

The pole coils are made up of copper wire or strip. When current is passed
through these coils, the pole becomes an electromagnet and starts establishing a
magnetic field in the machine. The flux distribution through the pole, air gap,
armature core and yoke is shown in fig.2.3.

Interpoles

In modern DC machines commutating poles or interpoles are provided to

improve commutatation. Like the field winding the commutating poles also
have exciting coils which are connected in series with the armature.

Armature

The armature consists of an armature core and armature windings. The armature
core houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and cut
the magnetic flux of the field magnets.

The armature core is cylindrical or drum shaped. It is made up of circular sheet

steel. The armature core is laminated with the thickness of 0.5 mm. the
lamination is used to minimize the eddy current loss. The laminations are
known as stampings. In small machines these stampings are directly keyed on
the shaft. In larger machines the stampings are first assembled and then keyed
on an armature spider and the armature spider is then keyed on to the shaft.

The armature conductors are housed in the slots. The slots are rectangular in
shape for large machines and circular for small machines.

The conductors are housed in slots in two layers. The slots are closed by fiber or
wooden wedges to prevent the conductors from flying out due to centrifugal
force when the armature rotates. The arrangement is shown in fig.2.3 and 2.4.
Commutator

The function of commutator is collection of current from the armature

conductors and converts the alternating current induced in the armature
conductors into unidirectional current in the external load circuit. It is
cylindrical in structure and is built up of wedge shaped segments of high
conduction hard-drawn copper. These segments are insulated from each other
by thin layers of mica. The number of segments is equal to the number of
armature coils.

Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by means of

a copper lag or strip or riser. To prevent them from flying out under the action
of centrifugal forces, the segments have V-grooves, these grooves are insulated
by conical micanite rings. The cross sectional view of commutator is shown in
fig.2.5.

Brushes and Bearing

The brushes are made up of carbon or graphite. The function of brushes is

collect the current from the commutator and conveys the current in to the
external load resistance. They are rectangular in shape. These brushes are
housed in brush- holders and mounted over brush holder studs. The brush
holder studs are mounted on a brush yoke. The brush holder studs are insulated
from the brush yoke by insulation sleeves.

Ball bearings are used for light machines and for heavy machines roller bearings
are used. The bearings are pack

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Let us consider a single turn rectangular coil ABCD rotating about its own axis
(Fig.2.6) in a magnetic filed provided by either permanent magnet or
electromagnets. The two ends of the coil are joined by two slip rings 'a' and 'b'
which are insulated from each other and from the central shaft. Two collecting
brushes made up of carbon or copper press against the slip-rings. Their function
is to collect the current induced in the coil and to convey it to the external load
resistance R. The rotating coil is called as armature and the magnetic as field
magnets.
Assume the coil is rotated in an anti clock wise direction.

Let 'l' is the length and 'b' is the breadth of the coil in meters. When the coil
sides AB and CD are moving parallel to the magnetic field, the flux lines are not
cut and no emf is induced in the coil. At this position assume angle of rotation
'Ɵ' as zero.

This vertical position of the coil is the starting position. According to faraday's
law, the emf induced is proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.

Where

e = - N dϕ/dt …………(1)

N - number of turns

Φ - flux

t - time
If N = 1,

e = - dϕ/dt

Initially, the coil is moving parallel to the flux lines, no flux line is cut. So

dϕ/dt = 0, and e = 0

After 't' seconds, the coil have rotated through an angle 'ωt' radians in the
anticlockwise direction. The flux linking with the coil is

B l b cos ωt.

e = - d/dt (B l b cos ωt)

= - B l b ω( - sin ωt) = B l b ωsin ωt

e = Em sin ωt ……....(2)

Where

Em = B l b ω

Em = maximum value of induced emf

When Ɵ = 90°, the coil sides are moving at right angles to the flux lines. The
flux

lines are cut at the maximum rate and the emf induced is maximum.

When Ɵ = 180°, the coil sides are moving parallel to flux lines (AB and CD
have exchanges positions) and the emf induced is zero.

When Ɵ = 270°, the coil sides again move at right angles to the flux lines but
their position reversed. The induced emf is maximum in the opposite directs.

When Ɵ = 360°, the coil sides again move parallel to the magnetic field and the
emf induced is zero. The coil has now come back to the starting point.
If the rotation of the coil is continued the changes in the emf are again repeated.
The changes in voltage 'e', with respect to the angle 'Ɵ' can be plotted as shown
in fig.2.7.

The emf changes from instant to instant and becomes alternatively positive and
negative. This emf is called as an alternating emf.

The induced emf in the coil can be increased by

i) Increasing the flux density (B)

ii) Increasing the angular velocity (ω)

In commercial generators a large number of coils are used and they are housed
in the armature.

