PART B QUESTION AND ANSWERS
1. Explain in detail the construction and operating principle of PN
junction diode.(A/M 2022) (A/M 2023) (N/D 2023)
PN JUNCTION
We join a piece of P-type semiconductor to a piece of N-type semiconductor
such that the crystal structure remains continuous at the boundary as shown in
fig.3.19 a PN junction is formed. Such a PN junction forms a very useful device
and is called a semiconductor diode, PN junction diode (or) simply a crystal
diode.
PN junction cannot be formed by simply joining (or) welding the two pieces.
together, because it would produce a discontinuous crystal structure. Special
fabrication techniques are used to prepare PN junctions.
Formation of Depletion Layer in a PN Junction
The semiconductor consisting of a PN junction it is shown in Figure 3.20. It
may be noted that this entire sample is a single crystal. Its left half is a P-type
and the right half is N-type.
The P-region has hole (as majority carriers) and negatively charged impurity
atoms called negative ions. The majority carriers in P and N region are not
shown in figure 3.20 for simplicity.Holes and electrons are mobile charges, and
therefore called as mobile charge carriers. On other hand positive and negative
ions are immobile charges and do not take part in the conduction. P-region, the
total positive charge on the holes is equal to the total negative charges on free
electrons and immobile ions. Similarly, in the N-region, the total negative
changes on free electrons is equal to the total positive charge on holes and
immobile ions.
No external voltage has been connected to the PN junction of figure 3.20. As
soon the junction is formed, the conduction and valence bands of P and N type
materials over cap. As a result of this the following processes take place.
(i) The holes, from the P-region diffuse to the N-region, where they combine
with the free electrons.
(ii) Free electrons, from the N-region diffuse to the P-region, where they
combine with holes.
(iii) The diffusion of holes and free electrons takes place due to the reason that
there is a difference of concentrations in the two regions. i.e the P-region has
more numbers of free electrons. This difference in concentration creates a
concentration gradient across the junction. It results in the diffusion of mobile
charge carriers across the junction.
(iv) The diffusion of holes and free electrons across the junction take place for a
short time. After a few recombinations of holes and free electrons, in the
vicinity of the junction, a restraining force is automatically setup. This force is
produced due to depletion region which exists on either side of the junction.
The recombination of free and mobile holes and electrons produce the narrow
region at the junction called depletion layer.
Junction (or) Barrier Voltage (VB)
The depletion layer of a PN junction has no mobile charge carriers. But it
contains fixed rows of oppositely charged ions on its two sides. Because of this
charge separation, an electric potential (V B) is establish across the junction,
even when the junction is not connected to any external voltage source as
shown in Figure 3.21. This electric potential is called as junction (or) potential
barrier.
This potential barrier exists a repelling force on the mobile charge carriers,
trying to cross over the junction, unless the energy is supplied from an external
source. At room temperature, the value of VB. VB = 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V
for germanium.
FORWARD BIASED PN JUNCTION
We connect voltage source to the PN junction, such that the positive terminal is
connected to the P-region and negative terminal to the N-region, the PN
junction is said to be forward biased as shown in Figure 3.23.
When PN junction is forward biased as shown in Figure 3.23 (a). The holes are
repelled by the positive terminal of the voltage source and are forced to move
towards the junction. Similarly, the electrons are repelled by the negative
terminal of the voltage source and move towards the junction. Because of their
acquired energy, some of the holes and electrons enter the depletion layer and
recombine themselves. This reduces the width as well as height of the potential
barriers (VB) as shown in figure 3.23 (b). In other wards, the width of depletion
layer and the barrier potential reduces with the forward bias.
As a result of this, more majority carriers diffuse across the junction. Therefore
is causes a large current to flow through the PN junction.
REVERSE BIASED PN JUNCTION
We connect the voltage source to a PN junction, such that positive terminal of
the voltage source is connected to the N-region and negative to the P-region, the
PN junction is said to be reverse biased. Figure 3.25 shows a reverse biased PN
junction.
When a PN junction is reverse biased, as shown in Figure 3.25(a) the holes in
the P-region are attracted towards the negative terminal of the voltage source.
And the electrons in the N-region are attracted to the positive terminal of the
voltage source. Thus the majority carriers are drawn away from the junction.
This widens the depletion layer and increases the barrier potential as shown in
Figure 3.25 (b). The increased barrier potential makes it very difficult for the
majority carriers to diffuse across the junction. Thus there is no current due to
majority carriers in a reverse biased PN junction. In other words, the junction
offers very high resistance under reverse biased condition. However, the barrier
potential helps the minority carriers in crossing the junction. Hence a small
amount of current does flow through the reverse biased PN junction.
Characteristic of a PN Junction
It is very important to known now a device responds (or behaves). When it is
connected in an electrical circuit. This information is obtained an electrical of a
graph known as its volt-ampere or V-I characteristics.
It is a graph between the voltage applied across the terminals of a device and the
current that flows through it. Figure 3.28 shows the V-I characteristics of a
typical PN junction diode with respect to break down voltage (V BR). It may be
noted that the compete graph can be divided into two parts namely
(i) Forward characteristics
(ii) Reverse characteristics
Forward Characteristics
Figure 3.29 shows the circuit arrangement for obtaining the forward
characteristics of a diode. In this circuit, the diode is connected to DC through a
potentiometer (P) and a resistance (R).