The current flowing in the external resistance to a DC generator is made

unidirectional by replacing the slip rings by a split rings as shown in fig 2.8.

The ring is split into two equal segments P and Q and the segments are insulated
from each other and also from the shaft.

The coil side AB is always attached to the segment P and CD to Q. It is shown

in fig.2.9. The brushes B1 and B2 touch these segments and to collect the current.
During the first half revolution, current flows along ABLMCD through brush
B1(Positive) and into B2 (Negative).
After half a cycle AB and CD have exchanged positions along with the
segments P and Q and current flows through DCLMBA. B1 is in contact with
for each half revolution the positions of segments P and Q also reverse shown in
fig.2.10.

The current in the load is always unidirectional is shown in fig.3.11.

In a generator, the split rings are called commutator.

2.Describe the principle of operation and Torque developed in DC

Motor. (A/M 2022)
The basic principle is whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field the conductor experiences a force whose direction is given by
fleming's left-hand rule.
If a current carrying conductors is placed between two magnetic poles as shown
in fig 3.23, both the fields will be distorted flux (less flux)

m the fig 3.23 above the conductor the field is weakened and below the
conductor the field is strengthened. Therefore the conductor move upwards. The
force exerted upwards depends upon the intensity of the main field flux and the
magnitude of the current.

The direction of the current through the conductor is reversed as shown in fig
3.24. Here, below the conductor field is less weakened and above the conductor
the field is strengthened. Then the conductor tends to move downwards.

The magnitude of the force experienced by the conductor is

F = BI Ɩ

Where

B - magnetic field density in wb/m2

I - current in ampere

Ɩ - length of the conductor in meters

The direction of motion is given by fleming's left hand rule, which states that, if
the left thumb, force finger and middle finger of the left hand are three mutually
perpendicular directions and if the fore finger indicates the direction of the field,
and the middle finger indicates the direction of current, then the thumb points
the direct of motion of the conductor.

In a dc motor, a strong electromagnetic field and a large no of conductors

housed in an armature and carrying current, make the armature rotate.

TORQUE EQUATION

Torque is turning or twisting force about an axis torque is measured by the

product of force and the radius at which the force acts. Consider a wheel of
radius 'r' metres acted on by a circumferential force 'F' Newton as shown in fig
3.31.

The angular velocity of the wheel is

ω = 2πN / 60

Torque, T = F × r

Work done per revolution = F × distance moved

= F × 2πг

Power developed, P = Work done / Time = F × 2πг / time for 1 rev

 P = Τω

T = Torque in N-m,

ω = Angular speed r/sec

Power in armature = Armature torque × ω

The torque of a DC motor is proportional to the product of the armature

current and the flux.

3. Write the Comparison of Squirrel Cage and Slip Ring Induction motor.
(N/D 2022)
4. Describe the Construction and Operation of 3 Phase Induction motor.
(N/D 2023)

CONSTRUCTION OF THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

The induction motor consists of two main parts (i) Stator (ii) Rotor

Stator

The stator is made up of a number of stampings with alternate slot and tooth.
Stampings are insulated from each other. Each stamping is 0.4 to 0.5 mm thick.
Number of stampings are stamped together to build the stator core. The stator
core is then fitted in a casted or fabricated steel frame. The slots house the three
phase winding called stator winding.

It may be connected either in star or delta. The stator winding is made for a
fixed no of poles. Fig.3.85 shows the stator lamination.

Rotor

Two types of rotor are

i) Squirrel cage rotor

ii) Slip ring or wound rotor

i) Squirrel cage rotor

Fig.3.86 shows a squirrel cage rotor. This is made up of a cylindrical laminated
core with slots to carry the rotor conductors.

The rotor conductors are heavy bars of copper or aluminum short circuited at
both ends by end rings. Hence this rotor is called short circuited rotor. The
entire rotor resistance is very small. External resistance cannot be connected in
the rotor circuit such motors are extremely rugged in construction.

ii) Slip ring or wound rotor

Fig. 3.87 shows a slip ring or wound rotor. In this of rotor windings are similar
to the stator winding. The rotor winding may be star of delta connected,
distributed winding, wound for as many number of poles as the stator. The
three phases are brought out and connected to slip rings mound on the rotor
shaft. Variable external resistance can be connected in the rotor circuit with
the help of blushes and slip rings arrangements. By varying the external
resistance in the rotor circuit, the motor speed and torque can be controlled.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF 3Φ INDUCTION MOTOR

Three phase supply is given to the stator windings. Due to this, current flows
through the stator winding. This current is called stator current. It produces a
rotating magnetic field in the space between stator and rotor. Synchronous
speed is produced by this field.

Ns = 120ƒ/P

The rotating magnetic field cutting the rotor conductors, an emf is induced in
the rotor. If the rotor winding is shorted then the induced emf produces current.
this current produces a rotor field.

The interaction of stator and rotor field develops torque. Then the rotor rotates
in the same direction as the rotating magnetic field. When the rotor is standstill,
the frequency rotor emf is equal to the supply frequency.

As the rotor speed increases, the frequency of rotor emf and the magnitude of
rotor emf decreasesThe rotor tries to each up with the rotating magnetic field.
But the rotor could not rotate at the synchronous speed. Therefore, the rotor
runs at a speed slightly less than the synchronous speed.

The difference between synchronous speed and rotor speed is called the slip
speed.

Slip speed = NS - N

Slip (S) = NS – N/ NS

N = NS (1-S)
% Slip = NS – N/NS × 100

At no load the difference between synchronous speed and rotor is only about
1%

Squirrel cage induction motor

Advantages

Cheaper, light weight, higer efficiency, less maintenance

Disadvantages

Moderate starting torque, there is no external resistance in the rotor circuit, so

the starting torque cannot be controlled.

Applications

Lathes, drilling machines, fans, blowers, water pumps, grinders, printing

machines etc

Slip ring induction motor

Advantages

Starting torque can be controlled by varying the rotor circuit resistance, speed is
also controlled

Disadvantages

Heavier in size, high cost, high rotor inertia, high speed lamination,
maintenance and reliability problems due to brushes and slip rings.

Applications

Lifts, hosts, cranes, elevators, compressors etc

Frequency of rotor current or emf

When the rotor is stationary, the relative speed between the rotor winding and
the rotating magnetic field is N S. Hence the frequency of emf induced and the
resultant current is PNS /120 that is same as the supply frequency (ƒ). As the
rotor speed increases, the relative speed is (NS - N) and the rotor frequency is

Slip S = NS – N / NS

SNS = NS - N = S(120ƒ/P)

ƒr = Sƒ.

5.Explain the Construction of Core type and Shell type Transformer. (A/M
2023)

The simple elements of a transformer consists of two coils having mutual

inductance and a laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each
other and the steel core other necessary parts are core and windings. In all types
of transformers, the core is constructed of transformer sheet steel laminations
assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air-gap
included.
The steel used is of high silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a
high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux densities.
The eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the laminations
being insulated from each other by a light coat of core-plate varnish (or) by an
oxide layer on the surface. The thickness of laminations varies from 0.35 mm to
0.5 mm. The core laminations are joined as shown in Figure 3.42 (b).

Constructionally, the transformers are of two general types, distinguished from

each other by in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around the
laminated core. The two types are known as

(i) Core type

(ii) Shell type

In both core and shell type transformers, the individual laminations are cut in
the form of long strips of 'L', 'E' and 'I' as shown in Figure 2.30.

The assembly of the complete core for the two types of transformers as shown
on Figure 3.43.

Core-Type Transformer
The coils used are form-wound and are of the cylindrical type. The general form
of these coils may be circular (or) oval (or) rectangular. In small size core-type
transformers, a simple rectangular core is used with cylindrical coils which are
either circular (or) rectangular in form.

But for large size core type transformers, round (or) circular cylindrical coils are
used which are so wound as to fit over a cruciform core section as shown in
Figure 2.32.

The circular cylindrical coils are used in most of core-type transformer because
of their mechanical strength. Such cylindrical coils are wound in helical layers
with the different layers insulated from each other by paper, cloth, mica board
(or) cooling ducts.

Shell-Type Transformers

In these case also, the coils are form-wound but are multi-layer disc type usually
wound in the form of pancakes. The different layers of such multi-layer disc are
insulated from each other by paper. The complete winding consists of stacked
disc with insulation space between the coils-the spaces forming horizontal
cooling and insulating ducts. A shell type transformer may have a simple
rectangular form as shown in Figure 2.33.
A very commonly used shell type transformer is the one known as Berry
Transformer so called after the name of its designer and is cylindrical in form.
The transformer core consists of laminations arranged in groups which radiate
out from the centre as shown in Figure 3.47.
It may be pointed out that cores and coils of transformers must be provided with
rigid mechanical bracing in order to prevent movement and possible insulation
damage.

Good bracing reduces vibration and the objectionable noise-a humming sound-
during operation.

The spiral-core transformer employs the newest development in core

construction. The core is assembled of a continuous strip (or) ribbon of
transformer steel wound in the form of a circular (or) elliptical cylinder. Such
construction allows the core flux to follow the grain of the iron.

Transformers are generally housed in lightly-fitted sheet-metal, tank filled with

special insulating oil. This oil has been highly developed and its function is two-
fold.