The potentiometer helps in varying the voltage applied across the diode. The
resistance (R) is included in the circuit, so as to limit the current through the
diode.
Reverse Characteristics
The circuit arrangement for obtaining the reverse characteristic of a diode is as
shown in fig.3.30(a). here change made the diode terminal interchange.
It may be noted that negative terminal of the voltage source is connected to the
anode of a diode and positive terminal to the cathode. Hence, the diode is
reverse biased. The applied reverse voltage is gradually increased above zero in
suitable steps and the values of diode current are recorded at each step. Plot the
graph with reverse voltage on X-axis and reverse current on Y-axis.
1. Discuss the operation of BJT with its characteristics. (N/D 2022)2
1. OPERATION OF AN BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
2. The NPN transistor biased in active mode, that is the emitter-base of a
transistor is forward-biased and collector-base junction is reverse
biased
It is shown in fig.3.39 the emitter-base junction is forward biased only Vis
greater than barrier potential which is 0.7 volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for
germanium transistors. The forward bias on the emitter-base junction causes the
free electrons in the N-type emitter to flow towards the base region. This creates
the emitter current (IE). It may be noted that the direction of conventional
current (IC) is opposite to the flow of electors. Therefore electrons, after
reaching the base region as shown in fig.3.39 tend to combine with the holes.
However, most of the free electrons do not combine with the holes in the base.
Because the base width is made extremely small and electrons do not get
sufficient holes for recombination. The most of the electrons will diffuse to the
collector region as shown in fig.3.40 and constitutes collector current (IC). This
collector current is also called injected current because this current is produced
due to electrons injected from the emitter region.
OPERATION OF A PNP BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
The operation of a PNP transistor is similar to that of an NPN transistor.
However, the current with in a PNP transistor is due to the movement of holes,
whereas in an NPN transistor it is due to the movement of free electrons.
The fig.3.42 shows the PNP transistor with its emitter-base junction is forward-
biased and collector base junction as reverse biased. The forward bias on the
emitter base junction causes the holes in the emitter region to flow towards the
base region. This constitutes the emitter current (IE). The holes after reaching in
the base region, tend to combine with the electrons. If these holes combine with
the electrons in the base, they constitute base current (IB). The base region is
small so the most of the holes diffuse to the collector regions and constitute
collector current (IC). This collector current is called injected current because
this current is produced due to the holes injected from the emitter region.
3. Explain in detail about Bridge rectifier.(N/D 2022)
1. It is built around around a four - diode bridge configuration. This
design is called as full wave bridge. It is most popular of full wave
rectifier design.
2. A bridge rectifier makes use of four diode in a bridge arrangement to
achieve full-wave rectification. It is a widely used configuration, both
with individual diodes wired and with single component bridges
where the diode bridge is wired internally.
3. It is most widely used rectifier. In the positive half cycle, D1 and
D4 is forward biased and D2 and D3 are reverse biased. In the
negative half cycle D2 and D3 are forward bias and D1 and D4 are
reverse bias. The output voltage waveform is same but the advantage
is that PIV rating of diodes are Vm and only single secondary
transformer for Vm voltage is required. The main disadvantage is that
it requires four diodes. When now d.c. voltage is required then
secondary voltage is low and diode drop (1.4 V) becomes significant.
The Xƒ1, required is of high rating (> 1.4 V).
4. For low d.c output we use center tap rectifier because only one diode
drop is there.
Current directions for the full wave bridge rectifier for the positive and
negative. half cycles of AC source waveform.
Regardless of the polarity of the input, the current flows in the same direction
through the load (i.e) the negative half cycle of source is positive half cycle at
the load. The current flow is through two diodes in series for both polarities.
Thus two diode drops of the source voltage are lost (0.7 × 2 = 1.4 V for Si) in
the diodes. This is a disadvantage compared with a full wave center, tap design.
This disadvantage is only a problem in very low voltage power supplies.
Merits of Full Wave Rectifier:
• High efficiency.
• Low ripple factor.
• High TUF.
Demerits of Full Wave Rectifier:
• Complicated circuit
• High cost
Explain the operation and characteristics of IGBT. (N/D 2023)
INSULATED GATE BIPLOLAR TRANSISTOR (IGBT)
• IGBT combines positive attributes of BJT's and MOSFET's.
• It has 3 terminals gate(G), Emitter (E) and collector(C).
• 4 layer NPNP.
• Input characteristics same as MOSFET and output is same as BJT.
Operation
• N-channel IGBT turns on when the collector is at positive potential with respect
to emitter and also gate is at sufficient positive potential (V GET) with respect to
emitter.
• This condition leads to formation of an inversion layer just below the gate,
leading to a channel formation and current begins to how form collector to
emitter.
• Collector current IC in IGBT constitutes of two components Ie and In [Ie→ due to
injected electron and Ih→hole current]
• Ic = Ie + In
In is almost negligible so Ic ≈ Ie
Advantages
• Lower gate drive requirements
• Low switching losses
• Small snubber circuit requirement
• High input impedance
Disadvance
• Cost high
• High turn off time.
